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ELLs has significant implications on ELLs and their communities' access to education, NCLB is in conflict with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in that it denies "access to a federally funded program based on their skin color or race." The changes in the BEA under NCLB created a grant program that attempted to enhance
English language acquisition. The ruling placed ELL students in a similar classroom environment as their peers for whom English is not a second language. The law did not require schools to provide bilingual programs and placed them against the rigorous content standards put in place by State Education Agencies. When ELLs were tested with the same state assessments or the National Assessment for Educational Progress (NAEP), it was shown that compared to their fluently English-speaking peers the ELL students displayed larger deficits in both reading and math. The 2007 NAEP test, showed increased deficits in both math and reading following a surge of the ELL population in the United States. By 2005 the number of English-learners throughout the US had risen 57% over the prior decade to approximately 5.1 million students.
796:
educational programs, to train teachers and teachers' aides, to develop and distribute materials and to create meaningful parental involvement projects. Although the act did not require the use of bilingual instruction or the use of a student's native language, its aim was to encourage innovative programs designed to teach students
English. The act also gave school districts the opportunity to provide bilingual education programs without violating segregation laws, but at this time, participation was voluntary. Program effectiveness was evaluated at the end of every year and successful programs were eligible to receive federal funding for up to five years.
29:
804:
lost cause. In addition, the act did not fund any permanent programs for educating students of LESA, but only funding exploratory programs. As a result, it did not seek to truly address the burgeoning issue of how to educate students who were not
English dominant. Lastly, the funds were at first reserved for communities whose average income was below the poverty line stated in the ESEA ($ 3,000 in 1968). This limitation on funding had the unfortunate side effect of framing the act as a somewhat of a handout to poor, Latino communities.
775:
original form promoted celebrating linguistic and cultural differences and diversity in the U.S., it in many ways challenged assimilationist theories and the "melting pot" concept of the U.S. And yet, in its final form when passed, it did not mention the important link between language and culture, leaving the language vague. When the BEA was first introduced it mainly focused on helping students to learn
English instead of encouraging students to learn Spanish and promoting language and cultural retention.
725:
845:
was equal for students who had a limited command of the
English language. In the same year as the Supreme Court's ruling, the Equal Education Opportunity Act was passed. By citing instructional programs as the means through which language barriers were to be broken, it effectively extended the Lau ruling to all students and school districts. Furthermore, school districts were required to have special programs for LESA students regardless of federal or state funding.
2512:
779:
argued in this time period that by teaching in a certain language it also taught specific values instead of just a way of communication. According to the 2002 National Survey of
Latinos from PEW Research Center, within the first generation of Spanish speaking immigrants the language proficiency is mostly either Spanish (62%) or bilingual (37%), while the second generation is more likely to be proficient in English.
714:
1062:
that give school districts the discretion to use a range of instructional approaches. As a result, under both Title VI and the EEOA, courts and federal enforcement agencies must decide on a case-by-case basis whether programs are in fact overcoming linguistic barriers to full participation." The policy still remains highly-debated at both the state and federal level.
792:
of bilingualism or even the link between language and culture. Rather, it framed students of LESA as a "problem" that needed to be fixed. In addition, unlike what
Yarborough had conceived, it provided no funding for permanent programs regarding students of LESA, as many people feared promoting a sense of entitlement in students and families benefitting from the act.
778:
The act additionally opened up a larger need for teachers who could teach language and other content within a language besides
English. This placed a strain on the teaching pool available in 1968 and even today there is a shortage of teachers for these highly specialized positions. Culturally, it was
1061:
The act and NCLB say that the accommodations that it provides should be interpreted in concordance with federal civil rights laws. "As interpreted by the U.S. Supreme Court, Congress, and federal civil rights officials, these provisions rely on terms like “affirmative steps” and “appropriate action”
821:
The
Bilingual Education Act of 1968 was not specific and participation by school districts was voluntary. As a result, Civil rights activists argued that the rights of minority-language students were being violated under this act. In 1974, three amendments were made to the original act in an attempt
787:
When
Senator Yarborough introduced the bill to the Senate in 1967, he envisioned it as a way of addressing the "'poor performance in school and high dropout rates... and great psychological harm' caused by 'English-only policies, no Spanish-speaking rules, and cultural degradation'" that was evident
1057:
After NCLB was enacted it was shown that there were sufficient numbers of prospective teachers, yet there were insufficient numbers of these teachers entering certain fields. Among these specializations were science, math, foreign languages, special education and namely bilingual education. Several
1053:
court case. And yet, despite this lack of preparation, ELLs performance on standardized tests can jeopardize a school's access to funding. In essence, "This turns the question of whether or not a school receives a failing label into a question of how many ELLs attend." Because the impact of NCLB on
1040:
No Child Left Behind (NCLB), passed in 2002, had a significant impact on bilingual education and the Bilingual Education Act in the United States due to its emphasis on high-stakes testing. As a result of NCLB and its emphasis on testing, the Bilingual Education Act was renamed the English Language
981:
was a case brought forward, in which Chinese-American students attending a public school in San Francisco alleged that the failure to provide bilingual instruction to all non-English speaking students violated their rights to education due to limited English comprehension. The case did not create a
956:
1994 California Proposition 187 was introduced in order to prevent illegal immigrants from obtaining state provided health care, social services and public education. This was voted on by the public and became a law in November 1994. Citizens challenged the constitutionality of this proposition and
948:
Priority given to bilingualism programs: Though the Bilingual Education Act legislation did not prescribe specific instructional practices, it did provide a guide to help language minority students. The 1994 reauthorization gave preference to grant applications that developed bilingual proficiency,
795:
The BEA provided school districts with federal funds, in the form of competitive grants, to establish innovative educational programs for students with limited English speaking ability. The grants that the act provided were given directly to school districts and were to be used to buy resources for
791:
Although the passage of the act was a bipartisan effort on behalf of Republicans and Democrats, it underwent significant changes between 1967 and 1968. Many of these changes were in the wording and framing of the act, which ultimately did not recognize the importance of biculturalism or the benefit
1024:
in 1981 created a basis for pedagogically addressing Limited English Proficiency (LEP) students. It required that districts have a plan for addressing LEP students, that schools provide qualified staff to implement that plan, and that the district has developed an effective evaluation protocol for
943:
The Bilingual Education Act (BEA) reauthorization in 1994 maintained the same tenets as the original BEA, introduced new grant categories, set up preference to programs promoting bilingualism, and took into account indigenous languages. Overall, the premise of this addition was to introduce a more
844:
and alleged that due to their inability to speak English, there were 1,800 Chinese students who were being denied an equal education. In 1974, the Supreme Court overruled the ruling of the lower courts and determined that the same resources, teachers and curriculum did not imply that the education
774:
Furthermore, this legislation, successfully enacted into law largely thanks to the efforts of Spanish speakers, has become an important part of the "polemic between assimilation and multiculturalism" and has strengthened the role that language education plays in our society. Because the BEA in its
803:
From a financial perspective, the BEA was also limited. The only programs eligible for receiving funding were programs for children between the ages of 3 and 8. Because it was meant to redress the dropout issue, the act with this caveat on funding viewed high school students of LESA somewhat of a
1048:
Under NCLB, school success and failure is linked to performance on standardized tests. However, this measure subjects English Language Learners (ELLs) "to critical assessments without adequate preparation." The lack of preparation is due to the fact that NCLB caps funding for bilingual education
972:
was the first U.S. Supreme Court case that addressed American education of foreign-languages. This case did away with a Nebraska law that prevented public and private schools from offering instruction in any language but English. '"The protection of the Constitution extends to all, to those who
766:
The BEA was a significant piece of education legislation. Its passage signaled "a shift from the notion that students should be afforded equal educational opportunity to the idea that educational policy should work to equalize academic outcomes, even if such equity demanded providing different
799:
Because the BEA funding was provided in the form of grants, most of the financial clout lay with local and state education agencies (LEAs and SEAs). However, the federal government limited the reach of these funds in a few significant ways. To begin with, from a simple framing standpoint, the
770:
Additionally, it reflected changes in cultural perspectives towards diversity and immigration. The BEA was an important shift away from the late 1950s anticommunist sentiment where anything foreign was suspect, which had destroyed many earlier local and state attempts at bilingual education.
1044:
The name change alone of BEA under NCLB is significant in that it signals a shift in the philosophical approach to bilingual education. Essentially, even though the act still leaves with state and local educators the ability to choose from instructional methods, "the statement of purpose and
891:
Funding increased from $ 68 million in 1974 to $ 135 million which was enough to provide funding for 565 school districts and for secondary programs including service centers, graduate school fellowships and training for undergraduate students interested in becoming bilingual educators.
973:
speak other languages as well as to those born with English on the tongue," Supreme Court Justice James C. McReynolds wrote. The decision established the principle that parents have a constitutional right to direct the upbringing of their children, including their education.'.
1025:
the program. Though this case did create a more structured plan pedagogically it did not require bilingual education programs to meet these same standards. "It required only that 'appropriate action to overcome language barriers' be taken through well implemented programs."
807:
Due to many of these limitations and the vague wording of much of the BEA, funding was limited in the first three years to $ 85 million. By 1972, "only 100,391 students nationally, out of approximately 5,000,000 in need were enrolled in a Title VII-funded program."
260:. In 1969 there was a 50% drop out rate among Mexican American students who struggled to keep up with their English-speaking peers in school; Representative Tony Abril argued that the Bilingual Education Act would reduce this number. Passed on the heels of the
952:
In the FY2000 691 Bilingual Education Instructional Service Grants were given out totaling just over $ 162 million. The largest grants in FY2000 were given to the state of California and New York at approximately $ 58 million and $ 22.5 million
1058:
initiatives formed to specifically recruit teachers to these specialization fields and allowed for alternative certification paths. These teacher shortages continue to exist today and are seen to a greater extent in high-poverty districts.
911:
Funding for these amendments was $ 139.4 million and there was a heavy emphasis placed on districts using the funding to build enough capacity to eventually be able to support LEP programs without federal government funding.
934:
Funding for the 1988 amendments was $ 159 million, with regulations for how the money should be divided. Specifically, at least 60% should be spent developing programs and at least 25% of funds should be spent on training.
1015:
stated that Arizona must do more to fund instruction for ELL students. The Arizona courts rejected tenets of the NCLB law that changed the services provided to ELL students. This case was appealed to the U.S. Supreme
2292:
1617:
1541:
855:
define the program's goal to prepare LESA students to participate effectively in the regular classroom as quickly as possible while simultaneously maintaining the native language and culture of the student
852:
define "Bilingual Education Program" as one that provided instruction in English and in the native language of the student to allow the student to progress effectively through the educational system
264:, its purpose was to provide school districts with federal funds, in the form of competitive grants, to establish innovative educational programs for students with limited English speaking ability.
771:
Furthermore, it recognized that the federal government was responsible for educating immigrants to the US and opened doors for bilingual education projects on local, state, and federal levels.
497:
904:
increase the flexibility in the implementation of programs for LEP students by providing school districts with more autonomy and independence in deciding how these students should be taught
1907:
Hilner, Benjamin (2005). "'Bad Policy and Bad Law': The Shortcomings of the No Child Left Behind Act in Bilingual Educational Policy and its Frustration of the Equal Protection Clause".
2202:
702:
306:
611:
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In 1978, further amendments were made to extend the act and broaden the definition of eligible students. Specifically, these amendments served to do the following:
310:
1624:
1548:
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in March 1998 it was ruled unconstitutional and was taken away. Though the law did not last, it impacted students who were ELL throughout the mid-to-late 1990s.
822:
to clarify the intent and design of programs designated for the education of LESA students. There were two significant events that impacted these changes: the
2245:
2240:
2235:
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2225:
1001:
required testing for students in English and their native language in order to understand if they should receive additional services and bilingual education.
584:
382:
2557:
180:
2197:
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original 1968 BEA did not include any mention of instruction in or maintenance of a student's native language, limiting the potential impact of the act.
660:
606:
468:
1049:
programs at half of what it had been and does not require that any bilingual education programs undergo periodic evaluation, a measure required by the
650:
315:
2547:
559:
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in the English language, this act signaled that the federal government now also recognized the need for and value of bilingual education programs in
2567:
2077:
638:
861:
stipulate capacity-building efforts by providing funds to school districts' efforts to expand curricula, staff and research for bilingual programs
1985:
1248:
Wiese, Ann-Marie; García, Eugene E. (January 1998). "The Bilingual Education Act: Language Minority Students and Equal Educational Opportunity".
753:
591:
487:
476:
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was a case that dictated when a "substantial group" of students with limited English proficiency was present, bilingual education was required.
684:
184:
2265:
1208:
Petrzela, Natalia Mehlman (October 29, 2010). "Before the Federal Bilingual Education Act: Legislation and Lived Experience in California".
2287:
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517:
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1501:
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1427:
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399:
245:
119:
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stated that students should receive instruction in their native language and English until proficiency in English is achieved.
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Funding increased from $ 7.5 million in 1968 to $ 68 million and as a result, programs were able to impact 368,000 students.
841:
696:
544:
446:
345:
335:
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601:
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1285:"Mexican Americans and the push for culturally relevant education: the bilingual education movement in Tucson, 1958–1969"
1113:"Mexican Americans and the push for culturally relevant education: the bilingual education movement in Tucson, 1958–1969"
746:
621:
404:
367:
907:
allow school districts to apply for funding for different, innovative programs that best met the needs of their students
522:
431:
372:
139:
129:
1076:
655:
340:
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166:
2329:
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2050:
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392:
325:
100:
92:
1850:
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900:
In 1984, the Bilingual Education Act was further modified. The amendments enacted during this time served to:
739:
286:
2577:
2537:
1334:. National Convention of the American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese. San Antonio, Texas.
362:
512:
1833:"The Aspira Consent Decree: A Thirtieth-Anniversary Retrospective of Bilingual Education in New York City"
2413:
2356:
2142:
986:, ruled in favor of the students, thus expanding the rights of students with limited English proficiency.
233:
225:
53:
2572:
2552:
2515:
2015:
881:
244:
around the country already had policies and programs designed to meet the special educational needs of
76:
949:
which Local Education Agencies had the right to develop themselves based on the guidelines of the BEA.
2187:
626:
458:
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2115:
2110:
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1112:
1091:
1081:
1035:
983:
529:
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create regional support centers of consultants and trainers to provide support to school systems
1980:
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1927:
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1813:
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261:
28:
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1402:
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1045:
accountability requirements make clear that the primary objective is English acquisition."
729:
564:
554:
507:
253:
1951:"Teacher Quality as a Predictor of Student Achievement in Urban Schools: A National Focus"
8:
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2433:
1071:
257:
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on January 2, 1968. While some states, such as California and Texas, and numerous local
143:
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2105:
1997:
1312:
1225:
1140:
996:
2421:
2132:
2038:
1954:
1618:"Chronology of Federal and State Law and Policy Impacting Language Minority Students"
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1851:
https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0413_0189_ZS.html%7C
1308:
1136:
569:
218:
1788:
Walsh, Mark (January 8, 2009). "BELLs and the Law: Statues and Precedents".
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2350:
1863:
Walsh, Mark (January 8, 2009). "ELLs and the Law: Statues and Precedents".
1542:"Chronology of Federal and State Law Impacting Language Minority Students"
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1849:
Keyes v. School District No.1, Denver, Colorado, 413 U.S. 189|(1973)|url=
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emphasize the strictly transitional nature of native language instruction
2469:
1029:
104:
1808:
Grant, Joseph (1976). "Bilingual Education and the Law: An Overview".
215:
Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Amendments of 1967
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2007:
1986:
http://www.educationlawconsortium.org/forum/2005/papers/hillner.pdf
920:
The BEA was amended again in 1988. The changes this year served to:
887:
permit enrollment of English-speaking students in bilingual programs
1958:
1950:
1428:"Developing Programs for English Language Learners: Lau v. Nichols"
1346:
680:
1832:
1041:
Acquisition, Language Enhancement, and Academic Achievement Act.
228:(LESA) students. The BEA was introduced in 1967 by Texas senator
36:
713:
2221:
United States House of Representatives special elections, 1937
170:
811:
1810:
Dissemination Center for Bilingual Bicultural Education
2226:
1938 United States House of Representatives elections
1332:
Bilingual Education and the Foreign Language Teacher
1030:
The Bilingual Education Act and No Child Left Behind
930:
create fellowship programs for professional training
848:The amendments in 1974 served to do the following:
1359:
1981:History of Bilingual Education: Rethinking Schools
1685:
1648:
1572:
1499:
1458:
1385:
1157:
77:
1881:LEGAL HISTORY OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION: Federal Law
927:expand funding for "special alternative" programs
2529:
1877:
1006:Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver, Colorado
1976:The Bilingual Education Act: Twenty Years Later
1925:
1695:National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education
1658:National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education
1582:National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education
1509:National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education
1468:National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education
1395:National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education
1282:
1203:
1201:
1199:
1197:
1195:
1167:National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education
1110:
961:
2271:Democratic Party presidential primaries, 1960
2023:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1688:"Bilingual Education Act: Twenty Years Later"
1651:"Bilingual Education Act: Twenty Years Later"
1575:"Bilingual Education Act: Twenty Years Later"
1502:"Bilingual Education Act: Twenty Years Later"
1461:"Bilingual Education Act: Twenty Years Later"
1388:"Bilingual Education Act: Twenty Years Later"
1160:"Bilingual Education Act: Twenty Years Later"
982:specific remedy, yet in conjunction with the
782:
747:
2251:United States Senate special elections, 1941
1722:
924:increase funding to state education agencies
840:was a class-action suit brought against the
2558:United States federal education legislation
1878:Kerper Mora Ed.D, Jill (January 26, 2005),
1247:
1243:
1241:
1239:
1192:
1087:Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974
830:Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974
16:Language education law of the United States
2193:Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs
2178:Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park
2030:
2016:
1895:
754:
740:
1433:. Office for Civil Rights. Archived from
1329:
812:Amendments to the Bilingual Education Act
321:History of education in the United States
2548:Bilingual education in the United States
2315:1960 United States presidential election
2168:Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum
1803:
1801:
1799:
1763:Bilingual Education Legislative Timeline
1686:Stewner-Kajzajares, Gloria (Fall 1988).
1649:Stewner-Manzanares, Gloria (Fall 1988).
1573:Stewner-Manzanares, Gloria (Fall 1988).
1500:Stewner-Manzanares, Gloria (Fall 1988).
1459:Stewner-Manzanares, Gloria (Fall 1988).
1386:Stewner-Manzanares, Gloria (Fall 1988).
1236:
1207:
1158:Stewner-Manzanares, Gloria (Fall 1988).
267:
2568:Language education in the United States
1948:
1612:
1610:
1283:De La Trinidad, Maritza (May 4, 2015).
1111:De La Trinidad, Maritza (May 4, 2015).
938:
880:expand eligibility to students who are
2530:
1906:
1330:Rodriguez, Armando (August 28, 1968).
120:Elementary and Secondary Education Act
2037:
2011:
1928:"English-Learners Pose Policy Puzzle"
1862:
1807:
1796:
1787:
1759:
842:San Francisco Unified School District
346:History of education in New York City
336:History of education in Massachusetts
2338:Lyndon B. Johnson in popular culture
2173:Lyndon B. Johnson National Grassland
1723:Osorio-O’Dea, Patricia (June 2001).
1607:
2300:Democratic National Convention 1956
2256:1948 United States Senate elections
2062:Vice President of the United States
2051:36th President of the United States
13:
2422:Claudia "Lady Bird" Taylor Johnson
1991:
1926:Zehr, Mary Ann (January 8, 2009).
1909:Educational Law Consortium Journal
1725:"Bilingual Education: An Overview"
1360:PEW Research Center (March 2004).
915:
895:
868:
816:
82:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
14:
2589:
2000:. "The Bilingual Education Act."
1969:
1830:
1077:Intercultural bilingual education
2511:
2510:
723:
712:
341:History of education in Missouri
331:History of education in Kentucky
226:limited English speaking ability
27:
1942:
1919:
1871:
1856:
1843:
1824:
1781:
1753:
1716:
1679:
1642:
1566:
1534:
1493:
1452:
326:History of education in Chicago
22:Bilingual Education Act of 1968
2183:Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
1420:
1379:
1353:
1323:
1276:
1262:10.1080/15235882.1998.10668670
1151:
1104:
661:Full-service community schools
1:
2198:Memorial Grove on the Potomac
1301:10.1080/0046760X.2014.1002015
1129:10.1080/0046760X.2014.1002015
1097:
788:in many schools at the time.
232:and was both approved by the
224:that recognized the needs of
1884:, San Diego State University
1222:10.1080/0161956x.2010.518021
1210:Peabody Journal of Education
7:
2543:90th United States Congress
2357:The Years of Lyndon Johnson
1065:
962:Significant court decisions
639:For-profit higher education
234:90th United States Congress
181:Education and the Workforce
54:90th United States Congress
10:
2594:
2128:Texas Broadcasting Company
1837:Harvard Educational Review
1250:Bilingual Research Journal
1033:
999:v. N.Y. Board of Education
882:limited English proficient
783:Implementation and funding
592:School corporal punishment
2479:
2412:
2328:
2211:
2188:Lyndon Baines Johnson Day
2151:
2092:
2045:
1949:Salinas, Roselia (2006).
627:School-to-work transition
154:
149:
135:
125:
115:
110:
91:
72:
67:
59:
48:
35:
26:
2464:George Washington Baines
2116:Civil Rights Act of 1960
2111:Civil Rights Act of 1957
1092:No Child Left Behind Act
1082:Little School of the 400
1036:No Child Left Behind Act
984:Civil Rights Act of 1964
767:learning environments."
730:United States portal
276:This article is part of
236:and signed by President
2452:Samuel Ealy Johnson Sr.
2440:Samuel Ealy Johnson Jr.
2428:Lynda Bird Johnson Robb
2070:U.S. Senator from Texas
1760:Cerda, Natalie (2006),
1732:CRS Report for Congress
448:Education policy issues
417:Environmental education
207:Bilingual Education Act
177:Committee consideration
136:U.S.C. sections amended
2563:Great Society programs
2366:(1991 television film)
2100:Early years and career
585:Standards-based reform
560:Gender achievement gap
550:Racial achievement gap
483:Educational attainment
1770:on September 20, 2011
1034:Further information:
651:Research universities
518:Student financial aid
513:Graduate unemployment
488:Post-secondary issues
464:Primary and secondary
427:Mathematics education
268:Cultural implications
262:Civil Rights Movement
258:U.S. public education
213:), also known as the
2578:Language legislation
2538:1968 in American law
2458:Joseph Wilson Baines
2002:The Phi Delta Kappan
1734:: 12. Archived from
1289:History of Education
1117:History of Education
1051:Casteñada v. Pickard
1021:Castañeda v. Pickard
939:1994 reauthorization
719:Education portal
555:Desegregation busing
508:Elite overproduction
437:Vocational education
252:school students not
130:20 U.S.C.: Education
2466:(great-grandfather)
2446:Sam Houston Johnson
2434:Luci Baines Johnson
2078:U.S. Representative
1998:Cordasco, Francesco
1741:on October 17, 2011
1697:: 9. Archived from
1660:: 6. Archived from
1588:: 5. Archived from
1515:: 4. Archived from
1474:: 3. Archived from
1401:: 1. Archived from
1366:PEW Research Center
1173:: 1. Archived from
1072:Bilingual education
672:Levels of education
644:For-profit colleges
612:Foreign involvement
222:federal legislation
150:Legislative history
23:
2203:U.S. Postage stamp
2106:Southern Manifesto
634:Community colleges
580:School segregation
498:Cost and financing
422:Language education
196:on January 2, 1968
161:in the Senate by
21:
2573:1968 in education
2553:Linguistic rights
2525:
2524:
2503:Hubert Humphrey →
2485:← John F. Kennedy
2133:Johnson Amendment
2039:Lyndon B. Johnson
1704:on April 15, 2012
1667:on April 15, 2012
1595:on April 15, 2012
1522:on April 15, 2012
1481:on April 15, 2012
1440:on April 15, 2012
1408:on April 15, 2012
1180:on April 15, 2012
1013:Flores v. Arizona
990:Serna v. Portales
969:Meyer v. Nebraska
944:systemic reform.
764:
763:
617:Special education
607:Sexual harassment
400:Medical education
354:Curriculum topics
290:
238:Lyndon B. Johnson
203:
202:
194:Lyndon B. Johnson
94:Statutes at Large
2585:
2514:
2513:
2085:
2073:
2065:
2054:
2032:
2025:
2018:
2009:
2008:
1963:
1962:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1923:
1917:
1916:
1904:
1893:
1892:
1891:
1889:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1860:
1854:
1847:
1841:
1840:
1828:
1822:
1821:
1805:
1794:
1793:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1777:
1775:
1766:, archived from
1757:
1751:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1740:
1729:
1720:
1714:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1703:
1692:
1683:
1677:
1676:
1674:
1672:
1666:
1655:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1630:on April 2, 2012
1629:
1623:. Archived from
1622:
1614:
1605:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1594:
1579:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1561:
1559:
1554:on April 2, 2012
1553:
1547:. Archived from
1546:
1538:
1532:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1521:
1506:
1497:
1491:
1490:
1488:
1486:
1480:
1465:
1456:
1450:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1439:
1432:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1407:
1392:
1383:
1377:
1376:
1374:
1372:
1357:
1351:
1350:
1327:
1321:
1320:
1280:
1274:
1273:
1245:
1234:
1233:
1205:
1190:
1189:
1187:
1185:
1179:
1164:
1155:
1149:
1148:
1108:
756:
749:
742:
728:
727:
726:
717:
716:
656:Community school
575:Racial diversity
545:Achievement gaps
449:
311:in insular areas
293:
289:Education in the
288:
272:
271:
242:school districts
230:Ralph Yarborough
217:, was the first
163:Ralph Yarborough
95:
83:
79:
41:
31:
24:
20:
2593:
2592:
2588:
2587:
2586:
2584:
2583:
2582:
2528:
2527:
2526:
2521:
2499:← Richard Nixon
2492:Richard Nixon →
2475:
2408:
2324:
2207:
2153:
2147:
2123:Operation Texas
2088:
2076:
2068:
2057:
2049:
2041:
2036:
2004:51.2: 75. 1969.
1994:
1992:Further reading
1972:
1967:
1966:
1947:
1943:
1924:
1920:
1905:
1896:
1887:
1885:
1876:
1872:
1861:
1857:
1853:n.d. 9 Oct 2011
1848:
1844:
1829:
1825:
1806:
1797:
1786:
1782:
1773:
1771:
1758:
1754:
1744:
1742:
1738:
1727:
1721:
1717:
1707:
1705:
1701:
1690:
1684:
1680:
1670:
1668:
1664:
1653:
1647:
1643:
1633:
1631:
1627:
1620:
1616:
1615:
1608:
1598:
1596:
1592:
1577:
1571:
1567:
1557:
1555:
1551:
1544:
1540:
1539:
1535:
1525:
1523:
1519:
1504:
1498:
1494:
1484:
1482:
1478:
1463:
1457:
1453:
1443:
1441:
1437:
1430:
1426:
1425:
1421:
1411:
1409:
1405:
1390:
1384:
1380:
1370:
1368:
1358:
1354:
1328:
1324:
1281:
1277:
1246:
1237:
1206:
1193:
1183:
1181:
1177:
1162:
1156:
1152:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1068:
1038:
1032:
964:
941:
918:
916:1988 amendments
898:
896:1984 amendments
871:
869:1978 amendments
819:
817:1974 amendments
814:
785:
760:
724:
722:
721:
711:
685:Early childhood
667:
602:School violence
535:Charter schools
447:
441:
410:Nursing degrees
388:Legal education
383:Music education
378:Civic education
316:By subject area
291:
287:
270:
199:
190:Signed into law
93:
81:
63:January 2, 1968
49:Enacted by
39:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2591:
2581:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2523:
2522:
2520:
2519:
2506:
2505:
2500:
2496:
2495:
2488:
2480:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2473:
2467:
2461:
2455:
2449:
2443:
2437:
2431:
2425:
2418:
2416:
2410:
2409:
2407:
2406:
2398:
2390:
2376:
2368:
2360:
2353:
2348:
2340:
2334:
2332:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2296:
2295:
2285:
2284:
2283:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2217:
2215:
2209:
2208:
2206:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2159:
2157:
2149:
2148:
2146:
2145:
2140:
2138:Box 13 scandal
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2119:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2096:
2094:
2090:
2089:
2087:
2086:
2074:
2066:
2055:
2046:
2043:
2042:
2035:
2034:
2027:
2020:
2012:
2006:
2005:
1993:
1990:
1989:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1971:
1970:External links
1968:
1965:
1964:
1941:
1932:Education Week
1918:
1894:
1870:
1865:Education Week
1855:
1842:
1823:
1795:
1790:Education Week
1780:
1752:
1715:
1678:
1641:
1606:
1565:
1533:
1492:
1451:
1419:
1378:
1362:"Bilingualism"
1352:
1322:
1295:(3): 316–338.
1275:
1235:
1216:(4): 406–424.
1191:
1150:
1123:(3): 316–338.
1102:
1101:
1099:
1096:
1095:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1067:
1064:
1031:
1028:
1027:
1026:
1017:
1010:
1002:
993:
987:
978:Lau v. Nichols
974:
963:
960:
959:
958:
954:
950:
940:
937:
932:
931:
928:
925:
917:
914:
909:
908:
905:
897:
894:
889:
888:
885:
878:
870:
867:
863:
862:
859:
856:
853:
837:Lau v. Nichols
825:Lau v. Nichols
818:
815:
813:
810:
784:
781:
762:
761:
759:
758:
751:
744:
736:
733:
732:
708:
707:
706:
705:
700:
697:Post-secondary
674:
673:
669:
668:
666:
665:
664:
663:
653:
648:
647:
646:
636:
631:
630:
629:
622:Apprenticeship
619:
614:
609:
604:
599:
594:
589:
588:
587:
582:
577:
572:
567:
562:
557:
552:
547:
542:
537:
527:
526:
525:
520:
515:
510:
505:
500:
495:
485:
480:
473:
472:
471:
469:Post-secondary
466:
455:
452:
451:
443:
442:
440:
439:
434:
429:
424:
419:
414:
413:
412:
407:
405:Medical school
397:
396:
395:
385:
380:
375:
370:
368:Normal schools
365:
359:
356:
355:
351:
350:
349:
348:
343:
338:
333:
328:
323:
318:
313:
301:
300:
296:
295:
283:
282:
269:
266:
201:
200:
198:
197:
187:
174:
155:
152:
151:
147:
146:
137:
133:
132:
127:
126:Titles amended
123:
122:
117:
113:
112:
108:
107:
97:
89:
88:
74:
70:
69:
65:
64:
61:
57:
56:
50:
46:
45:
42:
33:
32:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2590:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2535:
2533:
2518:
2517:
2508:
2507:
2504:
2501:
2498:
2497:
2494:
2493:
2489:
2487:
2486:
2482:
2481:
2478:
2471:
2468:
2465:
2462:
2460:(grandfather)
2459:
2456:
2454:(grandfather)
2453:
2450:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2438:
2435:
2432:
2429:
2426:
2423:
2420:
2419:
2417:
2415:
2411:
2405:
2403:
2399:
2397:
2395:
2391:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2373:
2369:
2367:
2365:
2361:
2359:
2358:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2346:advertisement
2345:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2335:
2333:
2331:
2327:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2294:
2291:
2290:
2289:
2286:
2282:
2279:
2278:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2214:
2210:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2160:
2158:
2156:
2150:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2103:
2102:
2101:
2098:
2097:
2095:
2091:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2047:
2044:
2040:
2033:
2028:
2026:
2021:
2019:
2014:
2013:
2010:
2003:
1999:
1996:
1995:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1973:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1945:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1922:
1914:
1910:
1903:
1901:
1899:
1883:
1882:
1874:
1866:
1859:
1852:
1846:
1838:
1834:
1831:Reyes, Luis.
1827:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1804:
1802:
1800:
1791:
1784:
1769:
1765:
1764:
1756:
1737:
1733:
1726:
1719:
1700:
1696:
1689:
1682:
1663:
1659:
1652:
1645:
1626:
1619:
1613:
1611:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1576:
1569:
1550:
1543:
1537:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1503:
1496:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1462:
1455:
1436:
1429:
1423:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1389:
1382:
1367:
1363:
1356:
1348:
1344:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1326:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1279:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1244:
1242:
1240:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1198:
1196:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1161:
1154:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1107:
1103:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1069:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1052:
1046:
1042:
1037:
1023:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1011:
1008:
1007:
1003:
1000:
998:
994:
991:
988:
985:
980:
979:
975:
971:
970:
966:
965:
955:
953:respectively.
951:
947:
946:
945:
936:
929:
926:
923:
922:
921:
913:
906:
903:
902:
901:
893:
886:
883:
879:
876:
875:
874:
866:
860:
857:
854:
851:
850:
849:
846:
843:
839:
838:
833:
831:
828:case and the
827:
826:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
780:
776:
772:
768:
757:
752:
750:
745:
743:
738:
737:
735:
734:
731:
720:
715:
710:
709:
704:
703:Organizations
701:
699:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
677:
676:
675:
671:
670:
662:
659:
658:
657:
654:
652:
649:
645:
642:
641:
640:
637:
635:
632:
628:
625:
624:
623:
620:
618:
615:
613:
610:
608:
605:
603:
600:
598:
595:
593:
590:
586:
583:
581:
578:
576:
573:
571:
570:School choice
568:
566:
563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
541:
538:
536:
533:
532:
531:
528:
524:
523:Student loans
521:
519:
516:
514:
511:
509:
506:
504:
503:Credentialism
501:
499:
496:
494:
491:
490:
489:
486:
484:
481:
479:
478:
474:
470:
467:
465:
462:
461:
460:
459:Accreditation
457:
456:
454:
453:
450:
445:
444:
438:
435:
433:
432:Sex education
430:
428:
425:
423:
420:
418:
415:
411:
408:
406:
403:
402:
401:
398:
394:
391:
390:
389:
386:
384:
381:
379:
376:
374:
373:Art education
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
360:
358:
357:
353:
352:
347:
344:
342:
339:
337:
334:
332:
329:
327:
324:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
308:
305:
304:
303:
302:
298:
297:
294:
292:United States
285:
284:
281:
279:
274:
273:
265:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
220:
219:United States
216:
212:
208:
195:
192:by President
191:
188:
186:
182:
178:
175:
172:
168:
164:
160:
157:
156:
153:
148:
145:
141:
138:
134:
131:
128:
124:
121:
118:
114:
109:
106:
102:
98:
96:
90:
87:
80:
75:
71:
66:
62:
58:
55:
51:
47:
43:
38:
34:
30:
25:
19:
2509:
2490:
2483:
2472:(son-in-law)
2401:
2393:
2378:
2371:
2363:
2355:
2351:Johnson cult
2343:
2330:Public image
2163:Bibliography
2143:Bashir Ahmad
2001:
1944:
1935:
1931:
1921:
1912:
1908:
1886:, retrieved
1880:
1873:
1864:
1858:
1845:
1839:(Fall 2006).
1836:
1826:
1809:
1789:
1783:
1772:, retrieved
1768:the original
1762:
1755:
1743:. Retrieved
1736:the original
1731:
1718:
1706:. Retrieved
1699:the original
1694:
1681:
1669:. Retrieved
1662:the original
1657:
1644:
1632:. Retrieved
1625:the original
1597:. Retrieved
1590:the original
1585:
1581:
1568:
1556:. Retrieved
1549:the original
1536:
1524:. Retrieved
1517:the original
1512:
1508:
1495:
1483:. Retrieved
1476:the original
1471:
1467:
1454:
1442:. Retrieved
1435:the original
1422:
1410:. Retrieved
1403:the original
1398:
1394:
1381:
1369:. Retrieved
1365:
1355:
1331:
1325:
1292:
1288:
1278:
1253:
1249:
1213:
1209:
1182:. Retrieved
1175:the original
1170:
1166:
1153:
1120:
1116:
1106:
1060:
1056:
1050:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1019:
1012:
1004:
995:
989:
976:
967:
942:
933:
919:
910:
899:
890:
872:
864:
847:
835:
834:
823:
820:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
777:
773:
769:
765:
679:
597:School meals
475:
275:
214:
210:
206:
204:
189:
176:
158:
116:Acts amended
111:Codification
40:(colloquial)
18:
2404:(2017 film)
2396:(2014 film)
2379:All the Way
2374:(2002 film)
2372:Path to War
2084:(1937–1949)
2072:(1949–1961)
2064:(1961–1963)
2053:(1963–1969)
1888:October 11,
1774:October 11,
1745:October 11,
1256:(1): 1–18.
2532:Categories
2470:Chuck Robb
2436:(daughter)
2430:(daughter)
2293:withdrawal
2152:Legacy and
1938:(17): 8–9.
1708:October 9,
1671:October 9,
1634:October 9,
1599:October 9,
1558:October 9,
1526:October 9,
1485:October 9,
1444:October 9,
1412:October 9,
1184:October 9,
1098:References
565:Head Start
540:Inequality
393:Law school
246:elementary
159:Introduced
73:Public law
2448:(brother)
2387:2016 film
2383:2012 play
2213:Elections
2155:memorials
1371:March 30,
1317:216591843
1309:0046-760X
1270:222023139
1230:144940469
1145:216591843
1137:0046-760X
693:Secondary
477:Financing
250:secondary
185:Judiciary
173:) on 1967
140:20 U.S.C.
68:Citations
60:Effective
2516:Category
2442:(father)
2281:campaign
1959:ED491993
1818:63668329
1814:ProQuest
1347:ED030343
1340:64405323
1336:ProQuest
1266:ProQuest
1066:See also
363:Literacy
307:By state
278:a series
99:81
37:Acronyms
1915:: 1–22.
689:Primary
299:Summary
78:Pub. L.
2424:(wife)
2414:Family
1957:
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1016:Court.
997:Aspira
530:Reform
493:Bubble
254:fluent
144:ch. 70
103:
86:90–247
84:
2394:Selma
2344:Daisy
2104:1956
2082:TX–10
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1313:S2CID
1226:S2CID
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1163:(PDF)
1141:S2CID
884:(LEP)
142:
101:Stat.
2320:1964
2310:1964
2305:1960
2288:1968
2276:1964
2266:1960
2261:1954
2246:1946
2241:1944
2236:1942
2231:1940
2093:Life
2080:for
2059:37th
1955:ERIC
1890:2011
1867:: 2.
1792:: 2.
1776:2011
1747:2011
1710:2011
1673:2011
1636:2011
1601:2011
1560:2011
1528:2011
1487:2011
1446:2011
1414:2011
1373:2023
1343:ERIC
1305:ISSN
1186:2011
1133:ISSN
695:) –
681:K–12
309:and
248:and
205:The
183:and
52:the
2402:LBJ
2364:LBJ
1297:doi
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1125:doi
211:BEA
179:by
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