56:
783:). The lack of coarse sediments in most shale beds reflects the absence of strong currents in the waters of the depositional basin. These might have oxygenated the waters and destroyed organic matter before it could accumulate. The absence of carbonate rock in shale beds reflects the absence of organisms that might have secreted carbonate skeletons, also likely due to an anoxic environment. As a result, about 95% of organic matter in sedimentary rocks is found in shales and other mudrocks. Individual shale beds typically have an organic matter content of about 1%, but the richest source rocks may contain as much as 40% organic matter.
198:
677:
658:
693:
227:
1806:
546:
process, at relatively shallow depth, since fissility does not seem to vary with depth in thick formations. Kaolinite flakes have less tendency to align in parallel layers than other clays, so kaolinite-rich clay is more likely to form nonfissile mudstone than shale. On the other hand, black shales often have very pronounced fissility (
545:
It is during compaction that shale develops its fissility, likely through mechanical compaction of the original open framework of clay particles. The particles become strongly oriented into parallel layers that give the shale its distinctive fabric. Fissility likely develops early in the compaction
479:
is very rapid once the clay encounters highly saline sea water. Whereas individual clay particles are less than 4 microns in size, the clumps of clay particles produced by flocculation vary in size from a few tens of microns to over 700 microns in diameter. The floccules start out water-rich, but
427:
The fine particles that compose shale can remain suspended in water long after the larger particles of sand have been deposited. As a result, shales are typically deposited in very slow moving water and are often found in lakes and
561:
that binds the grains together. Pressure solution contributes to cementing, as the mineral dissolved from strained contact points is redeposited in the unstrained pore spaces. The clay minerals may be altered as well. For example,
472:. These basins were anoxic, in part because of restricted circulation in the narrow Atlantic, and in part because the very warm Cretaceous seas lacked the circulation of cold bottom water that oxygenates the deep oceans today.
408:, which is not an important pigment, young shales may be quite dark from their iron sulfide content, in spite of a modest carbon content (less than 1%), while a black color in an ancient shale indicates a high carbon content.
173:
Shale typically exhibits varying degrees of fissility. Because of the parallel orientation of clay mineral flakes in shale, it breaks into thin layers, often splintery and usually parallel to the otherwise indistinguishable
526:, during which most of the compaction and lithification takes place. As the sediments come under increasing pressure from overlying sediments, sediment grains move into more compact arrangements, ductile grains (such as
238:
Shales are typically gray in color and are composed of clay minerals and quartz grains. The addition of variable amounts of minor constituents alters the color of the rock. Red, brown and green colors are indicative of
380:
Shales and other mudrocks contain roughly 95 percent of the organic matter in all sedimentary rocks. However, this amounts to less than one percent by mass in an average shale. Black shales, which form in
1477:
Lash, G. G.; Blood, D. R. (1 January 2004). "Origin of Shale Fabric by
Mechanical Compaction of Flocculated Clay: Evidence from the Upper Devonian Rhinestreet Shale, Western New York, U.S.A.".
1113:"Chemostratigraphy and Chemofacies of Source Rock Analogues: A High-Resolution Analysis of Black Shale Successions from the Lower Silurian Formigoso Formation (Cantabrian Mountains, NW Spain)"
1237:
Geological evolution of the
Colorado Plateau of eastern Utah and western Colorado, including the San Juan River, Natural Bridges, Canyonlands, Arches, and the Book Cliffs
1430:"Assessing shale gas reservoir potential using multi-scaled SEM pore network characterizations and quantifications: The Ciñera-Matallana pull-apart basin, NW Spain"
570:
at temperatures of about 55 to 200 °C (130 to 390 °F), releasing water in the process. Other alteration reactions include the alteration of smectite to
1023:
934:
488:
is important where flocculation is inhibited. Filter feeders produce an estimated 12 metric tons of clay pellets per square kilometer per year along the
365:, all trace to minor (except quartz) minerals found in shales and other mudrocks. A typical shale is composed of about 58% clay minerals, 28% quartz, 6%
676:
55:
2572:
822:, shale was frequently referred to as slate well into the 20th century. Black shale associated with coal seams is called black metal.
542:
than the rest of the grain. As a result, the contact points are dissolved away, allowing the grains to come into closer contact.
475:
Most clay must be deposited as aggregates and floccules, since the settling rate of individual clay particles is extremely slow.
578:
to illite at temperatures between 120 and 150 °C (250 and 300 °F). Because of these reactions, illite composes 80% of
377:(part of the original sediments that formed the shale) rather than authigenic (crystallized within the shale after deposition).
419:. There is evidence that shale acts as a semipermeable medium, allowing water to pass through while retaining dissolved salts.
190:(less than 1/3 silt). Rocks with similar particle sizes but with less clay (greater than 2/3 silt) and therefore grittier are
1355:
1265:
1221:
692:
480:
much of the water is expelled from the floccules as the clay minerals bind more tightly together over time (a process called
657:
1837:
1787:
1183:
1389:
Choquette, P.W.; Pray, L.C. (1970). "Geologic
Nomenclature and Classification of Porosity in Sedimentary Carbonates".
1453:
1244:
1011:
922:
627:, reducing environments, such as in stagnant water columns. Some black shales contain abundant heavy metals such as
1779:
1057:
489:
1627:
R.M. Coveney (1979). "Zinc concentrations in mid-continent
Pennsylvanian black shales of Missouri and Kansas".
1556:
1065:
976:
964:
2846:
1027:
938:
1429:
1112:
17:
404:, along with carbon, produce the black coloration. Because amorphous iron sulfide gradually converts to
302:
Clays are the major constituent of shales and other mudrocks. The clay minerals represented are largely
589:, the third and final stage of diagenesis. As erosion reduces the depth of burial, renewed exposure to
643:. The enriched values are of controversial origin, having been alternatively attributed to input from
557:
Lithification follows closely on compaction, as increased temperatures at depth hasten deposition of
1653:
R.M. Coveney (2003) "Metalliferous
Paleozoic black shales and associated strata" in D.R. Lenz (ed.)
295:
material and indicates a reducing environment. Pale blue to blue-green shales typically are rich in
538:. Points of contact between grains are under the greatest strain, and the strained mineral is more
1902:
1870:
1830:
1132:
864:
624:
1600:
J.D. Vine and E.B. Tourtelot (1970). "Geochemistry of black shale deposits – A summary report".
1402:
2322:
1810:
593:
produces additional changes to the shale, such as dissolution of some of the cement to produce
33:
1757:
495:
As sediments continue to accumulate, the older, more deeply buried sediments begin to undergo
2287:
1773:
1742:
798:, which at the higher temperatures found at greater depths of burial is further converted to
481:
534:
is reduced. In addition to this physical compaction, chemical compaction may take place via
1521:
1486:
1300:
721:
554:
molecules to the faces of the clay particles, which weakens the binding between particles.
500:
145:
8:
858:
468:-bounded silled basins associated with the opening of the Atlantic during the breakup of
150:
1525:
1490:
1304:
867: – Conservation lagerstätte in Illinois on the National Register of Historic Places
2118:
1823:
1533:
1459:
594:
453:
445:
354:
2078:
1783:
1552:
1512:
Sintubin, Manuel (1994). "Clay fabrics in relation to the burial history of shales".
1463:
1449:
1312:
1240:
1061:
1007:
972:
918:
846:
748:
535:
296:
182:
of similar composition and particle size (less than 0.0625 mm) are described as
175:
197:
2770:
2482:
2269:
2138:
1676:
1636:
1609:
1529:
1494:
1441:
1398:
1308:
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1053:
888:
831:
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683:
90:
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2342:
2195:
465:
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307:
231:
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1128:
2841:
2775:
2617:
2210:
2133:
1895:
1640:
1613:
787:
786:
The organic matter in shale is converted over time from the original proteins,
590:
511:, take place at shallow depths (a few tens of meters) and are characterized by
461:
449:
322:
shales) illites predominate. The transformation of smectite to illite produces
264:
248:
202:
179:
2835:
2820:
2735:
2700:
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2113:
2018:
1890:
968:
882:
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717:
504:
485:
382:
214:
71:
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2597:
2244:
2222:
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2013:
1998:
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are sometimes preserved on shale bedding surfaces. Shales may also contain
713:
644:
527:
512:
476:
416:
401:
390:
292:
291:) state. Black shale results from the presence of greater than one percent
240:
98:
2634:
2525:
2505:
2495:
2422:
2372:
2297:
2143:
2083:
2053:
2008:
1966:
1939:
1934:
1924:
1875:
1498:
819:
776:
772:
579:
551:
515:
and mineralogical changes in the sediments, with only slight compaction.
507:
of the clay and silt particles. Early stages of diagenesis, described as
433:
412:
46:
1551:(2d ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. pp. 398–400.
834: – Geological rock formation known for crude oil and gas production
2800:
2785:
2760:
2755:
2665:
2650:
2567:
2535:
2500:
2490:
2472:
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2128:
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2063:
2038:
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2023:
2003:
1912:
1711:
725:
698:
628:
531:
496:
457:
437:
370:
339:
187:
1239:. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. p. 222-223, 236-241.
2815:
2805:
2795:
2780:
2750:
2730:
2715:
2710:
2675:
2670:
2629:
2622:
2587:
2557:
2542:
2520:
2462:
2442:
2437:
2427:
2412:
2392:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2347:
2337:
2312:
2277:
2190:
2158:
2108:
2098:
2073:
2048:
2043:
1983:
1944:
1907:
876:
873: – Organic-rich fine-grained sedimentary rock containing kerogen
870:
780:
664:
648:
610:
575:
441:
335:
319:
303:
260:
210:
191:
144:. Shale is characterized by its tendency to split into thin layers (
125:
106:
102:
2790:
2765:
2690:
2660:
2655:
2577:
2562:
2530:
2510:
2407:
2382:
2259:
2234:
2227:
2205:
2200:
2153:
2093:
1978:
1929:
1919:
1865:
1723:
1687:
1595:
1593:
799:
752:
702:
636:
617:
571:
563:
374:
366:
358:
315:
311:
256:
252:
244:
206:
183:
1587:, Fieldiana Memoirs v. 4, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago
1184:"Geologic field evidence suggesting membrane properties of shales"
1139:
1079:
1077:
647:
fluids during or after sedimentation or to slow accumulation from
165:, rather than in the narrower sense of clay-rich fissile mudrock.
2810:
2740:
2705:
2680:
2612:
2447:
2387:
2327:
2292:
2185:
2033:
1993:
1961:
1956:
1860:
1815:
795:
729:
668:
632:
620:
539:
469:
452:. Some of the most widespread shale formations were deposited by
350:
331:
288:
268:
226:
162:
148:) less than one centimeter in thickness. This property is called
141:
112:
87:
1699:
1667:
H.D. Holland (1979). "Metals in black shales – A reassessment".
1590:
1331:
1291:
McCave, I.N. (1975). "Vertical flux of particles in the ocean".
1163:
1151:
885: – Geologic formation in Utah notable for trilobite fossils
161:
is sometimes applied more broadly, as essentially a synonym for
2720:
2695:
2592:
2552:
2515:
2417:
2282:
2180:
2170:
2123:
2088:
2058:
1988:
1973:
1951:
1885:
1880:
1805:
1319:
1272:
1074:
1048:
Potter, Paul Edwin; Maynard, J. Barry; Pryor, Wayne A. (1980).
818:
were not sharply distinguished. In the context of underground
815:
760:
756:
709:
613:
598:
567:
558:
516:
429:
405:
394:
386:
362:
342:
327:
323:
284:
272:
137:
118:
75:
1050:
Sedimentology of shale : study guide and reference source
2685:
2607:
2602:
2467:
2352:
2307:
2302:
1565:
1343:
1253:
855: – Fossil-bearing rock formation in the Canadian Rockies
811:
791:
744:
346:
280:
1599:
1211:
1209:
2457:
2402:
2317:
2249:
1369:
1367:
1365:
640:
276:
133:
1547:
Blatt, Harvey; Middleton, Gerard; Murray, Raymond (1980).
519:
may be formed in anoxic mud at this stage of diagenesis.
1657:, Geotext 4, Geological Association of Canada pp. 135–144
1206:
94:
1362:
275:– greens). The color shifts from reddish to greenish as
893:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
836:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1384:
1382:
1585:
318:, whereas in older rocks (especially in mid-to early
1729:
1717:
1546:
1409:
861: – Middle Devonian age unit of sedimentary rock
843: – Geological formation in Texas, United States
1775:
Dictionary geotechnical engineering: English German
1427:
1379:
1705:
1693:
1337:
1325:
1278:
1169:
1157:
1145:
1083:
1047:
609:are dark, as a result of being especially rich in
1428:Richardson, Ethan J.; Montenari, Michael (2020).
1110:
444:. Thick deposits of shale are found near ancient
2833:
1747:, American Institute of Mining Engineers. p. 78.
805:
735:Shales that are subject to heat and pressure of
136:-sized particles) of other minerals, especially
1655:Geochemistry of Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
1024:"Rocks: Materials of the Lithosphere – Summary"
1004:Petrology: Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic
935:"Rocks: Materials of the Lithosphere – Summary"
915:Petrology: Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic
879: – Natural gas trapped in shale formations
338:, iron and water. These released elements form
927:
1831:
1759:A Glossary of the Mining and Mineral Industry
1744:A Glossary of Mining and Metallurigical Terms
1388:
1354:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBlattTracy1996 (
1293:Deep Sea Research and Oceanographic Abstracts
1264:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBlattTracy1996 (
1220:sfn error: no target: CITEREFBlattTracy1996 (
1016:
766:
287:) state is converted to iron in the reduced (
154:. Shale is the most common sedimentary rock.
1666:
1626:
961:Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy
585:Unroofing of buried shale is accompanied by
1403:10.1306/5D25C98B-16C1-11D7-8645000102C1865D
849: – Geologic formation in North America
1838:
1824:
1349:
1259:
1215:
1111:Ferriday, Tim; Montenari, Michael (2016).
582:shales, versus about 25% of young shales.
411:Most shales are marine in origin, and the
54:
1476:
1002:Blatt, Harvey and Robert J. Tracy (1996)
913:Blatt, Harvey and Robert J. Tracy (1996)
101:(hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, e.g.
1762:, United States Bureau of Mines. p. 622.
1511:
1234:
909:
907:
484:). Clay pelletization by organisms that
225:
221:
196:
1771:
1583:R. Zangerl and E. S. Richardson (1963)
998:
996:
994:
992:
990:
988:
891: – Geologic formation in Australia
810:Before the mid-19th century, the terms
14:
2834:
1290:
686:) with a large knife to reveal fossils
27:Fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock
1819:
1571:
1415:
1373:
1181:
958:
904:
1466:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
1106:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1092:
985:
701:shale at a road cut in southeastern
651:over long periods of sedimentation.
597:. Pyrite may be oxidized to produce
415:in shale formations is often highly
24:
1845:
1730:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980
1718:Blatt, Middleton & Murray 1980
1534:10.1111/j.1365-3091.1994.tb01447.x
310:and illite. Clay minerals of Late
25:
2858:
1799:
1089:
794:, and other organic molecules to
732:, or various carbonate minerals.
623:, black shales were deposited in
385:conditions, contain reduced free
1804:
1756:Albert H. Fay (1920) "Slate" in
1741:R. W. Raymond (1881) "Slate" in
1706:Potter, Maynard & Pryor 1980
1694:Potter, Maynard & Pryor 1980
1338:Potter, Maynard & Pryor 1980
1326:Potter, Maynard & Pryor 1980
1279:Potter, Maynard & Pryor 1980
1170:Potter, Maynard & Pryor 1980
1158:Potter, Maynard & Pryor 1980
1146:Potter, Maynard & Pryor 1980
1084:Potter, Maynard & Pryor 1980
1006:, 2nd ed., Freeman, pp. 281–292
917:, 2nd ed., Freeman, pp. 281–292
691:
675:
656:
522:Deeper burial is accompanied by
369:, 5% carbonate minerals, and 2%
1765:
1750:
1735:
1660:
1647:
1620:
1577:
1540:
1505:
1479:Journal of Sedimentary Research
1470:
1421:
1284:
1228:
1175:
616:. Common in some Paleozoic and
464:, where they were deposited in
230:Color chart for shale based on
217:. Sand grain = 2 mm in diameter
186:(1/3 to 2/3 silt particles) or
1041:
1026:. prenhall.com. Archived from
952:
937:. prenhall.com. Archived from
13:
1:
1434:Stratigraphy & Timescales
1117:Stratigraphy & Timescales
898:
806:Historical mining terminology
747:. With continued increase in
460:strata on the margins of the
456:. Black shales are common in
1313:10.1016/0011-7471(75)90022-4
739:alter into a hard, fissile,
422:
7:
1681:10.2113/gsecongeo.74.7.1676
1549:Origin of sedimentary rocks
1446:10.1016/bs.sats.2020.07.001
1129:10.1016/bs.sats.2016.10.004
825:
205:of shale while drilling an
97:that is a mix of flakes of
10:
2863:
1641:10.2113/gsecongeo.74.1.131
1614:10.2113/gsecongeo.65.3.253
767:As hydrocarbon source rock
663:Shale in Potokgraben, the
530:grains) are deformed, and
499:. This mostly consists of
234:and organic carbon content
168:
31:
2643:
2481:
2268:
1851:
1772:Herbert, Bucksch (1996).
1235:Fillmore, Robert (2010).
771:Shale is the most common
314:mudstones are expandable
70:
65:
53:
44:
1574:, pp. 142, 145–154.
965:Upper Saddle River, N.J.
373:. Most of the quartz is
1903:Basaltic trachyandesite
1871:Alkali feldspar granite
1133:Elsevier Science Direct
865:Mazon Creek fossil beds
440:and offshore below the
1350:Blatt & Tracy 1996
1260:Blatt & Tracy 1996
1216:Blatt & Tracy 1996
728:consisting of pyrite,
235:
218:
132:) and tiny fragments (
34:Shale (disambiguation)
2288:Banded iron formation
1813:at Wikimedia Commons
969:Pearson Prentice Hall
229:
222:Composition and color
200:
1499:10.1306/060103740110
1182:Berry, F.A. (1960).
722:raindrop impressions
550:) due to binding of
32:For other uses, see
2847:Industrial minerals
1720:, pp. 396–397.
1526:1994Sedim..41.1161S
1491:2004JSedR..74..110L
1376:, pp. 147–154.
1352:, pp. 265–280.
1305:1975DSRA...22..491M
1262:, pp. 287–292.
1030:on 24 December 2014
959:Boggs, Sam (2006).
941:on 24 December 2014
859:Marcellus Formation
454:epicontinental seas
446:continental margins
86:is a fine-grained,
41:
2644:Specific varieties
1060:. pp. 54–56.
775:for hydrocarbons (
595:secondary porosity
297:carbonate minerals
236:
219:
39:
2829:
2828:
2079:Nepheline syenite
1809:Media related to
1696:, pp. 22–23.
1148:, pp. 47–49.
847:Bearpaw Formation
749:metamorphic grade
682:Splitting shale (
536:pressure solution
81:
80:
16:(Redirected from
2854:
2771:Rapakivi granite
2483:Metamorphic rock
2270:Sedimentary rock
2139:Quartz monzonite
1840:
1833:
1826:
1817:
1816:
1808:
1794:
1793:
1769:
1763:
1754:
1748:
1739:
1733:
1727:
1721:
1715:
1709:
1703:
1697:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1675:(7): 1676–1680.
1669:Economic Geology
1664:
1658:
1651:
1645:
1644:
1629:Economic Geology
1624:
1618:
1617:
1602:Economic Geology
1597:
1588:
1581:
1575:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1544:
1538:
1537:
1520:(6): 1161–1169.
1509:
1503:
1502:
1474:
1468:
1467:
1425:
1419:
1413:
1407:
1406:
1386:
1377:
1371:
1360:
1359:
1347:
1341:
1335:
1329:
1323:
1317:
1316:
1288:
1282:
1276:
1270:
1269:
1257:
1251:
1250:
1232:
1226:
1225:
1213:
1204:
1203:
1201:
1199:
1179:
1173:
1167:
1161:
1155:
1149:
1143:
1137:
1136:
1108:
1087:
1081:
1072:
1071:
1045:
1039:
1038:
1036:
1035:
1020:
1014:
1000:
983:
982:
963:(4th ed.).
956:
950:
949:
947:
946:
931:
925:
911:
894:
889:Wianamatta Shale
837:
832:Bakken Formation
751:the sequence is
741:metamorphic rock
695:
684:Messel oil shale
679:
660:
91:sedimentary rock
58:
47:Sedimentary rock
42:
38:
21:
2862:
2861:
2857:
2856:
2855:
2853:
2852:
2851:
2832:
2831:
2830:
2825:
2639:
2583:Pseudotachylite
2477:
2264:
2196:Tephriphonolite
1847:
1844:
1802:
1797:
1790:
1770:
1766:
1755:
1751:
1740:
1736:
1732:, pp. 397.
1728:
1724:
1716:
1712:
1704:
1700:
1692:
1688:
1665:
1661:
1652:
1648:
1625:
1621:
1598:
1591:
1582:
1578:
1570:
1566:
1559:
1545:
1541:
1510:
1506:
1475:
1471:
1456:
1426:
1422:
1414:
1410:
1387:
1380:
1372:
1363:
1353:
1348:
1344:
1336:
1332:
1324:
1320:
1289:
1285:
1277:
1273:
1263:
1258:
1254:
1247:
1233:
1229:
1219:
1214:
1207:
1197:
1195:
1180:
1176:
1168:
1164:
1156:
1152:
1144:
1140:
1109:
1090:
1082:
1075:
1068:
1058:Springer-Verlag
1046:
1042:
1033:
1031:
1022:
1021:
1017:
1001:
986:
979:
971:. p. 139.
957:
953:
944:
942:
933:
932:
928:
912:
905:
901:
892:
835:
828:
808:
802:and petroleum.
788:polysaccharides
769:
705:
696:
687:
680:
671:
661:
490:U.S. Gulf Coast
450:foreland basins
425:
361:, hematite and
308:montmorillonite
232:oxidation state
224:
171:
131:
123:
117:
111:
61:
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2860:
2850:
2849:
2844:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2776:Rhomb porphyry
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2647:
2645:
2641:
2640:
2638:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2626:
2625:
2618:Talc carbonate
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2539:
2538:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2487:
2485:
2479:
2478:
2476:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2274:
2272:
2266:
2265:
2263:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2231:
2230:
2220:
2219:
2218:
2211:Trachyandesite
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2167:
2166:
2161:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2134:Quartz diorite
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1970:
1969:
1959:
1954:
1949:
1948:
1947:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1916:
1915:
1910:
1900:
1899:
1898:
1896:Picrite basalt
1893:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1857:
1855:
1849:
1848:
1846:Types of rocks
1843:
1842:
1835:
1828:
1820:
1801:
1800:External links
1798:
1796:
1795:
1789:978-3540581642
1788:
1782:. p. 61.
1764:
1749:
1734:
1722:
1710:
1698:
1686:
1659:
1646:
1619:
1608:(3): 253–273.
1589:
1576:
1564:
1557:
1539:
1504:
1485:(1): 110–116.
1469:
1454:
1420:
1418:, p. 148.
1408:
1378:
1361:
1342:
1330:
1318:
1299:(7): 491–502.
1283:
1271:
1252:
1245:
1227:
1218:, p. 219.
1205:
1174:
1162:
1150:
1138:
1088:
1073:
1066:
1040:
1015:
984:
977:
951:
926:
902:
900:
897:
896:
895:
886:
880:
874:
868:
862:
856:
850:
844:
838:
827:
824:
807:
804:
768:
765:
707:
706:
697:
690:
688:
681:
674:
672:
662:
655:
591:meteoric water
566:is altered to
462:Atlantic Ocean
424:
421:
259:– yellow), or
249:iron hydroxide
223:
220:
203:drill cuttings
178:. Non-fissile
176:bedding planes
170:
167:
129:
121:
115:
109:
79:
78:
68:
67:
63:
62:
59:
51:
50:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2859:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2839:
2837:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2736:Litchfieldite
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2701:Hyaloclastite
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2648:
2646:
2642:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2624:
2621:
2620:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2548:Litchfieldite
2546:
2544:
2541:
2537:
2534:
2533:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2488:
2486:
2484:
2480:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2275:
2273:
2271:
2267:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2229:
2226:
2225:
2224:
2221:
2217:
2214:
2213:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2156:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2114:Phonotephrite
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2019:Hyaloclastite
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1968:
1965:
1964:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1946:
1943:
1942:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1905:
1904:
1901:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1891:Alkali basalt
1889:
1888:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1858:
1856:
1854:
1850:
1841:
1836:
1834:
1829:
1827:
1822:
1821:
1818:
1814:
1812:
1807:
1791:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1776:
1768:
1761:
1760:
1753:
1746:
1745:
1738:
1731:
1726:
1719:
1714:
1708:, p. 14.
1707:
1702:
1695:
1690:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1663:
1656:
1650:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1623:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1596:
1594:
1586:
1580:
1573:
1568:
1560:
1554:
1550:
1543:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1514:Sedimentology
1508:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1473:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1455:9780128209912
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1424:
1417:
1412:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1391:AAPG Bulletin
1385:
1383:
1375:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1357:
1351:
1346:
1340:, p. 10.
1339:
1334:
1327:
1322:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1287:
1280:
1275:
1267:
1261:
1256:
1248:
1246:9781607810049
1242:
1238:
1231:
1223:
1217:
1212:
1210:
1193:
1189:
1188:AAPG Bulletin
1185:
1178:
1172:, p. 59.
1171:
1166:
1160:, p. 72.
1159:
1154:
1147:
1142:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1095:
1093:
1086:, p. 56.
1085:
1080:
1078:
1069:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1029:
1025:
1019:
1013:
1012:0-7167-2438-3
1009:
1005:
999:
997:
995:
993:
991:
989:
980:
974:
970:
966:
962:
955:
940:
936:
930:
924:
923:0-7167-2438-3
920:
916:
910:
908:
903:
890:
887:
884:
883:Wheeler Shale
881:
878:
875:
872:
869:
866:
863:
860:
857:
854:
853:Burgess Shale
851:
848:
845:
842:
841:Barnett Shale
839:
833:
830:
829:
823:
821:
817:
813:
803:
801:
797:
793:
789:
784:
782:
778:
774:
764:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
733:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
704:
700:
694:
689:
685:
678:
673:
670:
666:
659:
654:
653:
652:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
619:
615:
612:
608:
607:
602:
600:
596:
592:
588:
583:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
560:
555:
553:
549:
543:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
520:
518:
514:
510:
506:
505:lithification
502:
498:
493:
491:
487:
483:
478:
473:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
439:
435:
432:deposits, in
431:
420:
418:
414:
409:
407:
403:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
378:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
300:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
255:– browns and
254:
250:
246:
242:
233:
228:
216:
215:United States
212:
208:
204:
199:
195:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
166:
164:
160:
155:
153:
152:
147:
143:
139:
135:
127:
120:
114:
108:
104:
100:
99:clay minerals
96:
92:
89:
85:
77:
73:
72:Clay minerals
69:
64:
57:
52:
49:
48:
43:
35:
30:
19:
2746:Luxullianite
2726:Lapis lazuli
2671:Blue Granite
2598:Serpentinite
2573:Metapsammite
2432:
2323:Conglomerate
2245:Trondhjemite
2223:Trachybasalt
2164:Pantellerite
2069:Monzogranite
2014:Hornblendite
1999:Granodiorite
1853:Igneous rock
1803:
1774:
1767:
1758:
1752:
1743:
1737:
1725:
1713:
1701:
1689:
1672:
1668:
1662:
1654:
1649:
1632:
1628:
1622:
1605:
1601:
1584:
1579:
1567:
1548:
1542:
1517:
1513:
1507:
1482:
1478:
1472:
1437:
1433:
1423:
1411:
1394:
1390:
1345:
1333:
1328:, p. 9.
1321:
1296:
1292:
1286:
1281:, p. 8.
1274:
1255:
1236:
1230:
1196:. Retrieved
1194:(6): 953–954
1191:
1187:
1177:
1165:
1153:
1141:
1131:– via
1120:
1116:
1049:
1043:
1032:. Retrieved
1028:the original
1018:
1003:
960:
954:
943:. Retrieved
939:the original
929:
914:
814:, shale and
809:
785:
770:
759:and finally
737:metamorphism
734:
708:
645:hydrothermal
606:Black shales
605:
604:
603:
586:
584:
556:
548:paper shales
547:
544:
528:clay mineral
523:
521:
513:bioturbation
508:
494:
477:Flocculation
474:
434:river deltas
426:
410:
402:iron sulfide
391:ferrous iron
379:
301:
293:carbonaceous
241:ferric oxide
237:
172:
158:
156:
149:
93:formed from
83:
82:
45:
29:
2635:Whiteschist
2526:Greenschist
2506:Cataclasite
2496:Amphibolite
2423:Phosphorite
2373:Itacolumite
2298:Calcarenite
2144:Quartzolite
2084:Nephelinite
2054:Lamprophyre
2009:Harzburgite
1967:Napoleonite
1940:Charnockite
1935:Carbonatite
1925:Blairmorite
1876:Anorthosite
1635:: 131–140.
1440:: 677–755.
1123:: 123–255.
820:coal mining
777:natural gas
773:source rock
726:concretions
587:telogenesis
580:Precambrian
552:hydrocarbon
524:mesogenesis
486:filter feed
438:floodplains
413:groundwater
389:along with
371:iron oxides
66:Composition
18:Black shale
2836:Categories
2801:Teschenite
2786:Shonkinite
2761:Pietersite
2756:Novaculite
2666:Borolanite
2651:Adamellite
2568:Metapelite
2536:Calcflinta
2501:Blueschist
2491:Anthracite
2473:Wackestone
2453:Travertine
2398:Lumachelle
2378:Jaspillite
2333:Diamictite
2255:Websterite
2240:Troctolite
2216:Benmoreite
2176:Shonkinite
2149:Rhyodacite
2129:Pyroxenite
2104:Peridotite
2064:Lherzolite
2039:Kimberlite
2029:Ignimbrite
2024:Icelandite
2004:Granophyre
1913:Shoshonite
1572:Boggs 2006
1558:0136427103
1416:Boggs 2006
1374:Boggs 2006
1067:0387904301
1034:2007-07-31
978:0131547283
945:2007-07-31
899:References
699:Weathering
629:molybdenum
611:unoxidized
532:pore space
501:compaction
497:diagenesis
458:Cretaceous
340:authigenic
263:minerals (
201:Sample of
192:siltstones
188:claystones
2816:Variolite
2806:Theralite
2796:Tachylite
2781:Rodingite
2751:Mangerite
2731:Larvikite
2716:Jasperoid
2711:Jadeitite
2676:Epidosite
2630:Tectonite
2623:Soapstone
2588:Quartzite
2558:Migmatite
2543:Itabirite
2521:Granulite
2463:Turbidite
2443:Sylvinite
2438:Siltstone
2428:Sandstone
2413:Oil shale
2393:Limestone
2368:Gritstone
2363:Greywacke
2358:Geyserite
2348:Evaporite
2338:Diatomite
2313:Claystone
2278:Argillite
2191:Tachylyte
2159:Comendite
2109:Phonolite
2099:Pegmatite
2074:Monzonite
2049:Lamproite
2044:Komatiite
1984:Foidolite
1945:Enderbite
1908:Mugearite
1464:229217907
877:Shale gas
871:Oil shale
781:petroleum
743:known as
720:and even
712:, animal
665:Karawanks
649:sea water
576:kaolinite
509:eogenesis
482:syneresis
442:wave base
423:Formation
399:Amorphous
393:(Fe) and
336:magnesium
320:Paleozoic
316:smectites
304:kaolinite
261:micaceous
247:– reds),
211:Louisiana
184:mudstones
157:The term
151:fissility
2791:Taconite
2766:Pyrolite
2691:Ganister
2661:Aphanite
2656:Appinite
2578:Phyllite
2563:Mylonite
2531:Hornfels
2511:Eclogite
2408:Mudstone
2383:Laterite
2343:Dolomite
2260:Wehrlite
2235:Trachyte
2228:Hawaiite
2206:Tonalite
2201:Tephrite
2154:Rhyolite
2119:Porphyry
2094:Obsidian
1979:Essexite
1930:Boninite
1920:Basanite
1866:Andesite
1780:Springer
1198:13 April
1054:New York
826:See also
800:graphite
753:phyllite
703:Kentucky
637:vanadium
618:Mesozoic
572:chlorite
564:smectite
430:lagoonal
375:detrital
367:feldspar
359:ankerite
355:dolomite
312:Tertiary
281:oxidized
265:chlorite
257:limonite
253:goethite
245:hematite
207:oil well
2811:Unakite
2741:Llanite
2706:Ijolite
2681:Felsite
2613:Suevite
2448:Tillite
2388:Lignite
2328:Coquina
2293:Breccia
2186:Syenite
2034:Ijolite
1994:Granite
1962:Diorite
1957:Diabase
1861:Adakite
1522:Bibcode
1487:Bibcode
1301:Bibcode
796:kerogen
755:, then
730:apatite
718:burrows
710:Fossils
669:Austria
633:uranium
574:and of
540:soluble
470:Pangaea
351:calcite
332:calcium
289:ferrous
279:in the
269:biotite
169:Texture
163:mudrock
146:laminae
142:calcite
88:clastic
2721:Kenyte
2696:Gossan
2593:Schist
2553:Marble
2516:Gneiss
2418:Oolite
2283:Arkose
2181:Sovite
2171:Scoria
2124:Pumice
2089:Norite
2059:Latite
1989:Gabbro
1974:Dunite
1952:Dacite
1886:Basalt
1881:Aplite
1786:
1555:
1462:
1452:
1243:
1064:
1010:
975:
921:
816:schist
792:lipids
761:gneiss
757:schist
714:tracks
639:, and
625:anoxic
621:strata
614:carbon
599:gypsum
568:illite
559:cement
517:Pyrite
417:saline
406:pyrite
395:sulfur
387:carbon
383:anoxic
363:albite
343:quartz
328:sodium
324:silica
285:ferric
273:illite
138:quartz
103:kaolin
76:quartz
2842:Shale
2686:Flint
2608:Slate
2603:Skarn
2468:Varve
2433:Shale
2353:Flint
2308:Chert
2303:Chalk
1811:Shale
1460:S2CID
812:slate
745:slate
466:fault
436:, on
397:(S).
347:chert
180:rocks
159:shale
84:Shale
60:Shale
40:Shale
2458:Tufa
2403:Marl
2318:Coal
2250:Tuff
1784:ISBN
1553:ISBN
1450:ISBN
1356:help
1266:help
1241:ISBN
1222:help
1200:2021
1062:ISBN
1008:ISBN
973:ISBN
919:ISBN
779:and
641:zinc
503:and
448:and
277:iron
271:and
140:and
134:silt
74:and
2821:Wad
1677:doi
1637:doi
1610:doi
1530:doi
1495:doi
1442:doi
1399:doi
1309:doi
1125:doi
716:or
209:in
95:mud
2838::
1778:.
1673:70
1671:.
1633:74
1631:.
1606:65
1604:.
1592:^
1528:.
1518:41
1516:.
1493:.
1483:74
1481:.
1458:.
1448:.
1436:.
1432:.
1397:.
1395:54
1393:.
1381:^
1364:^
1307:.
1297:22
1295:.
1208:^
1192:44
1190:.
1186:.
1119:.
1115:.
1091:^
1076:^
1056::
1052:.
987:^
967::
906:^
790:,
763:.
667:,
635:,
631:,
601:.
492:.
357:,
353:,
349:,
345:,
334:,
330:,
326:,
306:,
299:.
267:,
213:,
194:.
126:OH
113:Si
107:Al
105:,
1839:e
1832:t
1825:v
1792:.
1683:.
1679::
1643:.
1639::
1616:.
1612::
1561:.
1536:.
1532::
1524::
1501:.
1497::
1489::
1444::
1438:5
1405:.
1401::
1358:)
1315:.
1311::
1303::
1268:)
1249:.
1224:)
1202:.
1135:.
1127::
1121:1
1070:.
1037:.
981:.
948:.
283:(
251:(
243:(
130:4
128:)
124:(
122:5
119:O
116:2
110:2
36:.
20:)
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