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larger audience. Thus, they needed to earn a greater place on the political stage, spread their ideology and rally the supporters of a still-strong
Destour, and also convince the lower classes that the Neo-Destour was their advocate. The Neo-Destour invited the lower classes to join in "a dignity tormented by half a century of protectorate". Therefore, Bourguiba traveled all around the country and used new methods of communication different from that of the Destour elders. The lower classes, alienated and troubled by economic crisis, were convinced by his speech and joined his cause, bringing their full support to it. Units were created all over the country and a new structure was settled, making the Neo-Destour a more efficient movement than all those before. If the elders addressed the colonial oppressor to express their requests, the "secessionists" addressed the people. Even worldwide, the new party succeeded in finding support among French socialists, including philosopher and politician
3242:. Violently, they destroyed showcases and set public buildings on fire. At noon, President Bourguiba gave the army orders to get involved and put an end to the uprising. The troubles ended with tens of dead, or even hundreds, according to some sources. In the afternoon, Bourguiba declared state of emergency and a curfew which lasted nearly three months. Twenty months after Black Thursday was held the next congress of SPD, opened on 5 September 1979. True to its ongoing strategy not to reopen wounds, Bourguiba gave the order to move on. In his opening speech, invoking the national interest, he called "all Tunisians, despite their differences of opinion and guidance, to support state building, the instrument of national revival, security and stability". In this climate of apparent unity, the congress was held in ambiguity because the gap had widened between the president and the hawks rejecting openness and a
3137:, appointed prime minister in 1970. In January 1971, before leaving for treatment in the United States, Bourguiba signed a decree, delegating his powers to Nouira, which consolidated the Achour-Nouira alliance, opposed to Minister of the Interior, Ahmed Mestiri. During the Congress of Monastir that started on 19 June, Bourguiba, returning after six months of treatment abroad, designated three successive "heirs": "It is with confidence that I foresee the day when my journey in this world comes to an end, Nouira shall succeed me as later will do Mestiri then Masmoudi". But the congress adopted a turning that seemed not to please the President. After Mestiri's attempt to seize control of the party, Bourguiba suspended him, along with his allies and declared finished the works of the Central Committee: "It is more than clear that, while I am still of this world, I will be maintained at the head of State".
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detained in La Galite Island with, however, a softening of imprisonment conditions. If the reforms legislated the principle of co-sovereignty, Bourguiba judged these measures to be outdated. But he was worried of the cleverness of
Voizard, whose methods seemed to be more dangerous than the brutality of De Hauteclocque. This obvious liberalism seduced numerous Tunisians tired of this violence climate which had imposed itself for too long but divided the Neo-Destour between those who supported the policy of the new resident-general and those who didn't. The differences among the party deepened more and more upon Voizard's plans. Both Bourguiba and Ben Youssef remained strongly opposed to the collaboration between the bey and the residence. After a period of hesitation about what to do with the reform project, the Neo-Destour gave orders to resume actions of resistance. Therefore, the
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the modernism of the "supreme commander" who trampled the Arab-Muslim values and invited
Bourguiba's opponents to resume the armed struggle to free the whole Maghreb. Reacting to Ben Youssef's statements, the French High Commissioner judged them to be outre while the Neo-Destour Leadership impeached Ben Youssef of all his charges, during a meeting convened by Bourguiba. The exclusion was voted but the seriousness of the situation led them to keep the decision secret until further notice. It was finally made public on 13 October, surprising many activists who judged the decision to be too important to be taken by a mere meeting. Many factions, supportive of Ben Youssef, were opposed to the decision and declared Ben Youssef to be their rightful leader.
1276:, the eighth child and final son of Ali Bourguiba and Fatouma Khefacha. Bourguiba's official birthdate is 3 August 1903, though he stated he was likely born a year earlier, on 3 August 1902, or possibly 1901. Bourguiba's mother gave birth to him when she was 40, which, according to Bourguiba, was a source of great shame for her. His father, who was 53 years old, wondered whether he could raise him properly. Despite financial hardship, Ali Bourguiba gave great importance to the education of his children. He was enrolled in the army by general Ahmed Zarrouk, and spent nineteen years of his life campaigning before retiring. Eager to avoid such a fate for his last child, he decided to ensure Habib obtained his
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struggle. Likewise, the first day of negotiations started with a serious clash between military and rebels. Everybody was convinced that only a watchword from the Neo-Destour would convince the fellaghas to stop the fight. Nevertheless, the party was ripped between those who wanted the unrest to continue and those who wanted it to stop. Bourguiba wanted the fight to be over to hasten the negotiations for the internal autonomy. He had among the party numerous supporters of the stepwise policy of his. But many were those who wanted immediate independence. In this context, he appeared to be the only one to have the necessary authority to resolve the problem.
2048:"Since there was no blood, we need to repeat. There must be blood spilled for them to speak of us". His wish was satisfied the following morning. The riots of 9 April 1938 ended with one dead policemen, 22 protestors and more than 150 injured. The following day, Bourguiba and his mates were arrested and detained at the Civilian Prison of Tunis, where Bourguiba was interrogated. On 12 April, the Neo-Destour was dissolved, but its activism was pursued in secret. On 10 June 1939, Bourguiba and his companions were charged with conspiracy against public order and state security and incitement of civil war. Therefore, he was transferred to the penitentiary of
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concluded. It said firstly that "the
Tunisian government solemnly invite the fellaghas to deliver their weapons to the French and Tunisian authorities" and secondly that "the resident-general of France and the Tunisian government vouch that under the agreement between them, the fellaghas shall not be disturbed or prosecuted and that measures be taken to facilitate their rehabilitation to normal life and that of their families". Furthermore, Bourguiba intervened a second time to reassure the resistance leaders of his confidence in Mendès France and reiterated his guarantee of their security. After two years of unrest, the discussions can finally resume.
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authorities decided to speed up the implementation of the autonomy agreements by transferring the law enforcement responsibility to the
Tunisian government starting from 28 November. This decision did not please Ben Youssef who feared the jeopardizes of minister of the interior Mongi Slim. To thwart the decisions of the Congress of Sfax, he called for holding a second congress as soon as possible. However, he faced opposition from the Tunisian government. Soon, Ben Youssef was charged for inciting rebellion. Slim informed Ben Youssef that he were to be arrested by Tunisian policemen, which led him to flee out of the country. Clandestinly, he went to
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stated that power did not attract him and judged it to be still early to hold an office within the state. Therefore, it was Tahar Ben Ammar who was chosen once again to lead the government. Likewise, the Neo-Destour prevails. It was the first time since 1881, that the
Tunisian cabinet did not include a French member. While giving speeches all around the country, Bourguiba insisted on this fundamental fact, demonstrating that the conventions gave a large autonomy to the Tunisian people in management of its affairs. Defending his strategy, he must not leave the field open to the maximalism of Ben Youssef, supported by the Communists and the Destour.
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1675:, claiming Tunisian access to all administrative positions. Soon, he described his own definition of the protectorate, challenging its existence, not just its effects like the elder nationalists did, by writing on 23 February 1931 that "for a healthy strong nation that international competitions and a momentary crisis forced into accepting the tutelage of a stronger state, the contact of a more advanced civilization determines in it a salutary reaction. A true regeneration occurs in it and, through judicious assimilation of the principles and methods of this civilization, it inevitably come to realize in stages its final emancipation".
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shared earlier by his brother
Mohamed. Following his return to Tunisia, he married Mathilde, with Mahmoud Laribi as his best man, and settled in Tunis. At the time, he was not interested in politics but in his professional career, every debuting lawyer having to do a three-year traineeship under the supervision of another experienced lawyer. From October 1927 to October 1928, he worked for Mr. Cirier, who dismissed him after six weeks, then for Mr. Pietra and Scemama, who did not pay him for two months and charged him with writing responsibilities. Bourguiba then resigned to work for Mr. Salah Farhat, chairman of the
1686:, powerful businesspersons and great land owners, who had a strong influence on the colonial administration. Opposed to the daring work of the young team, they achieved the censorship of all nationalist papers through the Residence (the colonial government) on 12 May 1931. A few days later, Habib and M'hamed Bourguiba, Bahri Guiga, Salah Farhat and El Materi were all prosecuted. However, they succeeded in obtaining the adjournment of their trial until 9 June 1931. On that day, numerous people came to show their support to the charged team getting their trial to be postponed once again. In response to this decision,
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and
Thameur, who were supporters of confrontation. At the time, Bourguiba was hesitant to choose between the two factions because he needed the support of the youth to gain domination upon the Neo-Destour, the leadership still being among the founding moderate members. Nevertheless, he soothed the tensions of the young, estimating that a confrontation with France would only have bad consequences and that the dialogue can still be favored. In the start of October, he flew to Paris, aiming to pursue negotiations, but returned without any result. Thus, he realized there was nothing to be awaited from France.
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2597:, Ben Youssef rejected the agreements which he judged contrary to the principle of internal autonomy and indicated to a journalist that he "did not want to be Bourguiba's subordinate anymore". As for him, the Tunisian people must be opposed to the conventions and demand immediate independence without any restrictions. Despite attempts to conciliate both leaders, the break between the two men was final. Bourguiba, however, tried to ease tensions and persuade Ben Youssef to get back to Tunisia, but in vain, the secretary-general of the party eager to remain in Cairo, until further notice.
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his popularity increase thanks to his writings, frequented often intellectual circles whom he had just met. He showed both clarity and accuracy in his writings, which revealed a talented polemicist, thanks to his strong legal expertise. Furthermore, he had worked on demonstrating the colonial exploitation mechanism by ascending from effects to causes, while showing a great interest in social phenomenons, inviting the workers and students to organize and thus, defend themselves better against exploitation. In addition, he encouraged the defense and safeguard of the
Tunisian personality.
3291:, on 28 February 1982, stated that "With the current version of the constitution, continuity is artificial and the risk of popular rejection is not excluded. The Tunisian people respects Bourguiba but true continuity will only happen when Bourguiba's work is pursued by a democratically-elected president." Habib Achour, interviewed by the same magazine on 11 August, declared: "I am for the review of the Constitution so that all candidates who wish can run for office freely". Bourguiba carried out his promises with the legalization of two new political parties, on 19 November 1983: The
1904:. Although glad to be all together, they were soon in conflict upon the strategy the party had to choose. While the majority were part of the decay of the uprising and the dismissal of the methods adopted in 1934, Bourguiba was opposed to any concession. Soon he was accused by his fellow detainees to "lead them to their loss"; Only Ben Youssef was not against Bourguiba's methods since 1934 but reckoned they needed to be free again at all cost and therefore, attempt to save what can still be. However, the conflict receded due to the hard conditions of detention aiming to coax them.
2683:, by crossing the Libyan-Tunisian borders on 28 January 1956. The following morning, three newspapers endorsing him were seized and 115 persons were arrested all around the country. The government decided to create a special criminal court, known as the High court to judge the rebels. Meanwhile, Ben Youssef insisted on his followers to resume the fight. The regional context was in his favor because the Maghreb ablazed for the liberation struggle and nationalists were quickly disappointed by the conventions of internal autonomy that left only a few limited powers to Tunisians.
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seeing this as an occasion to get rid of a new form of activism they dislike, decided to reprimand the young nationalist. Bourguiba, who considered the
Destour and its leaders as an obstacle to his ambitions, decided to resign from the party on 9 September. Soon enough, he had learned from this experience. This success obtained by popular violent uprising showed the failure of the Destour's methods, consisting mainly of petitions. Only violence of determined groups could lead the Residence to step back and negotiate the solutions; this was his course of action until 1956.
2663:, feeling marginalized by the occidental trend of the party, showed a great support for the conservative trend who had just being created. The country started to twitch once again. Ben Youssef multiplied his tours around the country facing the sabotage attempts of Bourguiba's followers. However, cells supportive of Ben Youssef were creating everywhere, while many Neo-Destourian activists remained in an expectant hush, waiting to see who of the two leaders will have the last word. Therefore, Bourguiba started an information campaign which was successful, especially in
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2447:, faking that he obtained the support of the American delegate if Tunisia complained. If they were hesitating at first, they soon gave way to Bourguiba. Meanwhile, the nationalist leader travelled all around the country to inform the people of this issue. His speeches became more and more violent and ended with his statement in Bizerte, on 13 January, where he denounced the cabinet if a delegation did not fly immediately to the U.N. The request was signed on 11 January in Chenik's house by all the ministers of the cabinet, in the presence of Bourguiba, Hached and
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measures changed nothing: As the delegates of the French Rally of Tunisia requested in Paris that Bourguiba must be "unable to resume a campaign of agitation", the Grand Vizier Mzali was almost killed in a failed assassination attempt. Despite the repression he instituted, Voizard lost control of the situation and faced the rage of certain Tunisians opposed to colonists. On 17 June, Mzali resigned from office without any successor left to take charge. This resignation did not leave an available interlocutor to negotiate with the newly invested cabinet of
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the internal autonomy conventions were approved. Outraged by the congress aftermath, Ben Youssef organized numerous meetings to demonstrate his influence. Inside the country, he gained the support of fellaghas who reprised the uprest. Bourguibist cells and French settlers were attacked. As for the fellaghas, it was necessary to get immediate independence, even with weaponry and put an end to Bourguiba's power. The 1 June united Tunisia was definitely torn apart: Those who rallied Bourguiba and those who opposed him and joined Ben Youssef.
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discredit Bourguiba, rumors were spread that he received, underhand, funding from many Arab leaders and that he had special relationships with the French embassy in Egypt. During his trip to Libya, in spring 1948, the committee removed him from his duties of secretary-general. Noting that there were too much ideological differences between the Committee and himself, it only contributed in discrediting his relationship with Cairo Tunisians such as Thameur, with whom his relationship was deteriorating.
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2328:, "shall aim to lead Tunisia towards the full development of its wealth and lead it towards independence, which is the end goal for all territories within the French Union". However, the word "independence" is soon replaced by "internal autonomy". Despite that, Bourguiba was eager to support Périllier's reform process. Soon, he was satisfacted with his flourishing results of his visit to Paris because the Tunisian case became one of the most debated issues by both public opinion and parliament.
1567:, an unveiled woman who advocated gender equality, Bourguiba defended Tunisian identity, culture and religion by opposing Menchari's position to rid women of their veils. Bourguiba responded saying that Tunisia was threatened by the forfeiture of its personality and that it had to be preserved until the country was emancipated. This statement surprised liberals like the French unionist Joachim Durel. The controversy that followed opposed him to Bourguiba for nearly a month, Bourguiba writing in
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detained by France and freed by Germans during the war, to join him in the Egyptian Capital. They arrived on 9 June 1946, aiding Bourguiba to start the rallying point of the North African community in Cairo. Soon, they were joined by Algerian and Moroccan nationalists. Furthermore, Bourguiba's speech was famous among the Anglo-Saxon media, and Maghrebi nationalism became more efficient in Cairo. Bourguiba was more and more convinced that the key to the nationalist struggle resided within the
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1957:, on 6 July 1936. This publicly stated interview was unpopular among the French colonialists in Tunisia, which led later meetings to be conducted secretly. But French authorities were opposed to the hopes of Tunisian militants, and some of them even thought that it was a mere illusion. When he returned to Tunis, in September, the political atmosphere had changed with the re-establishment of liberties, which permitted the expansion of Neo-Destour and an increase in its members.
1937:'s cabinet in June. This was a great opportunity for the leaders, who had always been close to the socialists. Soon, they met Guillon who promised to restore restricted liberties. Very satisfied by their interview with Guillon, the leaders were convinced that the ascending of the Blum ministry and the arrival of Guillon as head of the colonial government would be the start of flourishing negotiations which would lead to independence, even though they did not state it publicly.
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credit union, got into trouble with the Residence, Bourguiba is the only one to defend him., reckoning that this issue could permit him to rally the bourgeois class, considered as collaborator with France, and unify the country around nationalism. Nevertheless, it only ended up with the resignation of Guiga, M'hedhi and Bouhajeb. Thus, Bourguiba abandoned his lawyer work to concentrate on running the journal by his own. But the occasion to express himself soon turned up: The
3639:, who defended Bourguiba's reform, stating that the CPS are possible interpretations of Islam. However, others did not share these views and said that the CPS was violating Islamic norms. The Personal Status Code would, then, constitute the fundamental legacy of Habib Bourguiba, to the point of becoming a sort of consensus block that the Islamists themselves would not challenge publicly anymore. Nevertheless, he succeeded in setting important legal precedents by prohibiting
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Arab literature. Despite that, his grades were low; Bourguiba did not pass his Arabic patent in 1917, which would have allowed him to get an administrative function. The headmaster permitted him to restart his sixth and final year of high school, in 1919–20. But the winter season and aforementioned malnutrition severely worsened his health, and he was hospitalized following his primary infection. Accordingly, he was obliged to abandon his studies and remain at the hospital.
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eminent services of "Supreme Commander" Habib Bourguiba to the Tunisian people that he freed from the yoke of colonialism and which he turned into a united independent modern nation, enjoying the fullness of sovereignty, the National Assembly proclaimed President Habib Bourguiba president for life". In April 1976, another constitutional amendment confirmed the Prime Minister as a constitutional successor to the President. During autumn, Bourguiba suffered from a
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1434:. He was soon affected by the inequalities between French and Tunisians. In 1922, when Naceur Bey threatened to abdicate because of resident-general Lucien Saint's maneuvers, public opinion decided to mobilize for this nationalist bey. On 22 April 1922, Bourguiba was part of the protesters to support the monarch. Influenced by that event, he used to participate in debates with his friends and got interested in political and philosophical learning, supporting
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2846:. Casualties were high with 72 dead and numerous injured. The very evening, Bourguiba declared the "evacuation battle" of Bizerte open. Thus, he proclaimed entry ban of every French warship into Tunisian waters, on 12 February. He also presented the National Constituent Assembly with a bill repealing the 1942 convention specifying that "Bizerte was not part of Tunisian territory but was a French harbor". The bill was successfully adopted on 14 February.
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Neo-Destour. Its essential goals were to reinforce resistance movements inside colonized countries but also abroad, aiming to get the United Nations involved. Habib Thameur was designated as head of this organisation. In March 1947, Bourguiba came back to Cairo and, for nearly a year, tried to convince Arab leaders to introduce the Tunisian Case to the UN. In addition, he endowed Neo-Destour of its second representation in the Arab World, in
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1405:, so he could struggle against the colonial power. The family council that was held to discuss this matter was a complete failure, his brothers considering him as "unsuccessful" and were not ready to finance his studies. Only his thirty years old single brother, Mahmoud, promised to aid him. With his support, Bourguiba was enrolled in Lycée Carnot of Tunis, in classe de seconde, because he was too weak to study in classe de première.
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1519:. She invited him to enter and asked him to tell his story. Touched by his background, she asked to see him once again, and, in the upcoming months, invited him to move in with her. Since then, he gave away his room in the campus and settled with Mathilde. With this new way of life, Bourguiba distanced himself from the other students but also the Tunisian struggle, as a strong repression started back at the country.
2767:, French secretary of state for foreign affairs, ended up with the decision to regroup French forces in Bizerte within less than two years and the conclusion of a Franco-Tunisian military alliance. Nevertheless, Bourguiba refused to negotiate while the territory was still occupied and demanded the French forces to regroup in Bizerte immediately, arguing that the protectorate was over. Therefore, he travelled to the
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Neo-Destour. However, the French Rally of Tunisia, opposed to any reform, succeeded to pressure both the colonial government in Tunisia and the French authorities in France, to get the negotiations restrained. Périllier ended up yield to pressure and stated on 7 October that "It is time to give a break to reforms", which did not please the Tunisian government. Reacting to the statement, riots started in
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other countries to establish embassies and diplomatic relations. Therefore, he appointed 4 ambassadors in Arab countries and approved the United States and Turkey's decision to start a diplomatic mission in Tunisia. Under pressure, France agreed with the opening of respective embassies and signed an agreement with the Tunisian government on 16 May. On 12 November, Tunisia became an official
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2550:(110 kilometers from Paris) on the orders of Mendès France to preparing the upcoming negotiations. On 31 July, the new French prime minister travelled to Tunis and gave his famous speech in which he stated that the French government unilaterally recognizes the internal autonomy of Tunisia. Meanwhile, Bourguiba received representatives of Neo-Destour in Paris, under the supervision of the
3447:. His condition deemed critical, he underwent thoracentesis while in the ICU. His health improved, he left hospital on 13 March to get back to his house in Monastir. He died there at officially 96 years old, on 6 April 2000 at 9:50 pm. President Ben Ali, therefore, proclaimed seven days of national mourning while Algeria announced three days of national mourning. Algerian President
3470:, wearing redcoats. It was deposited in the middle of the familial house, covered with the Tunisian national flag and surrounded by Chabiba members. His son, Habib Jr., his daughter-in-law and his adoptive daughter Hajer received condolences of Monastir City and Governorate's officials. Bourguiba was buried on 8 April, in the afternoon, in his mausoleum. After a short ceremony at the
2585:, Ben Youssef, who wanted immediate independence, denounced the discussions and challenged the stepwise policy adopted by Bourguiba. Knowing that his statement would attract many favorable activists, mostly after the fall of the Mendès France cabinet on 6 February 1955, causing panic among the moderate faction of the party. Nevertheless, their fears were at ease with the arrival of
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undertaken so far by the president and only by himself After fifteen years of exercise of power, it is time to revise the Constitution and establish some collaboration between the head of State, the national Assembly and the people". But the spirit of this reform did not meet these commitments, only the spirit of Article 39 (establishing the life presidency) would prevail.
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him. Thus, he decided to raise the child, despite his friend's advice to abandon the baby and break up with Mathilde. This pregnancy reassured him as he thought he was sterile. But the relationship of the couple worsened to a point that Bourguiba left the house to sleep at his friends' place, back at the campus. On 9 April 1927, Mathilde gave birth to a boy, whom they named
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Tunisian requests regarding the intern autonomy. On 15 December, Bourguiba landed in Paris where he heard the answer of Schuman: The statement of 15 December, affirmed the principle of co-sovereignty and the "final nature of the bond that links Tunisia to France". As for Bourguiba, it was then sure that endless and resultless negotiations were over. He stated to the
3754:. As for him, "the people were not yet mature enough for democracy" which was evaded in the name of the unity his project was involving. Consequently, once the bases of a modern state were built, Bourguiba chose gradually a "paternalistic authoritarian" regime. This culminated in the Neo Destour being formally declared the only legally permitted party in 1963.
1282:, which would dispense him from military service, just like his elder sons. Around the time Bourguiba was born, his father became councilman, and was, therefore, part of the notables of the city. This allowed him to improve both his financial and social situation and permitted him to provide a modern education future for his last son, just like his brother.
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Thameur in Cairo. Having gone to the Egyptian capital to support the national struggle abroad, Bourguiba found himself, four years later, weakened politically and marginalized among the Maghrebi Committee in Cairo, exiled and isolated from Tunisia. Aware of the importance of the struggle inside the country, he decided to regain Tunis on 8 September 1949.
2345:, he did not exclude the use of popular mobilization to obtain independence. If he was introducing himself as an exiled militant back in his journey to Middle-East, he was now a leader of a major party among the Tunisian government. This new status permitted him to meet officials of all the countries he had visited: He met with Indian Prime minister,
1752:, elected unanimously in the executive party committee. This strong position among the movement permitted them to influence party decision, eager to unify all the factions among a nationalist front. In the meantime, due to the ongoing naturalist issue in Tunis, the Residence decided the suspension of every nationalist paper on 31 May, including
2969:) minister's attacks by Bourguiba who fully endorsed him: "I am personally responsible for the plan that I put under my authority. Henceforth, this plan will be the party's work". On 17 November 1961, Ben Salah was appointed in the party leadership, despite his failure in the Central committee elections during the Congress of Sousse in 1959.
1511:, where he started to attend public finance classes. He also obtained a financial aid from his friend and protector, Mounier-Pillet, who was his former teacher in Monastir. The same year, his friends Sfar and Guiga, joined him while he was tutoring a young Sfaxian boy, Mohamed Aloulou, sent by his parents to sit for the baccalaureate exam in
2738:. He expressed, once officially inaugurated as Prime minister, his will to "enforce sovereignty bases by perfecting the means inside the country and abroad, put this sovereignty only under the service of Tunisian's interests, implementing a bold and judicious policy to free national economy from the chains of immobilism and unemployment."
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and Tunisia We decided to organize a referendum as soon as possible, expected to be on 18 January 1974. However, if the procedure regarding the referendum requires a delay, it could take place on 20 March, Independence Day This is what I wanted to proclaim to all the peoples of North Africa. It is our hope to see the people of the
2324:. On 11 April 1950, the letter was written, reminding the French president of the Tunisian requests sent ten months ago and asking for "necessary substantial reforms". At last, the French government reacted, on 10 June, with the designation of Louis Perillier as resident-general, who, according to then-minister for foreign affairs,
1996:, founder of the Destour who had just returned from exile, endorsed the Neo-Destour to strengthen its positions. But his wish was not fulfilled for the elder leader had other prospects about the party, desiring to unify the old Destour with the new. Due to his refusal, Bourguiba decided to react by sabotaging Thaalbi's meetings. In
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several opponents and supporters of Bourguiba that he was no longer acting or thinking rationally; one human rights activist said that his orders would have triggered a civil war. After several doctors attending to Bourguiba issued a report declaring that Bourguiba was mentally incapable of carrying out his duties, Prime Minister
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education in Monastir, his father sent him to Tunis in September 1907, when he was 5, to pursue his studies at the Sadiki primary school. The young boy was profoundly affected by the separation from his mother at that early age. At the time of his arrival, the city was struggling against the protectorate, an early phase of the
3658:, Mohamed Charfi advocated that Bourguiba wanted to reform society "within Islam" and not against it. This transforming society and its modernization was accompanied by an explanation consisting of a modulated action, according to which public Bourguiba addressed. This reformer dimension is nevertheless questioned by author
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3033:, the TGLU chairman, Habib Achour was arrested and replaced at the head of the labour union. Since then, the State-party system and the Bourguiba-Ben Salah conjunction "Plunged Tunisia into a headlong rush and whirlpool outbid that overshadowed elementary realities." Therefore, the first troubles started on 15 December in
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country, in that period, knew a serious political and social crisis, which worsened with the declining economy and the paralysis of the state machinery, spreading uneasiness, despair and loss of confidence. However, during the SPD congress of April 1981, Bourguiba made a historical speech in favor of political pluralism:
3517:, subsequent transformations of the Tunisian society brought by the action of Bourguiba are numerous: urbanization, education, transition to another family model and women's liberation. He also insisted on the part Bourguiba had in reforming the country, alongside other great personalities in Tunisia history, such as
2791:, which taught Islamic knowledge under the supervision of the ministry of Education. Likewise, Koranic schools were, from that moment on, under governmental oversight, the ministry preparing a detailed program and managing them. Furthermore, free education was proclaimed and teachers trained. Bourguiba also started a
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introduce the Tunisian issue in the United Nations. However, due to the refusal of his request by numerous diplomats, he decided to provoke the complaint and force the fight. Upon his return to Tunisia, on 2 January 1952, he hurried to meet the bey and Grand Vizier Chenik, who he urged to introduce the request to the
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1150:. He returned to Tunisia in 1949 and rose to prominence as the leader of the national movement. Although initially committed to peaceful negotiations with the French government, he had an effective role in the armed unrest that started in 1952 when they proved to be unsuccessful. He was arrested and imprisoned on
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trends. When he returned to Tunis, on 8 April 1943, he guaranteed that his 1942 message was transmitted to all the population and its activists. With his position, he stood out from the collaboration of certain activists with the German occupant, settled in Tunisia in November 1942 and escaped the fate of
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will make the cabinet responsible to the President of the Republic but also to the National Assembly which emerged from popular vote. So it shall be lawful for the assembly to impeach a minister or a cabinet by a vote against it . Other modifications of the constitution will ease the responsibilities
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in which Ben Salah saw a conservative caste. On 28 April 1964, Bourguiba demanded the start of negotiations on agricultural lands detained by foreigners. In response, on 2 May, France notified the suspension of its financial aid. Bourguiba, therefore, decided to enact the nationalization of lands, on
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campaign, advocating for women rights including: universal education for girls equally with boys, women admission to employment under the same conditions as men, free consent to marriage and veil removal. Even though, conservatives were strongly opposed to his reforms, the campaign ended to be a huge
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Following independence, proclaimed on 20 March 1956, a National Constituent Assembly was elected, on 25 March, in order to write a constitution. Therefore, Bourguiba ran to represent the constituents of Monastir, as the Neo-Destour candidate. On 8 April, the assembly held its opening session, chaired
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This troubled situation generated an era of civil war. Killings, arbitrary detention, torture in illegal private prisons, fellagas who took up arms against the Tunisian forces, abduction by militias and attacks by local adversaries caused dozens of dead and many injured. Due to this situation, French
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On 14 November, under the pressure of Bourguiba, the Nation Council of Neo-Destour, invited both French and Tunisian government to "find a solution to the fellaghas issue guaranteeing in an explicit way their backup, their personal freedom and that of their families". On 20 November, an agreement was
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Following the uprising in Tunisia, Afro-Asian country members of the UN finally answered the request of Ben Youssef and Badra, introducing the Tunisian case to the Security Council, on 4 February 1952. As for Bourguiba, "it depends on France to make this appeal moot by loyally accepting the principle
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and total independence of Maghreb with the refusal of any concessions with the colonizer. Headed by Khattabi, designated president for life, Bourguiba was secretary-general. However, despite the status of the Moroccan leader, the committee was not as successful as the Office of Arab Maghreb. Obsessed
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while participating in many events held in the city. He also met Syrians, who had just obtained their independence from France, and thus stated that "with the means they dispose, Arab countries should show solidarity with the national liberation struggles of the Maghreb". Even though his efforts were
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The resident-general in Tunisia introduced assimilation reforms by the end of 1936. This statement is the start of uprisings by the beginning of 1937. Viénot, travelling to Tunisia, reacted by declaring that "certain private interests of the French of Tunisia do not necessarily confound with those of
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However, in Tunisia, the Neo-Destour had to face the strong opposition of resident-general Peyrouton who, firstly, endorsed the initiative of the "secessionists", eyeing it as a mean to weaken the nationalist movement, but soon withdrew his support because of the new successful methods adopted by the
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The speeches and determination to act of this new generation of nationalist was greatly welcomed by the Tunisian population which did not hesitate to criticize the "neglect of the Destour leadership to defend their interests". Upon the refusal of the executive committee to organize a special congress
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deepening and the resigned moderation of the nationalists, Bourguiba and his fellow mates reckoned that a good cause would be necessary enough to rebuild the nationalist movement on new basis by choosing new methods of action. In February 1933, when M'hamed Chenik, banker and chairman of the Tunisian
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In the context of colonial oppression, Bourguiba felt the effects of inequality. He spent the next year unemployed. This inequality led him to discuss these matters with both Tunisian and French friends, who agreed with the necessity to start a reform process aiming to get Tunisia to resemble France,
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indicated that Bourguiba's relations with France, also maintained relations, even problematic, with the East. Lacouture testified on Bourguiba's anger when he was proposed "co-sovereignty", back in 1955. It was the struggle for his country's independence, that sparked misunderstandings with the Arab
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and total independence towards the politics of other nearby Arab nations. Step-by-step policy is a major part of Bourguiba's doctrine. Bourguiba thought in this manner mainly because the actions were based on what he considered real possibilities, not aspirations, unlike "the all or nothing" policy,
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then, to Monastir, on 22 October 1988 where he enjoyed medical assistance. He stated being well treated by the new regime. Suffering from numerous health problems, including slurred speech and attention deficits, Bourguiba went through serious diseases during the 1990s. He was, sometimes, visited by
3108:
Constitutionally the first and only responsible, is me, Habib Bourguiba. It is because I am human, therefore subject to error, that I was wrong, I say in all modesty. I apologize for the people and especially the activists who suffered I know they are convinced of my good faith but I was abused by
2729:
With this new start, Tahar Ben Ammar's mission as head of government had ended and therefore, he delivered his resignation to al-Amine bey. Therefore, the Neo-Destour nominated Bourguiba to be their candidate for the office, on 9 April. Bourguiba accepted and was officially invited by the bey, three
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On 13 September, Ben Youssef returned to the country from Cairo. Trying to bring back peace and convince Ben Youssef to reconsider his positions, Bourguiba went to the airport welcoming his "old friend". But his efforts were in vain and peace was short: Ben Youssef did not wait too long to criticize
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After the ratification of the conventions, on 3 June, the consultations aiming to form the first cabinet of the internal autonomy started. However, Bourguiba was not to lead it. Beside the fact that it was too soon for France to have the "Supreme Commander" at the head of the Tunisian government, he
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On 18 August, the negotiations started. Bourguiba was given the right to settle in the hotel where the Tunisian delegation lodged. Thus, he received detailed reports of the delegation talks while he gave them instructions. However, the situation in the country worsened with the pursuing of the armed
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as resident-general, on 23 September 1953. Trying to appease the uprising, he lifted the curfew and newspaper censorship but also freed nationalist leaders. Furthermore, he replaced Baccouche with Mzali and promised new reforms which soon seduced the Tunisian people. Nevertheless, Bourguiba remained
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that "A page of Tunisian history is turned. Schuman's response opens a repression and resistance era, with its inevitable procession of mourning, tears and resentment Exasperated, disappointed, out of patience, the Tunisian people will show the entire world that they are mature enough for freedom".
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His speech quickly attracted the opposition of both the "Preponderants" and the pan-Arab circles who were strongly against his stepwise policy and his collaboration with France. Therefore, Bourguiba felt that an endorsement from the bey was not only necessary, but vital. Thereby, he sent Ben Youssef
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The imbalance in the power forces between the people of Tunisia and those of France eliminates every chance for a popular victory. A French military defeat shall not bring independence because we shall fall under the claws of a new colonialism. Therefore, only the path of a peaceful liberation under
2007:
However, Bourguiba chose moderation regarding the relation with France. Meanwhile, within the party, two factions appeared: The first one, moderate, was led by El Materi, Guiga and Sfar, favoring dialogue while the second one, radical, was directed by the young members, including Nouira, Ben Slimane
1940:
On 10 June, the National Council of Neo-Destour gathered to establish a new policy towards this change in the French government. It ended with the endorsement of the new French policy and elaboration upon a series of feasible requests, to which the Neo-Destour expected a quick resolution. At the end
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During the summer of 1926, Bourguiba returned to Monastir but did not show any interest in political issues in his country. His father died in September and he received a telegram from Mathilde, announcing that she was pregnant. This situation and the parenting responsibility that lay ahead, worried
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Consequently, political democracy in the Western sense was more or less nonexistent. The constitution vested Bourguiba with sweeping—almost dictatorial—powers. Bourguiba himself admitted this when a journalist asked him about Tunisia's political system. Bourguiba replied, "The system? What system?
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in the name of national unity. In this context, congress voted a resolution to exclude Achour, chairman of the TGLU from SPD along with numerous resigning ministers. The congress also tried to impose Nouira by electing him as chairman of the party. After Bourguiba's speech, these decisions were not
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Bourguiba, henceforth, urged the adoption of reforms aiming to restructure both the State organization and the SDP one. Therefore, the party leadership switched from a political office to a high committee. Nevertheless, in the start of August, he announced his will to focus on a social and economic
3022:(SDP) and a central committee was formed including ministers, governors, regional party officers and some high officials. Based on communist party model. Thus, the leadership was no more elected but chosen by the president among the central committee. At the end of congress, to seize control of the
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were founded, despite the remaining presence of French militaries. Bourguiba requested progressive evacuation upon the negotiations that started in July 1956. France did not seem to share his opinion as they wanted to suppress Algerian rebels using Tunisia's military bases. After huge disagreements
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In this context, a congress was held in November 1955 to choose which of the two leaders would have the last word. Though Ben Youssef decided not to attend, Bourguiba ended up winner of the debate and obtained the endorsement of the delegates. Therefore, his opponent was expelled from the party and
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Island but remained strongly firm on his positions, stating that "the solution to the Tunisian problem was simple The first step was to give Tunisia its internal autonomy, the economic, strategic, cultural rights of France in these fields being respected. Now, this a real confrontation". But these
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and saw his popularity increase, thanks to his charisma and oratory skills. Once he had achieved his goals, he reappeared as the leader of the nationalist movement and therefore, decided to travel to France, ready for negotiations. On 12 April 1950, he landed in Paris to raise the Tunisian issue by
2077:
Germany will not win the war and cannot win it. Between the Russian colossi but also the Anglo-Saxons, who hold the seas and whose industrial possibilities are endless, Germany will be crushed as if in the jaws of a irresistible vise The order is given, to you and to the activists, to make contact
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While the party twitched and the newly restored repression had ended with seven death in Bizerte, Bourguiba chose confrontation. On 8 April 1938, an organized demonstration happened peacefully but Bourguiba, convinced that violence was necessary, urged Materi to repeat the demonstrations by saying,
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where they were reluctantly welcomed. Thanks to Ahmed Ayed, a wealthy and respected Ksar Hellal inhabitant, the occasion to explain themselves was given. On 3 January 1934, they gathered with a part of the Ksar Hellal population in his house to clarify the reasons of their conflict with the Destour
1705:
which had as redactional committee the young team joined by Bouhageb and Béchir M'hedhbi. Thus, Bourguiba devoted his first article to budget. Soon disappointed by the resigned moderation of their elders, the young nationalists unleashed and took the defence of the lower classes. Bourguiba, who saw
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Domestically, Prime Minister Mzali emptied Bourguiba's entourage. In July 1985, he replaced presidential ally Allala Laouiti with Mansour Skhiri. He also succeeded in sending away from Carthage, Bourguiba Jr., advisor to the President sacked by his father on 7 January 1986. Aiming to put an end to
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Despite its crisis, the 1970s was a period of economic revival, after the failure of socialism. Under Nouira, the government adopted an economy liberalization policy. Nevertheless, on 26 January 1978, Black Thursday occurred. Following the TGLU invitation to organize a general strike, thousands of
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This day was historic, devoting half a century of struggle marked by the constitution of the Islamic Arab Republic, which is bound to have considerable weight in view of the experiences, executives and wealth at its disposal. We express the hope that Algeria, Mauritania and Morocco will join Libya
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inhabitants revolted and opposed themselves to tractors. The uprising ended up with two deaths and dozens of injured, as the law enforcement forces fired. All around the country, troubles erupted for the same reasons: the refusal of an authoritary collectivization. On 3 August, Ben Salah presented
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to limit Ben Salah's encroachment. This happened on 6 February 1963, Bourguiba proclaimed that the battle against underdevelopment was "a struggle for human dignity and the glory of fatherland In these circumstances, the restriction of freedoms and privileges of private property is needed when it
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While Bourguiba proceeded with his world tour, the situation in Tunisia worsened: The promised reforms were blocked and the negotiations continued in Paris. On 31 October, as prime minister acting in the name of the bey, Chenik delivered officially to Schuman a memorandum summarizing the essential
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officials and gained the attention of American public opinion thanks to the help of Lebanese Cecil Hourana, director of the Arab office of information in New York. Bourguiba, then, was strongly convinced he could bring up the Tunisian case in the international with the help of the five Arab states
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following the burial of a naturalized child by force in a Muslim graveyard. Soon, law enforcement and population started a fight, which led Bourguiba to convince certain Monastirians to choose him as their lawyer. Furthermore, he led them to protest to the bey, on 4 September. The party leadership
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when he returned from exile, Bourguiba being part of the welcoming Sadiki delegation. In addition, the funerals of nationalist leader Bechir Sfar in Jellaz had also impacted him, as he travelled with his father. At school, one of his professors taught him the art of French writing and, indirectly,
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in the south, and on 3 January 1984 a state of emergency was declared after the unrest had spread to Tunis and Sfax. By the time the protests ended on 5 January 1984, more than 150 rioters had been killed. President Bourguiba announced on 6 January 1984 that the increase in the price of bread and
3214:
on 12 September, decided to amend the constitution in order to institute life presidency for Habib Bourguiba, who obtained this title from the National Assembly on 18 March 1975. The constitutional revision added a paragraph to Article 39 specifying that "exceptionally and in consideration of the
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and managed by appointed governors. Bourguiba also pursued negotiations with France in order to have full control over diplomacy, as France still had a say over foreign policy until an agreement was found. Despite that, Bourguiba created a Tunisian minister of Foreign affairs on 3 May and invited
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As Prime minister, Bourguiba worked to secure total independence. Upon his nomination, the police switched from French management to Tunisian command, as he nominated Ismaïl Zouiten to be chief of police and the first Tunisian to hold this office. Meanwhile, French gendarmerie was replaced by the
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Upon the blocking of negotiations with France, Bourguiba was convinced that there was nothing to do and decided to travel around the world, aiming to gain support for the Tunisian struggle. From 1950, even though he continued to negotiate with France, Bourguiba was considering the use of arms and
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and ended with several dead and injured. Even though Bourguiba tried to pacify the atmosphere of tension, his strategy of collaboration with France was contested by the majority of Tunisian leaders who considered it indefensible, mainly after the adoption of deceiving reforms, on 8 February 1951.
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to introduce the main nationalist requests, which he defined in seven points, stating that "these reforms destined to lead us towards independence must reinforce and strengthen the spirit of cooperation We believe that we are a country too weak militarily and too strong strategically to dispense
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In this conjecture, was held the second congress of Neo-Destour in Tribunal Street, Tunis, on 29 October 1937. The voting of a motion regarding the relations with France was in the agenda. The congress represented the fight of the two factions which appeared within the last months. In his speech,
1646:, as a "humiliating affront to the dignity of the Tunisian people to whom he recalls the loss of freedom and independence". Therefore, the leaders of the Destour party gathered in emergency at Orient Hotel, in February 1931, where it was decided to found an endorsing committee to the newspaper of
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to attend psychology and literature classes. Aware that he came to France to "arm himself intellectually against France", he devoted himself to law and to the discovery of French civilization. Bourguiba often participated in political debates, read newspapers and followed closely the evolution of
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about Islam. For Bourguiba, religion, associated to the Destourian party, had historically favored the colonization of Tunisia. On the other hand, Charfi opposed this idea, stating that the undeniable break carried out by Bourguiba occurred more with traditional society than with Islam, as such.
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delegation only a few days after appointing him, and forgot about a decree he had signed to appoint new ministers. Matters came to a head in November 1987, when he ordered new trials for fifteen Islamists and demanded that twelve of them be hanged by the next weekend. This latest order convinced
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The degree of maturity reached by Tunisian people, young people's aspirations and the interest there is to involve all Tunisians in taking decisions, whatever their views are, whether they are inside or outside the party, invites us to say that we see no objection to the emerging of political or
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in Kef. He told him: "The beginning is the union between Algeria and Tunisia. We will do it methodically but firmly we will proceed in stages". Bourguiba, surprised by the proposition, suggested: "Algeria can yield Constantine to restore a better geographical balance between the two countries".
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On 20 December 1962, the government announced the discovery of a conspiracy aiming to overthrow President Bourguiba and assassinate him. It was later discovered that the plot had been prepared by military and some civilians faithful to Ben Youssef. The conspiracy was discovered when a remorseful
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On the second anniversary of his return to Tunisia, on 1 June 1957, Bourguiba wanted to proclaim a Republic system, but the French-Tunisian relation crisis because of the suspension of the financial aid from France, adjourned the event. However, on 22 July, the Neo-Destour leadership invited the
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on 1 November 1954, did not improve the current situation. Indeed, the rage of French politicians, who accused the Tunisian fellaghas to collaborate with the Algerian rebels, slowed the negotiations. The situation worsened on 11 November, when the French government, addressed an ultimatum to the
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by Farhat Hached. Even though elected president of the party, during the Congress of Dar Slim, held clandestinely in Tunis in October 1948, he was now assisted by three vice-presidents whose goal was to limit the power of the president: Hedi Chaker in Tunis, Youssef Rouissi in Damascus and Habib
1928:
where he was visited by the newly settled resident-general who was ready to negotiate with him, aiming to put an end to the conflicts and pursue a new liberal and humane policy. On 22 May, Bourguiba was freed of all charges and had the permission to regain his home in Tunis, alongside his fellow
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in Tunisia. On this occasion, millions of Europeans invaded the capital city and went to the Saint-Lucien de Carthage Cathedral disguised as crusaders which humiliated and revolted the people who protested against what they considered a violation of an Islamic land by Christians. The protesters,
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and Monastir, Bourguiba returned to Paris for the start of the 1925–26 school year, worried about the nationalist struggle in his country. His conditions improved as he moved in the University Campus in Jourdan boulevard, where he lodged in room number 114. The sponsor, Taïeb Radhouane, sent him
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Habib Bourguiba grew up among women, as his brother was in Tunis and his father was elderly. He spent his days with his mother, grandmother and sister, Aïcha and Nejia, which permitted him to notice the casual household chores of women and their inequality with men. After starting his elementary
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began to grow more and more until it disabled economic and social development. The situation worsened with Bourguiba's age, his declining health and his incapacity to manage state issues. Thus, it favored the ascension of an entourage which battled to succeed him, starting a succession war. The
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Everything depended on the personal abilities and moral qualities of leaders. The only limits to their power derived from the requirements of religion. That was for qualification. For tenure length, they were ruling for life. Only death put an end to their term. They could age, become unable to
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While Khattabi favored an armed struggle, Bourguiba was strongly opposed, defending the autonomy of the Tunisian nationalism, which soon divided the Maghrebi committee. His moderate ideas made him infamous among the other members of the committee, whose numbers were increasing day after day. To
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and tried to sensitize him to support the Tunisian nationalist struggle, but in vain. Due to the postponed promises of the people of Middle-East, Bourguiba decided to create an office of Neo-Destour in Cairo. Therefore, he invited Thameur, Rachid Driss, Taïeb Slim, Hédi Saïdi and Hassine Triki,
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All these demands led to a conflict between the French government and the Tunisian nationalist movement. In addition, the party leadership secured the population to be sensitive to their message, thanks to their tours along the country. These tensions led the residence to answer the nationalist
1834:
After the party was founded, the Neo-Destour aimed to strengthen its position among the political movements. The young team faced the resident-general, Marcel Peyrouton, who was dedicated to stopping the nationalist protests in an economic crisis atmosphere, which was an opportunity to seduce a
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In August 1927, Bourguiba who was 26 at the time, returned to Tunisia, with his girlfriend, his son, Habib Jr. but also a deep knowledge of French politics during the Third Republic. His journey in France had influenced his thinking with the liberal values of the social-radical secular country,
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During the time Bourguiba was president, education was a high priority, as he reformed the total educative system and permitted its development. State budget in education did not cease to increase year after year to reach 32% in 1976. Private schools were maintained but submitted to government
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During his premiership, Bourguiba started numerous reforms aiming to modernize Tunisian society and change their mentalities. On 31 May 1956, he abolished beylical privileges, which made royal princes and princesses equal to other citizens and punishable by law. The same day, he suppressed the
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While the Tunisian delegation got back to Tunis upon the blocking of negotiations, Bourguiba remained in Paris where he judged essential to make contacts in this confrontation era. His goals consisted in obtaining funds and arms for the armed struggle but also convince the rest of the world to
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who hoped to use Bourguiba to weaken the French resistance in North Africa. The Italian minister for foreign affairs tried to obtain from him a declaration in their favor. At his return's eve, he accepted to deliver a message to the Tunisian people, via Radio Bari, warning them against all the
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but also the prohibition of Destour activity. However, the French government convinced that Manceron had acted tardily in taking expected measures, replaced him by Marcel Peyrouton on 29 July 1933. Bourguiba deprived of his freedom of speech in this repression atmosphere and trapped inside the
1527:. They moved into another apartment in Bagneux, in the Parisian suburbs. Bourguiba, sick at the time, had to prepare for his final exams, which he sat for a month after the birth of his son. He obtained respectively a bachelor's degree in law and the higher degree of political studies from the
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as head of the French government on 23 February. Faure assured his commitment to pursue the negotiations started by his predecessor. With Faure's promise, it was necessary for the Neo-Destour to bring the two leaders closer and therefore, set forth a strong united nationalist front to France.
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published on 5 June. Meanwhile, the bey remained alone against the resident-general, resisting the pressures to approve reforms, judged "minimal" by the nationalists, which delighted Bourguiba. In the country, despite the unity of the people, De Hauteclocque pressured the adoption of reforms.
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Upon the disinterest of the members of Arab League for Maghrebi struggle, while the war in Palestine was the center of all attention and efforts, the union of different nationalist movements seemed to be the better way to get their requests heard. But soon, divisions appeared among Tunisians,
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The congress, which finished on 2 November, ended by withdrawing its support to the French government and therefore, the confidence the party had granted it for nearly two years. Bourguiba, who helped numerous young people join the leadership, strengthened his position and authority among the
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Meanwhile, in Cairo, the Arab League resigned to inscribe the North African case is its agenda. Furthermore, a congress held by the nationalists of Cairo, from 15 to 22 February 1947 about the case of North Africa, ended with the creation of a Maghrebi office, replacing the representation of
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soon were in conflict with the elders of the party, ending with the exclusion of Guiga, on 17 November 1933 and the resignation of El Materi, M'hamed Bourguiba and Sfar from the executive committee on 7 December 1933. Soon referred to as "rebels", they were joined by Bourguiba and decided to
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defender, Bourguiba based this law on his ideas, emancipating women, despite the then-conservative public opinion. Bourguiba understood the opposition he would face but decided to act, before even building the Republic. Nevertheless, he was supported by some religious personalities, such as
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France did not appreciate the move and reacted with the nomination of Jean de Hauteclocque as new resident-general. Known for his radical hard way, he decided to prohibit the congress of Neo-Destour that should have been held on 18 January and proceeded with the arrest of activists, such as
2331:
In Tunis, Périllier, endorsed by Bourguiba, favoured the constitution of a new Tunisian cabinet, led by M'hamed Chenik with neo-destourian participation to mark the liberal turning decided by France. On 17 August 1950, the cabinet was invested counting among its members three ministers from
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On 15 October, Ben Youssef reacted to the leadership's decision in a meeting organized in Tunis: He declared the party leaders illegal and took the direction of a "general Secretariat" which he proclaimed being the only legitimate leadership of the Neo-Destour. The pan-Arab scholars of
2490:, on 21 May 1952. Settled in an old abandoned fort, he had health problems, caused by humidity and age. In France, the opponents to a Tunisian compromise discredited Bourguiba whom they accuse of preparing the armed struggle while negotiating with their government, in an article of
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undertake a campaign all over the country and explain their political positions to the people. Meanwhile, the elders of the Destour unleashed a propaganda campaign aiming to discredit them. Therefore, the young team visited areas severely affected by the economic crisis, including
1515:. One day in 1925, while tidying his room, Bourguiba found the address of a woman his protector recommended him to meet: Mathilde Lefras, a 35 years old widow whose husband died during the war. He met her for the first time in her apartment, on the first floor of a building in the
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The Bourguiba government's reforms included female emancipation, public education, family planning, a modern, state-run healthcare system, a campaign to improve literacy, administrative, financial and economic organization, suppression of religious property endowments, known as
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as his minister of education. Thus, he put an end to Koranic and westernized double teaching curriculum. Schools were therefore, public and free. Bourguiba also abolished the dual system of justice, ended the influence of religion on the judiciary and established civil courts.
3335:". In addition, Mohamed Toumi declared: "Those that official statements call the unemployed, idle, hostile elements, that is to say victims of bad development are in organic break with everything that makes up the establishment, government and legal opposition mingled".
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was dismissed from his notary duties. He estimated at that moment, that the main goals were political, while other problems of society were secondary. He insisted that Tunisian identity had to be affirmed, declaring: "Let us be what we are before becoming what we will".
2236:, led by Youssef Rouissi, who knew the Syrians well. Nevertheless, progress were slow and Bourguiba's journey in Middle-East ended only with a substantial material assistance on behalf of Saudi Arabia, neither Iraq nor Syria nor Libya wanting to support his cause.
3222:
Economically, the government still managed nearly 80% of the country's economy, which involved it in almost all social conflicts. Indeed, businesses were the place of permanent conflict between the syndicalist cells of the TGLU and the professional cell of SPD.
2934:. During trials, one of the charged under-officer stated that he shall never forgive Bourguiba for "sacrificing them during Bizerte battle". Sentenced to death by the military court, eleven culprits were hanged. Furthermore, the Communist party of Tunisia and
2538:. The new head of government stated upon his designation that he will not "tolerate any hesitation or reluctance in implementing the promises made to people who had confidence in France that had promised to put them in condition to manage their own affairs".
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and inadequate supplies. These circumstances led students to protest, and Bourguiba soon came to participate. He admired Habib Jaouahdou, a student who told others about national struggles beyond the walls of high school. Jaouahdou proposed that they welcome
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The funeral conditions were, however, submitted to the criticism of international media that insisted on the brevity of the ceremony, the few foreign guests and the absence of TV broadcast which transmitted animal ceremonies during the funeral procession.
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We cannot forget that we are Arabs, that we are rooted in the Islamic civilization, as much as we cannot neglect the fact of living in the second part of the 20th century. We want to take part in the march of civilization and take a place deep into our
1634:, and which he considered as a "violation of islamic lands", the young nationalists found it necessary to get involved. With the upcoming preparations for the 50th anniversary celebration of the protectorate and the scheduled visit of French president
3525:. "If underdevelopment were a sickness, then Bourguiba was able to make the right diagnosis and implement effective remedies". However, others question the extent of success in this battle for development and the role Bourguiba had in this evolution.
1462:, where he occupied a room located on the sixth floor for 150 francs per month. Having had some hard times, his problems were resolved as he obtained a scholarship of 1800 francs, payable in two installments, and enrolled in Paris law School, in the
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in 1913, which greatly satisfied his father. Bourguiba avoided military service, and, like his elders, was admitted as an internal in Sadiki College to pursue his secondary studies freely. His mother died in November 1913, when he was 10 years old.
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of the dinar. During the congress of Bizerte, the collectivist strategy was, nevertheless, confirmed with the establishment of the coexistence of three economic sectors (public, private and cooperative). The Neo-Destour was therefore, renamed as
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and also visited his other brother, Ahmed, in Thala where he learned horse riding. He also participated in theatrical activities. Bourguiba rehearsed with his brother, who had a passion for theater and performed on stage. The foundation of the
3180:. During this meeting, the idea of a possible union between Libya and Tunisia was introduced. At the end of the interview, the Tunisian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Mohamed Masmoudi, stated: "The two countries will form a single republic, the
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were unable to prevent the total destruction of the base. Although most of the dead were PLO members, there were casualties among Tunisian civilian bystanders. As a result, Bourguiba significantly downscaled relations with the United States.
2734:, two state ministers, eleven ministers and two secretaries of state. Furthermore, Bourguiba combined the offices of Minister of Foreign Affairs and Defense. Therefore, he became the 20th Head of government of Tunisia and the second of the
1876:, in the south, under military supervision. Meanwhile, the arrests of the mean leaders generated discontent among the population. While Guiga and Sfar tried to pacify them in order to negotiate the release of the imprisoned, Bourguiba and
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Bourguiba had been in ill health from the 1970s onward. As the 1980s wore on, his behavior grew more erratic. He fired the general manager of a major newspaper only 24 hours after appointing him. He also fired the head of the country's
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of Tunis and other large cities, often below the poverty line, joining the rebellion of disadvantaged populations inside the country, have expressed anger more violently and in greater numbers than the events of 26 January 1978. As for
2699:. However, France kept its military base of Bizerte for many years. On 22 March, Bourguiba returned to Tunisia as the great winner and stated that "After a transition period, all french forces must evacuate Tunisia, including Bizerte".
1924:, designated in March whose mission is to reinstate peace. Therefore, he succeeded in putting an end to two years of colonial repression, promoting dialogue and freeing the nationalist detainees on 23 April. Thus, Bourguiba was sent to
3844:. The couple married in August of the same year, after their return to Tunisia. After independence, Mathilde obtained Tunisian citizenship, converted to Islam and adopted the name of Moufida. On 21 July 1961, they ended up divorcing.
1388:. His journey in there, which lasted 21 months from January 1920, was a major turning point in his life. The inhabitants of the city helped him integrate: He learned how to play cards, discussed military strategies, got interested in
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Despite the split-up, the two Bourguibas, El Materi, Guiga and Bahri kept in touch and decided to found their own paper thanks to the aid of pharmacist Ali Bouhajeb. Therefore, on 1 November 1932, was published the first edition of
9444:
1747:
The firm stance of Bourguiba led him to acquire a strong popularity among the nationalist circles. Furthermore, the congress held by the Destour which took place on 12 and 13 May 1933 in Tunis, ended in favor of the young team of
3808:
that the concentration of power in the hands of an only one person, as devoted as he is, has risks", he described the great lines of the institutional reform he considered, back then. It will focus, he announced, on "amendments
2341:
violence to get things done. Therefore, he asked for the help of Ahmed Tlili to create a national resistance committee, with ten regional leaders responsible for the formation of armed groups and arms depot. During his visit to
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François Manceron, eager to put an end to the nationalist issue, achieved to outwit discord between Khairallah, the owner of the paper and the young nationalists. A conflict occurred between both parties about the management of
3026:(TGLU), unique labor union of the country, the SDP decided to create, in all businesses, its own professional cells to compete with the labor ones. The presidential party, therefore, achieved its predominance over the country.
2569:, in October, where he was from that moment lodged. The interview between both men remained secret and ended with Bourguiba's promise to end the unrest in the country. Nevertheless, the beginning of the armed civil uprising in
2163:
was preoccupied mainly by the Palestinian issue, other requests not being their top priority. Therefore, he charged Ben Youssef to start these Franco-Tunisian tensions so that he could attract the attention of the Middle East.
1880:
were for the retention of the unrest. Furthermore, riots occurred along the country, leading the residence to reinforce the repression. Soon, the South gathered a major part of Tunisian political leaders: The two Bourguibas in
1847:
and the ascending of an independent Tunisia "accompanied by a treaty guaranteeing France a preponderance both in the political as well as in the economic field compared to other foreign countries", in an article published in
1317:
The young Habib spent his vacations in Monastir, aiding others with chores. At the end of the holiday season, he returned to Tunis where, after classes, he used to wander around in the streets. On Thursdays, he watched the
1814:
on 2 March 1934. During the event, Bourguiba called the representatives to "choose the men who shall defend in their name the liberation of the country". The congress ended with the founding of a new political party, the
2686:
Convinced that he must act, Bourguiba flew to Paris in February 1956 aiming to persuade the reluctant French authorities to start negotiations for total independence. On 20 March 1956, around 5:40 pm in the
2416:
in building a secular modern state. He then wrote to his son: "I have put a lot of thought into it. We can get to the same results, even better by less drastic means, which reflect more widely the soul of the people".
3306:(IMF). The IMF loan was conditional on government spending cuts and other reforms. The government announced an end to food subsidies on 29 December 1983, causing an immediate rise in the price of bread and flour. The
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However, due to opposition inside the country and abroad, Bourguiba was forced to abandon the project, claiming the unconstitutionality of the referendum. It was in that context that the new congress of SPD, held in
2856:
On 1 June 1959, the constitution was officially adopted. Thus, it was signed by President Bourguiba, during a ceremony held in Bardo. Furthermore, he addressed the nation to recall presciently the Caliphate era:
2804:
was prohibited and equality between fathers and mothers but also between children was part of the law. Bourguiba also reformed the judicial system, suppressing religious courts and initiating governmental ones.
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As for those who set themselves up as defenders of individual liberty, private sector and free business, we say that the plan serves the interests of all. In our situation, only collective action is effective.
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Unlike his Arab counterparts, Bourguiba based his priorities on education and health, to the detriment of the army and defense. Therefore, he established a modern education system, appointing famous writer
2524:
Voizard attempted to bring back peace by pardoning half the 900 Tunisian convicted on 15 May and decided to put an end to the two-year exile of Bourguiba in La Galite. On 20 May 1954, he was transferred to
3331:, "It is a society crisis", he said on 27 January. "Social changes were not accompanied by political changes thus, the breakdown between permanent social changes and political frost is the origin of the
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However, Ben Youssef did not agree with the talks, denouncing any negotiation that would not lead immediately to the independence of the whole Maghrebi people, supported in his position by the Algerians.
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on 26 May 1940. There he shared his cell with Hédi Nouira. Convinced that the war would end with the victory of the Allies, he wrote a letter to Habib Thameur, on 10 August 1942, to define his positions:
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was unified into a bilingual educative system. Since 1956, Bourguiba started to build the foundations of higher education in Tunisia, including the creation of universities and specialized institutes.
3474:, his body was transported on a gun carriage, coated with the national flag and carried by a military vehicle framed by detachments of the Tunisian army. Among the foreign guests were French President
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where he kept a surprising flexibility and freedom of movement. He soon understood De Hautecloque's maneuvers as his desire for Bourguiba to exile himself in nearby Algeria. He was even interviewed by
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League countries, but which will be, on the other hand, better understood by the United States with whom Bourguiba established bonds of trust. As for him, unlike other leaders in the Arab world, the
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Bourguiba. The congress, which was held clandestinely, favored the continuation of the popular unrest. The following repression soon started a greater unrest. Meanwhile, Bourguiba was transferred to
2000:, the fight ended with numerous deaths and injured but Bourguiba succeeded in strengthening his positions and appearing as the unique leader of the nationalist movement, rejecting, once and for all
9430:
2154:
Bourguiba settled in Cairo, Egypt where he was aided by his former monasterial teacher, Mounier-Pillet, who lived in the Egyptian Capital city. There, Bourguiba met numerous personalities, such as
8073:
3104:
On 8 September, a statement announcing the sacking of Ben Salah was made public by the presidency. On 8 June 1970, Bourguiba told the Tunisian people about the failure of this experiment saying:
2211:, under-secretary of State, whom he meets in January 1947. Upon his trip to the United States, Bourguiba concluded that the superpower would support Tunisia in case its case was submitted to the
2020:
Bourguiba tried to balance both trends. Upon reducing the influence of the Destour over the nationalist movement, he strongly defended the progressive emancipation policy which he had advocated:
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in 1934. He became a key figure of the independence movement and was repeatedly arrested by the colonial administration. His involvement in the riots of 9 April 1938 resulted in his exile to
2800:, a major legislation that reorganized families. Therefore, repudiation was replaced with divorce while woman had to consent to their marriages, suppression paternal agreement. In addition,
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Finally, he addressed the United States saying that "Their freedom is a necessary condition for the defense of the free world in the Mediterranean sea and everywhere else to secure peace".
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he had known for 18 years. Together, they adopted a girl named Hajer. Wassila took a larger part in politics over the deteriorating health of her husband, which would give her the title of
2004:
and anti-occidentalism. The split up was, therefore, final between both parties. Fearing attacks, the Destourian party gave up public meetings, using newspapers to respond their opponents.
3551:. It was founded on the political and economic realism which is based on the belief that "no field of life on earth should escape the human power of reason". It also contained elements of
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A fall in the price of oil in late 1983 reduced the revenue of the Tunisian state, which was already struggling to meet rising expenses. President Bourguiba agreed to seek a loan from the
2357:. During his interviews, he urged his interlocuters to introduce the Tunisian issue to the United Nations, recalling his failed attempt to introduce it back in the September 1951 session.
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whose interests were same as those of the Maghrebi nationalists. Thus, he was looking forward to go to the states and benefited from the support of Hooker Doolittle, American consul in
1424:. The group was called the "Sahelian Trio". He often went to libraries and showed interest in history even though, sometimes, he skipped classes, mainly on Friday afternoons, to attend
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bill about the generalization of the cooperative system in agriculture. But Bourguiba, advised by his minister not to sign the bill, refused to do so. The next day, he announced:
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started in September 1914, Bourguiba moved out from his brother's house and settled in the dormitories of Sadiki College. Budgetary restrictions, enacted in order to support the
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Bourguiba multiplied his denunciations of the attempts aiming the Tunisian personality but also the beylical decree system and Europeans' advantages in his numerous articles in
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1992:. Due to the procrastination of the new cabinet, the nationalists resumed to their fight and were active in making their requests a reality. Therefore, Bourguiba wished that
2130:, his future second wife. Bourguiba, who was closely watched, did not feel like resuming the fight. Therefore, he requested the authorization to perform the pilgrimage of
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the creation of a Federation between the Arab states of the region and Israel. In May of that same year, supported by public opinion, he broke off with the Arab League.
1380:. Mohamed lived with an Italian nurse who welcomed young Habib properly and had an important part in his improvement, by "filling in his emotional void", according to
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When he returned to Tunisia, Bourguiba decided to start a campaign to regain control of the party. From November 1949 to March 1950, Bourguiba visited cities such as
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However, this turning failed because of the internal electoral confrontation in the capital city, during parliamentary elections, and, despite the Prime minister,
2717:
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On 21 April 1954, an interview between Faure and Bourguiba aimed to conclude the agreements for the internal autonomy. Hearing the news while participating in the
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strongly repressed, were brought to justice. Some of them had Bourguiba as their lawyer, since he had not participated in the event. He also remained neutral when
360:
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Constituent Assembly members to gather in a special meeting, on 25 July. The sitting started at 9:23 pm in the throne room of Bardo Palace, chaired by
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3079:. Thenceforth, everyone thought he could die at any moment, and, since that very day, Bourguiba would think about his succession. On 5 June, the eruption of the
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by Parliament until the ratification of the Constitution. During his rule, he implemented a strong education system, worked on developing the economy, supported
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stated that "France solemnly recognizes the independence of Tunisia" and signed the Independence protocol along with Tahar Ben Ammar. The clauses put an end to
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from exile revived the movement. Under his impulse, the committee of liberation of North Africa was founded on 5 January 1948. The values of the committee were
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At the end of the afternoon, his body was wrapped in a white shroud, as the tradition wanted it, and carried by Chabiba members, the youth organization of the
3451:
stated that Bourguiba was "One of the Maghreb most influential personalities of the 20th century, which Africa and the entire world can boast". Meanwhile, the
2467:
of internal autonomy of Tunisia". But on 26 March, upon the strong refusal of the bey to discharge Chenik's cabinet, De Hauteclocque placed Chenik, El Materi,
1856:
requests by serious measures of intimidation. The repression unleashed is furthermore violent: Peyrouton forbade all the newspapers still publishing including
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and obtained internal autonomy agreements in exchange for the end of the unrest. Bourguiba returned victorious to Tunis on 1 June 1955, but was challenged by
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opened in July 1951. Thanks to Farhat Hached, Bourguiba obtained an invitation to take part in the event. There, he was invited by American unionists of the
1950:
1868:, on 1 September 1934. On 3 September, the colonial government ordered raids against all nationalist leaders in the country, including both Destours and the
1652:
1843:
young team and their unexpected requests. Indeed, Bourguiba and his fellows from the newly created-party soon showed "more dangerous" demands by asking for
8992:
3430:
To avoid his reinstatement by opponents, Bourguiba was evacuated from Carthage Palace, a few days after 7 November 1987, to be transferred into a house in
2565:
Mendès France, convinced that the current troubled situation threatened his colonial policy, was eager to meet Bourguiba. Therefore, he was transferred to
1643:
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Yet Bourguiba himself made the diagnosis of the dangers of political archaism that threatened the country. On 8 June 1970, after noting that "experience
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Thanks to diplomatic pressure, he obtained from France total evacuation of Tunisian territory except for Bizerte. Three years later, following a deadly
1941:
of the meeting, Bourguiba was sent to Paris to set forth the platform of the party. In France, he became close to such Tunisian nationalist students as
1483:'s process to transform the Indian national Congress into a powerful mass organization. In addition, he showed a great interest in his fellow Tunisian,
3783:
2730:
days after his election as head of the assembly, to form a cabinet. On 15 April, Bourguiba introduced his cabinet including one deputy prime minister,
2253:
by the Palestinian issue, the leaders of the Arab League were refusing to support the Maghrebi issue, whose problems deepened with a financial crisis.
1954:
9266:
3037:: The people protested against the obligation the 147 small farmers had to integrate new cooperatives of fruit trees, that would replace their 80000
2817:. The bey's wealth was, therefore, seized by the government and was used to pay debts. With this changing of regime, Bourguiba was designated acting
2627:
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which led to the team eager to take charge of the paper. However, because of the refusal of Khairallah, they decided to resign from the daily paper.
1564:
1327:
957:
2372:, in January 1950, Bourguiba was more and more convinced that an armed struggle was inevitable. Thus, in Cairo, he charged a group of people called
1060:; 3 August 1903 – 6 April 2000) was a Tunisian lawyer, nationalist leader and statesman who led the country from 1956 to 1957 as the
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1921:
1901:
1438:. In 1923–24, his final year was fundamental as he had a tight contest with another French classmate, in order to obtain a scholarship to study in
6209:
1810:
aiming to change their political orientations and thanks to the support of the population and notables, the "secessionists" decided to hold their
10266:
8855:
3816:
The end of his reign was marked by a war of succession, the weakening of the left and the emergence of the Islamist movement and patrimonialism.
2620:. On his own, he advanced to the bridge, waving his arm raising a large white tissue to greet the crowd. "We were hundreds of millions [
2498:
1974:
1942:
8883:
7998:
3486:. After the burial, President Ben Ali pronounced a eulogy in which he paid a tribute to the "Loyal and devoted fight" of Bourguiba for Tunisia.
3164:, would be in stages, slowly and carefully, and take all the time it would take: 10 years or 100 years The capital of the federation should be
2486:
Aiming to weaken the nationalist movement, De Hautecloque separated Bourguiba and his exile companions. Therefore, he was sent on the island of
1544:, until Mr. Sebault hired him for 600 francs per month, which led Bourguiba to work for him for an additional year to the three mandatory ones.
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Bourguiba, who advocated independence insisting on the maturity of the Tunisian people, ended up judging that his country was not prepared for
2862:
assume power and fall under the influence of surrounding courtiers and creatures. It was a dead end, with no way out. The quarry was organized.
2821:
until a constitution is adopted. Thus, Bourguiba's cabinet was dissolved and a new one was appointed, abolishing the office of Prime minister.
1162:
for the party leader position. Ben Youssef and his supporters disagreed with Bourguiba's "soft" policies and demanded full independence of the
7809:
3392:, who had been appointed to the post only a month earlier, removed Bourguiba from office and assumed the presidency himself in the so-called "
3087:
and shopping avenue of London were looted and burned. On 25 January 1969, ordered to give in to the cooperative all their lands and orchards,
1606:
In the beginning of the 1930s, Habib Bourguiba, feeling the effects of colonial inequalities, decided to join the main political party of the
9351:
7935:
2260:
Even in Tunis, his exile in Middle-East, weakened the Tunisian leader: Apart from the ascending of Moncefism, after the removal and exile of
3626:, ratified on 13 August 1956, a few months after he had taken office, as Prime minister of the Kingdom of Tunisia. Inspired by the views of
2376:
to train people, fundraise and gather weapons. Disappointed in the support promise of Egyptian and Saudi authorities, Bourguiba traveled to
10201:
2915:, Bourguiba's second, about the plan, denounced the plot and gave names. He explained that tanks had to march from L'Aouina barrack to the
7975:
3778:
It is important to specify that, during his conquest and exercise of power, he systematically rejected all his allies who became rivals:
3323:
3052:
During this period, Bourguiba distinguished himself from his Arab counterparts in foreign policy. Twenty years before Egyptian President
2742:
National Guard, on 3 October 1956. Bourguiba also reorganized Tunisia's administrative divisions, creating a modern structure made of 14
1687:
4747:
3238:
protesters, mainly Tunisian youths, gathered near the medina, trading streets of downtown and bourgeois neighbourhoods of Belvédère and
3041:. Following the events, the government proceeded to arrest of ten protesters and the disbandment of party cells that supported farmers.
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with Gaulist French to combine our clandestine action Our support must be unconditional. It is a matter of life and death for Tunisia.
1740:
against the burial of a naturalized in a Muslim cemetery. Bourguiba decided to react and unleash a campaign to support the protests in
872:
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On 16 August, making a speech in Monastir, he denounced "a vast conspiracy which aimed to establish fascism by revolutionary means".
2993:
Therefore, he targeted trade sector: All traditional circuits were broken and replaced by a centralized network of state offices and
1601:
797:
3396:." Starting in a liberal secular atmosphere, Bourguiba's presidency or "reign" ended in a climate of economic and financial crisis.
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intensified, Bourguiba knew that nobody would support his cause as long as there was little tension between France and Tunisia. The
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There, Bourguiba took part in numerous receptions and banquets which was for him an occasion to meet American politicians, such as
1442:. He also benefited from the support of his brother Mahmoud, who promised to send him 50 francs per month. In 1924, he sat for his
10306:
3452:
2758:
Bourguiba also discussed defense issues with France, arguing that French military ought to evacuate the country. On 30 June, the
3662:, who draws attention to the transgressive nature of many of Bourguiba's gestures, particularly in women's status. Furthermore,
3230:
under the pressure of his partners, which had a part in Tunisia welcoming the headquarters of the Arab League then those of the
1744:
which will soon be reprised by numerous nationalist newspapers, denouncing an attempt to Frenchify the "whole Tunisian people".
1563:
that was, liberal, modern and secular. On 8 January 1929, while replacing his brother who could not attend a conference held by
6758:
4551:
Bourguiba's official birthdate is 3 August 1903, though he stated he was likely born a year earlier, in 1902, or possibly 1901.
4052:
2201:
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became a very popular newspaper. Their new reasoning attracted not only the interest of public opinion but also that of French
1206:, and proclaimed a neutral foreign policy, making him an exception among Arab leaders. The main reform that was passed was the
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3802:, the first president of Neo-Destour, who was discredited many times and, losing confidence in Bourguiba, decided to retire.
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After he resigned from the executive committee of Destour, Bourguiba was on his own once again. However, his fellow mates of
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256:
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7539:"Structural Adjustment: Former President Ben Ali's Gift to Tunisia (Part One) Tunisia and the International Monetary Fund"
6583:
6002:
3168:, the spiritual capital of the Muslims for centuries and thus symbolize the return to the past glory of the Islamic world
1920:
In the start of 1936, due to the ineffective policy of Peyrouton, the French government proceeded to his replacement with
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1310:, where his brother, M'hamed, rented a lodging on Korchani Street. As the school year began, his brother enrolled him in
1278:
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4159:
3859:(Venerable). The couple divorced on 11 August 1986, with a mere statement and without any respected legal proceedings.
2891:
and set the basis of a new modern state. In March 1964, he made the point by drinking openly on television, a glass of
8942:
1736:, which was a popular case among the nationalists during the 1920s reappeared, in the start of 1933, with protests in
1578:
The year 1930 was the peak of French colonization in North Africa, which led France to celebrate the centenary of the
751:
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La politique musulmane de la France au XXe siècle. De l'Hexagone aux terres d'Islam : espoirs, réussites, échecs
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In order to heal, Bourguiba spent nearly two years living with older brother Mohamed, medic at the local hospital of
1253:
in a residence in Monastir. He remained there until his death and was buried in a mausoleum he had previously built.
1207:
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855:
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3184:, with a single constitution, one flag, one president, one army and the same executive, legislative and judicial. A
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Habib Bourguiba led Tunisia to independence, and founded the second civil republic in the Arab world after that of
943:
2711:
Transfer of power between outgoing Prime minister, Tahar Ben Ammar and designated Prime minister, Habib Bourguiba.
2451:. On 13 January, Salah Ben Youssef and Hamadi Badra flew to Paris, where they intended to desposit the complaint.
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We have reached the limits of the cooperative system. It is valid to a degree beyond which the balance is broken.
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2110:. He was greatly welcomed in Rome, alongside Ben Youssef and Ben Slimane, in January 1943, upon the request of
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442:
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3510:. He then implemented a series of "Tunisification" policies to bring forward the building of a nation-state.
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3296:
3068:, on 3 March 1965 that "the policy of all or nothing had only led Palestine to defeat". He also proposed the
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Nevertheless, the negotiations for the internal autonomy were not unanimous: On 31 December 1954, while in
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in 1927 and returned to Tunis to practice law. In the early 1930s, he became involved in anti-colonial and
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Triumphant return of Bourguiba, riding his horse, Najjarine, through the streets of Tunis on 1 June 1955.
3899:
Grand Master & Grand Collar of the Order of Independence (automatic upon taking presidential office)
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comes to make it more productive use and more profitable for the community". In June, during a visit to
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was formed to negotiate with the French authorities. Four members of Neo-Destour were made ministers.
1412:
with the help of the new teacher that taught him. He obtained excellent results and ended up choosing
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which periodically affected him for five years. Locked in the Carthage palace, he hardly had visits.
3152:, on 20 September, Bourguiba made a statement, sharing his thoughts about any further union project:
1446:
and obtained outstanding marks with honours. At the end of exams, Bourguiba embarked on an old boat,
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51:, as article suffers frequent nonsense grammar and may suffer political bias as alleged on Talk page.
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17:
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Bourguiba was very critical of the veil, on various occasions referring to it as "that odious rag".
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supporters of Ben Youssef. The conflict ended in favor of Bourguiba with the Sfax Congress of 1955.
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Island for two years, before being exiled in France. There, he led negotiations with Prime Minister
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agenda, insisting on justice for the victims of collectivism and thus, put political issues aside.
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by M'hamed Chenik while Al-Amine bey attended the ceremony. The same day, Bourguiba was elected as
2660:
1869:
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3730:, he became its active ambassador especially during his tour in Africa, back in 1965. As for him,
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Thanks to the originality with which Bourguiba, Sfar, Guiga and El Materi addressed the problems,
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in Bizerte, negotiations ended with the French evacuation of Tunisian lands, on 15 October 1963.
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191:
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Tunisian government, announcing that the talks would stop until the unrest in Tunisia was over.
2531:
2501:. Bourguiba, deprived of posts and newspapers called for the intensification of the resistance.
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with whom he settled. During summer vacations back in Tunis, he learned that she was pregnant:
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am the system." In this context, Bourguiba's party became an "alibi in an ideological desert".
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1930:
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Bizerte, otage de l'histoire : De la Seconde Guerre mondiale aux indépendances du Maghreb
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Bourguiba had developed his own doctrine that he called "Bourguibism" but which is similar to
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2899:, published by a Lebanese newspaper, started sharp criticism in the Muslim World and in 1974
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A widespread, popular and violent revolution which will put an end to the protectorate ;
1966:
1638:, the young nationalists decided to act. Bourguiba denounced the rejoicing, in the newspaper
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Following the country's independence in 1956, Bourguiba was appointed prime minister by king
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President Bourguiba and Prime Minister Hedi Nouira during the 1974 SDP congress of Monastir.
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mobilizing public opinion, media and politicians. Three days later, he gave a conference in
2134:. This surprising request was refused by the French authorities. He then decided to flee in
1656:, which switched from weekly to daily and had among its editors the young nationalist team.
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9974:
9798:
9694:
9662:
9502:
8864:
8651:
8114:
4352:
4284:
3708:
3579:
3448:
3343:
3307:
2818:
2497:
Therefore, many assassinations took place: Farhat Hached is murdered on 5 December 1952 by
2480:
2422:
2168:
1844:
1811:
1779:
1627:
1583:
1398:
1199:
1069:
900:
895:
863:
836:
594:
114:
57:
7921:
3779:
3594:
In reality, it permitted Bourguiba to enjoy a freedom of action that led him to political
3318:
This spectacular turn of events raised the enthusiasm of the country. Paul Balta wrote in
3188:
will be organized on 18 January 1974". At the airport, Bourguiba declared to journalists:
2123:, accusing him of collaboration. Bourguiba was freed by the Free French Force on 23 June.
1993:
1836:
1357:
8:
9750:
9678:
9638:
9566:
9470:
9303:
8655:
4423:
3837:
3564:
2900:
2843:
2626:] coming to cheer him, interminably in a huge frenzy", testified his former minister
2468:
1524:
1463:
1223:
1211:
1108:
651:
466:
53:
6766:
3598:, allowing him to impose not only breakthrough changes but also spectacular turnabouts.
2107:
1988:
In June, the resigning Blum Cabinet was replaced by the third Chautemps Cabinet, led by
1912:
1659:
10256:
9982:
9966:
9934:
9582:
9494:
9380:
9367:
9340:
9064:
8559:
8309:
8304:
8278:
7794:
4230:
3751:
3243:
3227:
3141:
3061:
2735:
2594:
2220:
1459:
1227:
1065:
719:
661:
10145:
1830:, on 25 April 1934 attending the creation of the first unit of Neo-Destour in the city
1709:
9942:
9902:
9558:
9452:
9374:
9272:
9070:
9028:
8918:
8481:
8471:
8392:
8342:
8334:
8320:
8290:
8145:
8126:
8016:
7636:
7602:
7591:
7083:
6210:"Fiftieth anniversary of independence. The recall of a specific epic Tunisian people"
4370:
4195:
3962:
3848:
3799:
3787:
3631:
3518:
3424:
3413:
3363:
the serious economic crisis, Bourguiba replaced Mzali and appointed his replacement,
3282:
3211:
3156:
The creation of the United States of North Africa including Tunisia, Libya, Algeria,
3144:
3030:
3007:
2973:
2923:
2904:
2784:
2707:
2240:
Moroccan and Algerians, preventing common agreements. On 31 May 1947, the arrival of
2127:
1989:
1877:
1761:
1623:
1484:
1472:
1381:
1273:
1234:
1159:
1088:
553:
438:
9278:
9052:
8970:
3659:
3048:
President Bourguiba with Egyptian President Nasser and Algerian President Ben Bella.
1416:
section, after passing the first part of baccalaureate. He also became friends with
9950:
9862:
9598:
9486:
9360:
8924:
8379:
8110:
7863:
Camau, Michel (21 October 2011). "Habib Bourguiba in power, the march of history".
4414:
4142:
4034:
3833:
3712:
3648:
3622:
In his social agenda, Bourguiba advocated for women's rights. Thus, he enacted the
2927:
2888:
2692:
2630:. On 3 June, the internal autonomy conventions were signed by Ben Ammar and Faure,
2504:
In these conditions, the French government decided to replace De Hauteclocque with
2364:
Bourguiba and Hached took part in the congress of the American Federation of Labor.
2346:
2290:
Hached and Ben Youssef welcoming Bourguiba in 1949 when he returned to the country.
2224:
2111:
1728:
1178:
976:
526:
7750:
3443:
On 5 March 2000, Bourguiba was rushed to the Tunis military hospital, following a
3379:, whom he appointed interior minister in 1986 and prime minister in October 1987.
2308:
2011:
10098:
10030:
9910:
9782:
9542:
9312:
9254:
9112:
8912:
8547:
7940:
4453:
La Tunisie et la France : vingt-cinq ans de lutte pour une coopération libre
4419:
4410:
4401:
3791:
3731:
3614:
3173:
2954:
2916:
2875:
2868:
2792:
2688:
2566:
2555:
2448:
2369:
1970:
1323:
1307:
1215:
1203:
1041:
234:
6872:
5314:
Histoire du mouvement national tunisien, 9 avril 1938 : le procès Bourguiba
3419:
3044:
1443:
10086:
10038:
9830:
9814:
9734:
9718:
9702:
9614:
9242:
9222:
9106:
9100:
9034:
8833:
8537:
7746:"Tunisie. Le décès du père de l'indépendance. Bourguiba. La mort après l'oubli"
6006:
4428:
4366:
3703:
3667:
3514:
3475:
3384:
3332:
3328:
3069:
3053:
2850:
2810:
2768:
2752:
2676:
2547:
2505:
2325:
2321:
2268:, the party restructured around Ben Youssef with the help of the newly created
2212:
2099:
2095:
2034:
A pacific stepwise solution, with the help of France and under its supervision.
1760:
On 8 August, the occasion to express his views arrived when incidents began in
1401:. He expressed his will to pursue his secondary studies and thus, study law in
1311:
1303:
1299:
1289:
Ali Bourguiba surrounded by his sons Mohamed, Ahmed, M'hamed, Mahmoud and Habib
1171:
1092:
880:
406:
149:
2286:
1946:
1330:
that followed influenced his nascent political opinions. Bourguiba earned his
636:
145:
10175:
10074:
9806:
9774:
9766:
9606:
9550:
9284:
9130:
9124:
9082:
9076:
8906:
8744:
8399:
8220:
7790:"Habib Bourguiba, Independence Champion and President of Tunisia, Dies at 96"
7774:
6846:
4978:
4248:
3795:
3560:
3483:
3479:
3287:
3278:
3239:
3038:
2946:
2772:
2764:
2389:
2360:
2299:
2197:
2173:
2120:
1385:
1285:
3867:
3002:
12 May. However, peasantry did not want to integrate such a system. Indeed,
2813:. In the afternoon, the Republic was proclaimed, abolishing a 252 years old
2516:
2049:
1450:, in order to pursue his studies in France and discover the colonial power.
99:
9926:
9622:
9534:
9478:
9291:
9118:
9058:
9022:
8629:
8569:
7159:, n° 307–311, éd. Groupe Jeune Afrique pour DIFCOM, Paris, 2000, p. 50
4102:
3727:
3719:
3627:
3522:
3346:
against the Palestine Liberation Organization headquarters near Tunis. The
3125:
3076:
2931:
2912:
2892:
2731:
2696:
2667:, who was seduced by the leader's charisma and decided to rally his cause.
2392:
in September 1951. Between July and September, he travelled to London then
2208:
2155:
2103:
2061:
1978:
1588:
1425:
1352:
1250:
1175:
1132:
353:
246:
141:
2396:. His journey in the United States ended in mid-October before he flew to
1547:
932:
35:
9990:
9654:
9646:
9574:
9319:
9260:
9094:
9088:
9040:
8489:
8460:
8316:
7187:
4066:
4012:
3852:
3695:
3663:
3595:
3556:
3539:
3534:
3444:
3364:
3264:
3134:
3133:
The socialist era being over, the government was in the hands of liberal
3080:
3014:
3003:
2994:
2617:
2608:
On 1 June 1955, Bourguiba returned triumphant to Tunisia on board of the
2586:
2249:
2181:
2160:
2001:
1982:
1962:
1886:
1816:
1798:
1635:
1615:
1528:
1508:
1458:
When he arrived in Paris, Bourguiba settled in Saint-Séverin hotel, near
1430:
1421:
1409:
1344:
1238:
1167:
1147:
1124:
1112:
831:
785:
501:
153:
10093:
7884:
3281:'s efforts. Therefore, the war of succession worsened. In this context,
3201:
2941:
2646:
2634:
and the French minister for Tunisian and Moroccan affairs, Pierre July.
1890:
10046:
9838:
9742:
9630:
9526:
8930:
8639:
4173:
3872:
3583:
3548:
3456:
3185:
3161:
3093:
2631:
2261:
2177:
2116:
1619:
1476:
1417:
1413:
1377:
1348:
646:
7976:"Une expérience réussie : le bilinguisme franco-arabe en Tunisie"
7632:
The Making of the Tunisian Revolution: Contexts, Architects, Prospects
6102:
6100:
6098:
6073:
6071:
6069:
6067:
5425:
5423:
2702:
2546:
On 21 July, Bourguiba was transferred into The Château de La Ferté in
2520:
Bourguiba transferred from La Galite Island to Groix Island in France.
1245:. On 7 November 1987 he was removed from power by his prime minister,
850:
9790:
6444:
Histoire de la Tunisie contemporaine. De Ferry à Bourguiba. 1881–1956
5716:
5714:
5712:
5649:
5647:
4503:, ed. Publications du secrétariat d’État à l’Information, Tunis, 1977
4497:, ed. Publications du secrétariat d’État à l’Information, Tunis, 1974
4485:, ed. Publications du secrétariat d’État à l’Information, Tunis, 1966
4479:, ed. Publications du secrétariat d’État à l’Information, Tunis, 1965
4473:, ed. Publications du secrétariat d’État à l’Information, Tunis, 1962
4467:, ed. Publications du secrétariat d’État à l’Information, Tunis, 1960
3743:
3409:
3354:
3088:
2958:
2613:
2492:
2487:
2401:
2393:
2350:
2082:
2069:
2065:
1934:
1882:
1468:
1467:
French politics during the Third Republic. Sensitive to the ideas of
1435:
1151:
1128:
3824:
3459:, paid a tribute to "the man of peace" and to "the architect of the
2883:
In February 1961, he invited his fellow citizens not to fast during
2434:
2031:
A french military defeat during a war against another country ;
1973:. There, he met numerous Arab nationalist representatives including
1953:. Furthermore, he met under-secretary of state for foreign affairs,
1806:
and specify their conception of national struggle for emancipation.
1314:
where the superintendent described him as "turbulent but studious".
10287:
Honorary grand commanders of the Order of the Defender of the Realm
8225:
Histoire générale de la Tunisie, L'Époque contemporaine (1881–1956)
7814:
7718:
7108:
6095:
6064:
5420:
5410:
5408:
5284:
5282:
4155:
3976:
3765:
3640:
3575:
3552:
3372:
3368:
3311:
3165:
2896:
2814:
2801:
2664:
2600:
2510:
2342:
2312:
with the help of a great power, which we would want to be France".
2233:
1784:
1631:
1242:
1195:
1190:
6741:
6739:
6521:
6519:
6470:
6468:
6466:
6329:
6327:
6143:
6141:
6139:
6124:
5709:
5644:
5632:
5159:"Fourth interview given by president Bourguiba on 9 November 1973"
3582:, incorporating the fight against the Ottomans and the French, of
3263:
In that context, the 1980s started in Tunisia with a deep crisis.
3250:
3006:
weakened governmental ideology: While certain unities remained in
1773:
1233:
The end of his 30-year rule was marked by his declining health, a
9202:
9005:
8868:
8433:
7714:"Tunisie. L'ancien président Bourguiba a été installé à Monastir"
5676:
5674:
5574:
5572:
5321:
4262:
4208:
4191:
4120:
3940:
3893:
3644:
3568:
3507:
3194:
3157:
3065:
3029:
In July 1965, following an accident on a ship connecting Sfax to
2884:
2842:
On 8 February 1958, the French army bombed the border village of
2570:
2456:
2354:
2295:
2189:
2185:
2142:
borders, disguised in a caravan, on 23 March 1945 and arrived in
1822:
1802:
1737:
1611:
1541:
1490:
1394:
1163:
1120:
508:
7961:
Tunisia Since Independence: The Dynamics of One-party Government
7842:"Funeral oration delivered by President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali"
7513:"29 décembre 1983: Déclenchement des émeutes du pain en Tunisie"
7231:
La notion de démocratie dans la pensée des dirigeants maghrébins
6296:
5927:
Sur les routes de l'Histoire. Cinquante ans au service de l'État
5405:
5279:
5243:
4997:
4995:
4993:
4930:
4869:
4867:
4707:
4705:
2024:
Independence can happen only according to three formulas :
1827:
1819:, presided by El Materi, and Bourguiba was designated chairman.
6891:"Signatures of the Franco-Tunisian agreement protocol in Paris"
6821:
6736:
6724:
6700:
6688:
6676:
6625:
6516:
6463:
6399:
6324:
6284:
6248:
6236:
6136:
6052:
5970:
5906:
5894:
5882:
5471:
5393:
5357:
4334:
4316:
4084:
3502:
Habib Bourguiba's Identity card (Bourguiba's Museum, Monastir).
3431:
3339:
3057:
3034:
2998:
2780:
2582:
2534:
on 18 June, six weeks after the defeat of French forces in the
2476:
2472:
2409:
2333:
2219:, signed by France and which stipulated the right of nation to
1997:
1925:
1894:
1873:
1499:
1402:
1373:
1077:
671:
7162:
6985:
6973:
5870:
5858:
5822:
5810:
5671:
5584:
5569:
5483:
3832:
In 1925, while he was a student in Paris, Habib Bourguiba met
3498:
3056:, he favored the normalization of relations with the State of
2720:
and gave a speech, summarizing his ambitions for the country:
991:
982:
10104:
9200:
5447:
5381:
5345:
5267:
5255:
5139:
5115:
5091:
5067:
5055:
5043:
5019:
5007:
4990:
4879:
4864:
4852:
4840:
4816:
4804:
4792:
4780:
4768:
4756:
4729:
4717:
4702:
4690:
4678:
4666:
4654:
4298:
4280:
4226:
4138:
4048:
3994:
3958:
3841:
3798:, who represented the liberal faction among his party ;
3734:
and francophonie competed to build an opened modern Tunisia.
3587:
3247:
published but were announced only one on the National Radio.
3177:
3116:
2966:
2680:
2526:
2397:
2377:
2245:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
1439:
1397:
party while he was in Kef, increased Bourguiba's interest in
1143:
1139:
1100:
1035:
7467:
7465:
6637:
4642:
4630:
4606:
4594:
4582:
4570:
4558:
3255:
3129:
Official picture of Bourguiba's cabinet, in the early 1970s.
3013:
On 30 September, the first five-year plan ended up with 25%
2895:, during the day. His position on fasting and his speech on
1907:
1210:
which implemented a modern society. He established a strong
7438:
7380:
7378:
7353:
7351:
7243:
7241:
7200:
7198:
7033:
7021:
7009:
6997:
6961:
6949:
6937:
6925:
6351:
5559:
5557:
5555:
5553:
5551:
4244:
4030:
3608:
3367:, on 8 July 1986. These endless crises favored the rise of
3358:
President Bourguiba alongside Prime minister Mohamed Mzali.
3197:
follow our example to form a powerful and robust community.
2982:
2950:
President Bourguiba and Ben Salah during a meeting in 1963.
2438:
Bourguiba delivered a speech in Bizerte on 13 January 1952.
2405:
2303:
2196:, on 18 November. On 2 December 1946, Bourguiba arrived in
2091:
1757:
Destour moderate policy, aspired to get his autonomy back.
1534:
1302:. Meanwhile, Habib settled in the wealthy neighbourhood of
1072:(1957–1987). Prior to his presidency, he led the nation to
997:
694:
8404:
6785:
6773:
6555:
5195:
3083:
started riots in Tunis: the American Cultural Center, the
1788:
Members of the first leading committee of the Neo-Destour.
1376:
who also happened to be a strong modernist and advocating
10312:
Recipients of orders, decorations, and medals of Ethiopia
8683:
8252:
Le ministère Chenik à la poursuite de l'autonomie interne
7668:
7656:
7489:
7477:
7462:
7450:
7426:
7414:
7402:
7390:
6654:
6652:
6451:
6018:
6016:
3618:
Wives of Tunisian personalities greeting Habib Bourguiba.
2622:
2119:, dethroned with the liberation, in May 1943, by general
1961:
France". Meanwhile, Bourguiba went to Paris, and then to
1663:
Portrait of Habib Bourguiba in the beginning of the 1930s
1319:
988:
8213:
Résidents généraux de France en Tunisie... ces mal aimés
7375:
7363:
7348:
7336:
7324:
7312:
7277:
7265:
7253:
7238:
7210:
7195:
7057:
6913:
6901:
6809:
6721:, éd. Rombaldi / Paris Match, 1970, vol. 12, p. 161
6543:
6504:
5596:
5548:
3010:, other ended up acquiring more workers than necessary.
1226:
also developed around him, before he proclaimed himself
6411:
6375:
6363:
6260:
6165:
6153:
6112:
6083:
5945:
5846:
5834:
5798:
5786:
5762:
5750:
5738:
5526:
5524:
5522:
5495:
5459:
5435:
5369:
5316:(in French), Tunis: National Documentation Centre, 1970
5103:
4920:
4918:
2829:
2276:
1768:
813:
801:
6797:
6664:
6649:
6615:"Signature of the Franco-Tunisian convention in Paris"
6492:
6480:
6387:
6224:
6040:
6028:
6013:
5982:
5774:
5659:
5536:
5127:
2281:
1916:
Bourguiba in 1936 when he returned from Bordj Le Boeuf
1900:
On 3 April 1935, all the deported were transferred to
1338:
10058:
9000:
7045:
6531:
6423:
6339:
6272:
6189:
6177:
5726:
3790:, supported by Nasser, whom he assassinated in 1961.
3786:, who represented the bourgeoise faction of Destour;
2942:
1960s: Socialist experiment and Arab diplomacy issues
2783:, deeply rooted in Islamic traditions. He also ended
2650:
Bourguiba welcoming Salah Ben Youssef, at his return.
1015:
8243:
Tunisie. Les chemins vers l'indépendance (1945–1956)
8053:
Citations choisies par l'agence Tunis Afrique Presse
5620:
5608:
5519:
5507:
5333:
5294:
5219:"Fifth conference held by President Habib Bourguiba"
5183:
5079:
5031:
4971:
4915:
4903:
4891:
4828:
4491:, ed. Centre de documentation nationale, Tunis, 1970
4355: : Collar of the Order of the Federation (1973)
2149:
1595:
1138:
In 1945, following Bourguiba's release, he moved to
1055:
994:
979:
809:
8071:
4618:
2957:, rising star of the government and supporter of a
2703:
1956–1957: Prime minister of the Kingdom of Tunisia
2167:Bourguiba pursued his efforts. Furthermore, he met
985:
8308:
8158:
7590:
6130:
5327:
4936:
3574:Considered in several respects a local variant of
3375:. He sought support against Islamism from General
3172:In January 1974, Bourguiba met with Libyan leader
2976:, on 12 April 1962, was a missed occasion for the
2796:success. On 13 August 1956, Bourguiba enacted the
2513:decided to resume the attacks in the countryside.
2463:and was visited by Hédi Nouira and Farhat Hached.
2086:Bourguiba and his fellow detainees in Rome in 1943
1408:In high school, Bourguiba achieved high grades in
1113:Paris Institute of Political Studies (Sciences Po)
8393:Leaders of Tunisia – Ministers of Foreign Affairs
8204:Mahmoud El Materi, pionnier de la Tunisie moderne
7075:
6319:(in French), Levallois-Perret: Studyrama Editions
5946:Lacoste, Yves; Lacoste-Dujardin, Camille (1991),
2838:Bourguiba signed the constitution on 1 June 1959.
10173:
8863:
8201:
6302:
5692:
5477:
5429:
5399:
5363:
5216:
2382:International Confederation of Free Trade Unions
8109:
8013:Arab Elites: Negotiating the Politics of Change
7973:
7958:
7882:
7593:Islam, Democracy, and the State in North Africa
7564:"Curfew Imposed Across Tunisia as Riots Spread"
7076:Abis, Sébastien; Cordier-Féron, Damien (2011),
6827:
6745:
6730:
6706:
6694:
6682:
6631:
6573:
6525:
6474:
6405:
6333:
6290:
6254:
6242:
6207:
6147:
6106:
6077:
6058:
5976:
5941:
5939:
5937:
5912:
5900:
5888:
5876:
5864:
5828:
5816:
5720:
5680:
5653:
5638:
5590:
5578:
5489:
5453:
5414:
5387:
5351:
5288:
5273:
5261:
5249:
5145:
5121:
5097:
5073:
5061:
5049:
5025:
5013:
5001:
4885:
4873:
4858:
4846:
4822:
4810:
4798:
4786:
4774:
4762:
4735:
4723:
4711:
4696:
4684:
4672:
4660:
4648:
4636:
4612:
4600:
4588:
4576:
4564:
3666:mentioned a conversation between Bourguiba and
3251:1980s: Succession of crises and fall from power
3226:In 1978, Bourguiba was obliged to denounce the
3109:a man who wielded lies with diabolical address.
2541:
1774:Founding of Neo-Destour and colonial repression
8576:(as Prime Minister of the Republic of Tunisia)
8270:Et la Tunisie devint indépendante… (1951–1957)
8227:(in French). Vol. 5. Tunis: Sud Editions.
5212:
5210:
4750:Francophonie of « founding fathers »
4051: : Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the
3840:, his only child, was born on 9 April 1927 in
3828:Bourguiba with Mathilde and Habib Jr. in 1956.
3794:who ratified the independence protocol ;
3310:started that day in the semi-desert region of
2997:. He specifically aimed the trade provided by
2552:Direction centrale des renseignements généraux
2388:(AFL) to their gathering, which took place in
1614:, alongside his brother M'hamed and his mates
1084:and earning the title of "Supreme Combatant".
10317:Recipients of the Order of Al-Hussein bin Ali
10297:Heads of government who were later imprisoned
10207:Collars of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
9438:
9352:Assembly of the Representatives of the People
9186:
8986:
8849:
7862:
7133:
7131:
6759:"Franco-Tunisian relation until independence"
4967:
4965:
3678:regulations. In 1958, the Arabic teaching of
3611:, and building the country's infrastructure.
3148:During an interview with the Egyptian weekly
951:
8663:Interim: 25 July 1957 – 8 November 1959
8333:
8276:
7168:
7039:
7027:
7015:
7003:
6991:
6979:
6967:
6955:
6943:
6931:
6643:
6576:"June 1, 1955: Bourguiba returns from exile"
6308:
5934:
4963:
4961:
4959:
4957:
4955:
4953:
4951:
4949:
4947:
4945:
3879:
2938:magazine, close to that party, were banned.
2718:Speaker of the National Constituent Assembly
2471:and Mohamed Ben Salem under house arrest in
2188:, and covertly passed the borders to get to
1551:Picture of Bourguiba, lawyer in Bab Souika,
1453:
361:Speaker of the National Constituent Assembly
9869:2021: Raja Muhammad Alias Raja Muhammad Ali
8272:(in French). Paris: Jeune Afrique Editions.
8067:
8065:
8063:
7885:"Habib Bourguiba ou la modernité inachevée"
7878:
7876:
7874:
7767:
6839:
6833:
6000:
5965:(in French), Paris: Robert Laffont Editions
5207:
5151:
4369: : Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the
3913:(automatic upon taking presidential office)
3906:(automatic upon taking presidential office)
3651:to 17 years old, expanding women's rights.
3060:. During his visit to Middle-East, defying
2015:Congress of Tribunal Street in October 1937
1166:. This resulted in a civil war that pitted
9445:
9431:
9193:
9179:
9155:
8993:
8979:
8955:
8856:
8842:
8215:(in French). Carthage: Narration Editions.
8170:(in French). Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose.
7152:
7150:
7128:
7082:(in French), Paris: L'Harmattan Editions,
5950:(in French), Paris: La Découverte Editions
3862:
3769:Bourguiba sitting at his desk in Carthage.
3117:1970s: Blocked reforms and health problems
2961:economic policy, was protected from other
2691:, the French minister of foreign affairs,
2064:, Bourguiba was transferred on board of a
2055:
1872:. Bourguiba was arrested and then sent to
1626:. Revolted by the festivities of the 30th
1494:Bourguiba wearing his lawyer dress in 1927
958:
944:
913:
805:
98:
9455:Order of Loyalty to the Crown of Malaysia
9392:National Council of Regions and Districts
8311:Les trois décennies Bourguiba. Témoignage
8303:
8245:(in French). Paris: L'Harmattan Editions.
8240:
8174:
8094:, Paris: Jeune Afrique n° 1973–1981, 1998
8050:
7763:
7761:
7674:
7662:
7495:
7483:
7471:
7456:
7444:
7432:
7420:
7408:
7396:
7384:
7369:
7357:
7342:
7330:
7318:
7283:
7271:
7259:
7247:
7216:
7204:
7137:
7063:
6919:
6907:
6815:
6596:
6457:
5960:
5852:
5840:
5804:
5792:
5768:
5756:
5744:
5602:
5563:
5501:
5375:
5109:
4942:
4395:
2879:President Bourguiba visiting a classroom.
1908:From negotiation attempt to confrontation
1602:Early political career of Habib Bourguiba
8761:Youngest President at the start of term
8210:
8144:(in French). Paris: Éditions du Jaguar.
8060:
7871:
7506:
7504:
7142:(in French), Paris: L'Harmattan Editions
6601:(in French), Paris: L'Harmattan Editions
6446:(in French), Paris: L'Harmattan Editions
6314:
5963:La conquête de l'indépendance tunisienne
5918:
5465:
5441:
4339:Order of the State of Republic of Turkey
4158: : Honorary Grand Commander of the
3866:
3823:
3764:
3689:
3613:
3538:
3497:
3418:
3403:
3399:
3353:
3254:
3200:
3124:
3043:
2945:
2874:
2833:
2824:
2706:
2645:
2641:
2599:
2515:
2433:
2359:
2285:
2081:
2010:
1911:
1821:
1783:
1708:
1658:
1546:
1535:Early adult life and professional career
1507:, the registration fees to register for
1489:
1363:
1284:
1256:
1230:in 1975, during his fourth 5-year term.
1198:on 25 July 1957. He was elected interim
8498:27 October 1948 – 7 November 1987
8283:Habib Bourguiba. La trace et l'héritage
8249:
8219:
8206:(in French). Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
8183:
8010:
7908:
7906:
7904:
7902:
7900:
7898:
7686:
7635:. Oxford University Press. p. 11.
7588:
7294:
7292:
7147:
6862:"Original proclamation of independence"
6417:
6381:
6369:
6357:
6266:
6201:
6171:
6159:
6118:
6089:
6046:
6034:
5994:
5988:
5780:
5665:
5542:
5201:
5133:
4752:, éd. Karthala, Paris, 2008, p. 14
4547:
4545:
4531:
3909:Grand Master & Grand Cordon of the
3902:Grand Master & Grand Collar of the
3694:The Bourguibas and the Kennedys at the
3453:Secretary-General of the United Nations
3322:on 10 January: "The inhabitants of the
2763:between both governments, the visit of
1326:of 1911 and the resulting execution of
127:25 July 1957 – 7 November 1987
14:
10267:Socialist Destourian Party politicians
10174:
8811:Youngest President at the end of term
8736:Oldest President at the start of term
8267:
8263:(in French). Paris: Complexe Editions.
8258:
8231:
8192:
8186:Moncef Mestiri: aux sources du Destour
8139:
7758:
7536:
7051:
6803:
6791:
6779:
6670:
6658:
6561:
6549:
6537:
6510:
6498:
6486:
6441:
6429:
6393:
6345:
6278:
6230:
6195:
6183:
6022:
5732:
5626:
5614:
5530:
5513:
5339:
5300:
5189:
5085:
5037:
4972:Martel, Pierre-Albin (11 April 2000).
4924:
4909:
4897:
4834:
4624:
4519:Les Lettres du prisonnier de La Galite
4053:Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
3578:, it consists of the assertion of the
2202:General Assembly of the United Nations
1322:chair the weekly seals ceremony. The
577:
27:President of Tunisia from 1957 to 1987
9426:
9174:
8974:
8837:
8687:
8529:of the National Constituent Assembly
8408:
8261:La décolonisation de 1919 à nos jours
8236:(in French). Paris: Julliard Edition.
8072:Barrouhi, Abdelaziz (12 April 2010).
8036:"Ordre d'assassinat de Ben Youssef".
7689:"Senile Bourguiba Described in Tunis"
7501:
7228:
5929:(in French), Paris: Albatros Editions
5217:Bourguiba, Habib (16 November 1973).
4178:National Order of Merit of Mauritania
3567:, its followers generally followed a
3064:, he recalled in a speech he gave in
2138:and in order to do that, crossed the
2044:Neo-Destour and ended up victorious.
1929:detainees. Meanwhile, in France, the
569:
373:9 April 1956 – 15 April 1956
320:15 April 1956 – 29 July 1957
269:15 April 1956 – 29 July 1957
211:11 April 1956 – 25 July 1957
10111:
8814:7 November 1987 – 14 July 2011
8786:Oldest President at the end of term
8764:25 July 1957 – 7 November 1987
8739:25 July 1957 – 15 January 2011
8466:2 March 1934 – 27 October 1948
8439:13 May 1933 – 9 September 1933
8142:Habib Bourguiba. Un homme, un siècle
7895:
7628:
7597:. Indiana University Press. p.
7510:
7289:
7183:"Tunisie : la fin d'un complot"
7180:
6888:
6612:
6208:Chater, Khelifa (March–April 2006).
5924:
5701:. Paris. p. 203. Archived from
4542:
4301: : Knight of the Collar of the
3847:On 12 April 1962, Bourguiba married
2830:1957–1962: Founder of Modern Tunisia
2277:1949–1956: Fighting for independence
2106:decided to free him and take him to
2068:, into the fort of Saint-Nicolas in
1769:1934–1939: Rising nationalist leader
1529:Paris Institute of Political Studies
1509:Paris Institute of Political Studies
1028:
29:
10202:Collars of the Order of Civil Merit
8714:Oldest living President of Tunisia
8660:25 July 1957 – 7 November 1987
8339:Bourguiba. Le bon grain et l'ivraie
8197:(in French). Carthage: MC-Editions.
8179:(in French). Carthage: MC-Editions.
7944:. 29 September 1967. Archived from
3478:, Algerian Bouteflika, Palestinian
2282:Failure of negotiations with France
2039:the supervision of France, remains.
1339:Teenage years and secondary studies
1170:, who favored a gradual policy and
1045:
24:
9201:Presidents of the legislatures of
8624:11 April 1956 – 25 July 1957
8598:11 April 1956 – 25 July 1957
8564:11 April 1956 – 25 July 1957
8375:Official Website run by his family
8357:
8341:(in French). Tunis: Sud Éditions.
8254:(in French). Tunis: Arcs Editions.
7883:Girbeau, Sabine (18 August 2003).
7570:. Associated Press. 4 January 1984
4160:Order of the Defender of the Realm
4015: : Knight Grand Cross of the
3737:
3435:foreigners and President Ben Ali.
2787:'s education purposes by creating
1826:Habib Bourguiba and Tahar Sfar in
1267:
761:
25:
10328:
10272:Tunisian people imprisoned abroad
10262:Prisoners and detainees of France
8789:25 July 1957 – 25 July 2019
8368:
8202:El Materi Hached, Anissa (2011).
8195:L'assassinat de Salah Ben Youssef
8188:(in French). Tunis: Sud Editions.
7974:Laroussi, Fouad (21 March 2006).
7810:"Un deuil national de sept jours"
7722:. 25 October 1988. Archived from
7687:Delaney, Paul (9 November 1987).
7233:(in French), Paris: CNRS Editions
7112:. 8 November 1987. Archived from
7104:"Quand M. Bourguiba voyait juste"
6003:"Introducing the Chenik Ministry"
4489:9 avril 1938. Le procès Bourguiba
4071:National Order of the Ivory Coast
3926:
3851:, a woman from a family of Tunis
3718:Furthermore, strong supporter of
3685:
3601:
3591:advocated and supported by some.
3543:Habib Bourguiba's Statue (Tunis).
3232:Palestine Liberation Organization
2554:. In Tunis, a new cabinet led by
2429:
2150:1945–1949: Journey in Middle East
1596:1930–1934: Early political career
10237:People from Monastir Governorate
10154:
10137:
10120:
10092:
10080:
10068:
9210:Constituent Assembly (1956–1959)
9154:
9141:
8954:
8941:
8882:
8177:L'action nationaliste en Tunisie
8084:
8044:
8029:
8004:
7992:
7967:
7952:
7928:
7856:
7834:
7802:
7782:
7738:
7706:
7680:
7622:
7582:
7556:
7530:
7222:
7174:
7140:Islam et contestation au Maghreb
7096:
7069:
6882:
6854:
6751:
6712:
6606:
6599:Les relations franco-tunisiennes
6590:
6574:Lamarkbi, Nadia (16 June 2007).
6567:
6435:
5954:
4377:
4359:
4345:
4327:
4309:
4291:
4273:
4255:
4237:
4219:
4201:
4184:
4166:
4148:
4131:
4125:Order of the Pioneers of Liberia
4113:
4095:
4077:
4059:
4041:
4023:
4005:
3987:
3969:
3951:
3933:
3886:
3819:
3586:, a nationalized and controlled
3140:In May 1973, Bourguiba met with
2412:. There, he admired the work of
1933:ascended with the settlement of
1839:, who endorsed the Neo-Destour.
1630:, held from 7 to 11 May 1930 in
1218:dominated by his own party, the
1214:which turned into a twenty-year
975:
931:
718:
681:
573:
542:
34:
10292:Tunisian independence activists
7920:. 30 March 2006. Archived from
6871:. 20 March 1956. Archived from
5686:
5306:
4741:
4440:
3773:
3468:Democratic Constitutional Rally
3293:Movement of Socialist Democrats
2445:United Nations Security Council
2228:members of the United Nations.
1107:in 1924. He graduated from the
565:
538:
10307:Tunisian expatriates in France
9519:Mohamed Suffian Mohamed Hashim
8380:History of his life by the BBC
8268:Julien, Charles-André (1985).
8232:Julien, Charles-André (1952).
7848:. 8 April 2000. Archived from
7818:. 8 April 2000. Archived from
7138:Lamchichi, Abderrahim (1989),
6442:Martin, Jean-François (2003),
6131:Le Pautremat & Ageron 2003
5695:"Maghreb, question d'histoire"
5328:Le Pautremat & Ageron 2003
4937:Le Pautremat & Ageron 2003
4521:, ed. Dar El Amal, Tunis, 1983
4515:, ed. Dar El Amal, Tunis, 1982
4513:Articles de presse (1929-1933)
4509:, ed. Dar El Amal, Tunis, 1978
4303:Order of Isabella the Catholic
3702:Regarding his foreign policy,
3649:age at which girls could marry
3643:, expanding women's access to
3528:
3299:, former allies of Ben Salah.
3273:social national organizations.
1965:to attend a lecture about the
1558:, after his return to Tunisia.
1498:After vacations spent between
1091:to a poor family, he attended
1068:(1956–1957) then as the first
13:
1:
8532:9 April – 15 April 1956
8140:Martel, Pierre-Albin (1999).
8102:
8074:"Des descendants si discrets"
8055:, Tunis: Dar El Amal Editions
7768:Kefi, Ridha (11 April 2000).
7589:Entelis, John Pierre (1997).
7537:Prince, Rob (15 April 2013).
6840:Kefi, Ridha (19 March 2006).
4501:Ma vie, mes idées, mon combat
4247: : Special Class of the
4017:Order of the Netherlands Lion
3981:Order of the Star of Ethiopia
3871:Habib Bourguiba decorated by
3654:Establishing a parallel with
3461:Organization of African Unity
3371:and strengthened Bourguiba's
3075:On 14 March, Bourguiba had a
3024:Tunisian General Labour Union
2887:in order to struggle against
2353:and the Indonesian president
2270:Tunisian General Labour Union
1734:Tunisian naturalization issue
1552:
1332:certificat d'études primaires
1279:Certificat d'études primaires
1263:Early life of Habib Bourguiba
1194:ruler before proclaiming the
10302:20th-century Tunisian people
10222:Foreign ministers of Tunisia
9415:indicate acting officeholder
8364:Habib Bourguiba bibliography
8015:. Lynne Rienner Publishers.
6842:"March 20, 1956, liberation"
6317:Les dictateurs du XXe siècle
4211: : Grand Cordon of the
4176: : Grand Cordon of the
3750:and even proclaimed himself
2972:Bourguiba's remarriage with
2542:Internal autonomy agreements
2475:while Bourguiba was sent to
2386:American Federation of Labor
2380:, where the congress of the
2368:Since his last meeting with
2215:. He based this idea on the
2098:on 18 November 1942 then in
1517:20th arrondissement of Paris
1036:
7:
8594:Minister of Foreign Affairs
8436:executive committee member
8409:
8234:L'Afrique du Nord en marche
8211:Arnoulet, François (1995).
7914:"Bourguiba et la modernité"
6828:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
6746:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
6731:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
6707:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
6695:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
6683:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
6632:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
6526:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
6475:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
6406:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
6334:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
6291:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
6255:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
6243:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
6148:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
6107:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
6078:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
6059:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5977:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5913:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5901:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5889:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5877:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5865:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5829:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5817:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5721:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5681:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5654:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5639:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5591:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5579:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5490:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5454:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5415:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5388:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5352:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5289:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5274:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5262:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5250:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5146:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5122:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5098:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5074:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5062:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5050:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5026:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5014:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
5002:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4886:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4874:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4859:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4847:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4823:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4811:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4799:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4787:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4775:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4763:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4736:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4724:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4712:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4697:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4685:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4673:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4661:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4649:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4637:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4613:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4601:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4589:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4577:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4565:Bessis & Belhassen 2012
4455:, ed. Julliard, Tunis, 1954
4406:Cheikh Anta Diop University
4321:Royal Order of the Seraphim
4265: : Grand Cross of the
4229: : Grand Cross of the
4123: : Grand Croce of the
4089:Order of Al-Hussein bin Ali
4069: : Grand Cross of the
3979: : Grand Cross of the
3559:discourse, support for the
3304:International Monetary Fund
2316:and Hamadi Badra, convince
1812:own congress in Ksar Hellal
1174:, against Youssefists, the
1146:to seek the support of the
1056:
918:
257:Minister of Foreign Affairs
47:to comply with Knowledge's
10:
10333:
10282:University of Paris alumni
10252:Prime ministers of Tunisia
10015:Abdullah Abdulaziz Al Saud
8688:
8494:Socialist Destourian Party
8361:
7511:Guay, Jean-Herman (2015).
6869:Tunisian national archives
4483:Éducation et développement
4267:National Order of the Lion
4107:Order of Abdulaziz Al Saud
3999:Order of the Star of Ghana
3580:Tunisian national identity
3532:
3472:Hanafi Mosque of Bourguiba
3315:flour had been cancelled.
3020:Socialist Destourian Party
2775:urging for their support.
1777:
1608:Tunisian national movement
1599:
1580:French conquest of Algeria
1296:Tunisian national movement
1260:
1220:Socialist Destourian Party
1123:party and co-founding the
886:Socialist Destourian Party
777:Tunisian national movement
615:Fattouma Khefacha (mother)
487:Socialist Destourian Party
130:Interim to 8 November 1959
9886:Honorary Grand Commanders
9885:
9687:Mohamed Dzaiddin Abdullah
9461:
9410:
9390:
9350:
9330:
9302:
9232:
9209:
9150:
9139:
9017:
8950:
8939:
8889:
8880:
8816:
8809:
8801:
8791:
8784:
8776:
8766:
8759:
8751:
8741:
8734:
8726:
8719:
8712:
8704:
8699:
8694:
8666:
8648:
8636:
8626:
8616:
8608:
8600:
8590:
8582:
8566:
8552:
8544:
8534:
8523:
8515:
8510:
8500:
8486:
8478:
8468:
8457:
8449:
8441:
8431:
8425:
8420:
8415:
8241:El Mechat, Samya (1992).
8175:Casemajor, Roger (2009).
8051:Bourguiba, Habib (1978),
6763:French embassy of Tunisia
6597:El Mechat, Samya (2005),
6315:Chautard, Sophie (2006),
5961:Périllier, Louis (1979),
5693:Bessis, Juliette (2003).
4974:"Un homme dans le siècle"
4477:La Promotion de l’Afrique
4213:Order of Ouissam Alaouite
3997: : Companion of the
3880:Tunisian national honours
3637:Mohamed Fadhel Ben Achour
3493:
2965:(people originating from
2318:Muhammad VIII al-Amin bey
2200:while the session of the
1571:while Durel responded in
1454:Higher education in Paris
1080:, ending the 75-year-old
705:
689:
677:
667:
657:
645:
622:
605:
590:
517:
495:
482:
474:
462:
448:
421:
416:
412:
400:
390:
377:
366:
359:
347:
337:
324:
313:
306:
296:
286:
273:
262:
255:
240:
228:
215:
204:
199:Prime Minister of Tunisia
197:
185:
163:
135:
120:
113:
109:
97:
89:
88:
81:
10277:Tunisian revolutionaries
10227:Leaders ousted by a coup
10197:Alumni of Sadiki College
9727:Ahmad Fairuz Abdul Halim
9453:Grand Commanders of the
9306:(upper house, 2005–2011)
8421:Party political offices
8011:Perthes, Volker (2004).
7181:ORTF (1 February 1963).
7169:Camau & Geisser 2004
6644:Camau & Geisser 2004
4536:
3438:
2922:Among the culprits were
2779:property legislation of
2479:. A new cabinet, led by
1870:Tunisian Communist Party
1503:through the association
1475:, he was opposed to the
727:This article is part of
60:may contain suggestions.
45:may need to be rewritten
10232:Neo Destour politicians
9876:Mohamed Hashim Mohd Ali
9759:Ahmad Sarji Abdul Hamid
9711:Siti Hasmah Mohamad Ali
9047:Zine El Abidine Ben Ali
8901:Zine El Abidine Ben Ali
8820:Zine El Abidine Ben Ali
8770:Zine El Abidine Ben Ali
8670:Zine El Abidine Ben Ali
8504:Zine El Abidine Ben Ali
7936:"The Art of Plain Talk"
7543:Foreign Policy in Focus
4527:, ed. Plon, Paris, 1985
4461:, ed. Plon, Paris, 1958
4459:La Tunisie de Bourguiba
4449:, ed. Berg, Paris, 1937
4447:Le Destour et la France
3911:National Order of Merit
3863:Honours and decorations
3711:is not synonymous with
3624:Code of Personal Status
3513:As for former minister
3390:Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali
3377:Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali
2798:Code of Personal Status
2536:Battle of Dien Bien Phu
2126:In this period, he met
2056:1939–1945: World War II
1247:Zine El Abidine Ben Ali
1208:Code of Personal Status
856:Code of Personal Status
426:Habib Ben Ali Bourguiba
192:Zine El Abidine Ben Ali
158:Zine El Abidine Ben Ali
9847:Tengku Maimun Tuan Mat
9591:Syed Ahmad Shahabuddin
8259:Grimal, Henri (1985).
8250:Mestiri, Saïd (1991).
8184:Mestiri, Saïd (2011).
8164:Ageron, Charles-Robert
7229:Camau, Michel (1971),
7157:Jeune Afrique Économie
6889:ORTF (20 March 1956).
6580:Le Courrier de l'Atlas
4471:La Bataille économique
4396:Awards and recognition
4337: : Collar of the
4319: : Knight of the
4283: : Collar of the
4194: : Collar of the
4141: : Collar of the
4105: : Collar of the
4087: : Collar of the
4033: : Collar of the
3961: : Collar of the
3943: : Knight of the
3876:
3829:
3770:
3699:
3619:
3544:
3503:
3427:
3416:
3359:
3275:
3260:
3206:
3199:
3170:
3130:
3111:
3102:
3049:
2991:
2951:
2930:, and the President's
2880:
2864:
2839:
2727:
2712:
2651:
2605:
2521:
2439:
2365:
2291:
2217:United Nations Charter
2180:. Firstly, he went to
2090:He was transferred to
2087:
2080:
2041:
2016:
1917:
1831:
1789:
1724:
1664:
1559:
1505:Les Amis de l'étudiant
1495:
1479:and got interested in
1369:
1290:
1272:Bourguiba was born in
1119:politics, joining the
612:Ali Bourguiba (father)
10247:Presidents of Tunisia
9959:Prasert Ruchirawongse
9823:Michael Chen Wing Sum
9511:Mohamed Salleh Ismael
8488:2nd President of the
8398:19 September 2012 at
8193:Khlifi, Omar (2005).
7959:Clement Henry Moore.
7305:Le Monde diplomatique
6303:El Materi Hached 2011
5478:El Materi Hached 2011
5430:El Materi Hached 2011
5400:El Materi Hached 2011
5364:El Materi Hached 2011
4435:Order of Independence
4431:Supreme Fighter Prize
3945:Order of the Elephant
3904:Order of the Republic
3870:
3827:
3768:
3724:Léopold Sédar Senghor
3693:
3680:Ez-Zitouna University
3656:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
3617:
3542:
3501:
3423:Tomb of Bourguiba in
3422:
3407:
3400:1987–2000: Later life
3357:
3348:Tunisian Armed Forces
3270:
3258:
3204:
3190:
3182:Arab Islamic Republic
3154:
3128:
3106:
3098:
3047:
2987:
2949:
2936:La Tribune du progrès
2878:
2859:
2837:
2825:1957–1987: Presidency
2789:Ez-Zitouna University
2760:Tunisian Armed Forces
2722:
2710:
2649:
2642:Fratricidal struggles
2603:
2519:
2437:
2414:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
2363:
2320:to write a letter to
2289:
2242:Abdelkrim al-Khattabi
2085:
2075:
2022:
2014:
1915:
1825:
1787:
1712:
1662:
1550:
1493:
1390:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
1367:
1324:Jellaz demonstrations
1288:
1257:1903–1930: Early life
1186:Muhammad VIII al-Amin
1103:before obtaining his
1057:al-Ḥabīb Abū Ruqaybah
891:Arab Islamic Republic
9975:Chatichai Choonhavan
9799:Azizan Zainul Abidin
9695:Abdullah Mohd Salleh
9663:Mohamed Zahir Ismail
9503:Mohamed Azmi Mohamed
9332:Constituent Assembly
8315:(in French). Paris:
8285:(in French). Paris:
8160:Le Pautremat, Pascal
8121:(in French). Tunis:
7852:on 24 December 2008.
7629:Gana, Nouri (2013).
6613:ORTF (3 June 1955).
5699:L'Harmattan Editions
4532:Notes and references
4495:Propos et réflexions
4353:United Arab Emirates
4285:Order of Civil Merit
3449:Abdelaziz Bouteflika
3308:Tunisian bread riots
2819:President of Tunisia
2532:Pierre Mendès France
2481:Slaheddine Baccouche
2223:. Therefore, he met
2169:Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud
1845:national sovereignty
1780:Ksar Hellal Congress
1721:naturalization issue
1642:, ran by his cousin
1628:eucharistic congress
1584:eucharistic congress
1513:Lycée Louis-le-Grand
1399:Tunisian nationalism
1200:President of Tunisia
1156:Pierre Mendès France
1070:president of Tunisia
901:Operation Wooden Leg
864:President of Tunisia
837:Ksar Hellal Congress
827:Naturalization issue
595:Jean Habib Bourguiba
541: 1927;
115:President of Tunisia
10242:Presidents for life
10217:Destour politicians
10212:Critics of Islamism
10023:Antonio Puri Purini
9751:Abdul Hamid Mohamad
9679:Sulaiman Ninam Shah
9639:Mohammed Hanif Omar
9471:Ismail Abdul Rahman
9304:Chamber of Advisors
9234:Chamber of Deputies
8717:Since 25 July 1957
8656:Republic of Tunisia
8620:Minister of Defence
7948:on 3 November 2007.
7846:Tunisian presidency
6878:on 6 December 2008.
6794:, pp. 138–139.
6782:, pp. 140–141.
6564:, pp. 100–106.
6360:, pp. 488–489.
6109:, pp. 180–181.
6080:, pp. 176–177.
5925:Mons, Jean (1981),
5723:, pp. 154–155.
5705:on 17 October 2008.
5656:, pp. 150–151.
5641:, pp. 147–148.
5432:, pp. 112–113.
5204:, pp. 124–125.
4986:on 17 October 2008.
4748:Papa Alioune Ndao,
4424:Lebanese University
4389:Yugoslav Great Star
3838:Habib Bourguiba Jr.
3565:Tunisian Revolution
3394:medical coup d'état
3338:On 1 October 1985,
3297:Popular Unity Party
2901:Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz
2844:Sakiet Sidi Youssef
2612:boat. Sailing from
2469:Mohamed Salah Mzali
2060:At the outbreak of
1951:Slimane Ben Slimane
1850:L'Action Tunisienne
1794:L'Action Tunisienne
1754:L'Action Tunisienne
1750:L'Action tunisienne
1742:L'Action Tunisienne
1716:L'Action Tunisienne
1702:L'Action Tunisienne
1693:La Voix du Tunisien
1680:La Voix du Tunisien
1673:La Voix du Tunisien
1669:L'Étendard tunisien
1653:La Voix du Tunisien
1569:L'Étendard tunisien
1224:cult of personality
1212:presidential system
1109:University of Paris
822:L'Action Tunisienne
652:University of Paris
467:Bourguiba mausoleum
308:Minister of Defense
9983:George David Woods
9967:Bhanubandhu Yugala
9935:Maraden Panggabean
9583:Ahmad Zaidi Adruce
9495:Syed Sheh Barakbah
9381:Ibrahim Bouderbala
9368:Abdelfattah Mourou
9341:Mustapha Ben Jafar
9065:Mohamed Ghannouchi
8644:(as head of state)
8560:Kingdom of Tunisia
8511:Political offices
8463:Secretary general
8387:The New York Times
8335:Caïd Essebsi, Béji
8115:Belhassen, Souhayr
7988:on 8 January 2010.
7822:on 5 November 2007
7795:The New York Times
7770:"Le deuil suprême"
7726:on 6 November 2007
7693:The New York Times
7568:The New York Times
7116:on 4 November 2007
4305:(16 November 1983)
4231:Order of the Niger
3877:
3830:
3771:
3752:president for life
3700:
3647:, and raising the
3620:
3545:
3504:
3428:
3417:
3360:
3261:
3244:multi-party system
3228:Camp David Accords
3207:
3142:Algerian President
3131:
3062:Gamal Abdel Nasser
3050:
2952:
2881:
2840:
2736:Kingdom of Tunisia
2713:
2652:
2606:
2595:Bandung Conference
2522:
2440:
2366:
2292:
2221:self-determination
2094:and imprisoned in
2088:
2017:
1918:
1832:
1790:
1725:
1665:
1644:Abdelaziz El Aroui
1582:, by organizing a
1560:
1496:
1460:Place Saint-Michel
1428:'s performance of
1370:
1291:
1237:, and the rise of
1228:president for life
1066:Kingdom of Tunisia
662:Political activist
631:Mahmoud Bourguiba
626:M'hamed Bourguiba
396:First officeholder
10056:
10055:
9999:Swaeng Senanarong
9943:Hamengkubuwono IX
9903:Dawee Chullasapya
9559:Syed Nasir Ismail
9535:Omar Yoke Lin Ong
9420:
9419:
9375:Rached Ghannouchi
9273:Beji Caid Essebsi
9168:
9167:
9071:Beji Caid Essebsi
9029:Hedi Amara Nouira
8968:
8967:
8919:Beji Caid Essebsi
8831:
8830:
8826:
8825:
8817:Succeeded by
8795:Beji Caïd Essebsi
8792:Succeeded by
8767:Succeeded by
8742:Succeeded by
8681:
8680:
8676:
8675:
8667:Succeeded by
8664:
8645:
8627:Succeeded by
8601:Succeeded by
8577:
8567:Succeeded by
8535:Succeeded by
8501:Succeeded by
8482:Mahmoud El Materi
8472:Salah Ben Youssef
8469:Succeeded by
8442:Succeeded by
8348:978-9973-844-99-6
8326:978-2-84342-011-5
8296:978-2-84586-506-8
8151:978-2-86950-320-5
8132:978-9973-58-044-3
8040:. 18 August 2005.
7642:978-0-7486-9103-6
7517:Perspective Monde
7171:, pp. 54–56.
7040:Caïd Essebsi 2009
7028:Caïd Essebsi 2009
7016:Caïd Essebsi 2009
7004:Caïd Essebsi 2009
6994:, pp. 76–77.
6992:Caïd Essebsi 2009
6982:, pp. 69–70.
6980:Caïd Essebsi 2009
6968:Caïd Essebsi 2009
6956:Caïd Essebsi 2009
6944:Caïd Essebsi 2009
6932:Caïd Essebsi 2009
6769:on 28 April 2011.
6552:, pp. 96–97.
6513:, pp. 92–93.
6220:on 15 April 2015.
6001:Moncef, Mestiri.
5948:L'état du Maghreb
5417:, pp. 97–98.
5291:, pp. 90–91.
5252:, pp. 84–85.
4525:Ma vie, mon œuvre
4465:Le Drame algérien
4371:Order of the Bath
4196:Order of Muhammad
3963:Order of the Nile
3875:(Carthage, 1956).
3849:Wassila Ben Ammar
3800:Mahmoud El Materi
3788:Salah Ben Youssef
3780:Abdelaziz Thâalbi
3519:Kheireddine Pacha
3285:, interviewed by
3283:Wassila Bourguiba
3145:Houari Boumediene
3092:Bourguiba with a
3031:Kerkennah Islands
3008:Barren vegetation
2974:Wassila Ben Ammar
2924:Mahmoud El Materi
2785:Ez-Zitouna Mosque
2128:Wassila Ben Ammar
1994:Abdelaziz Thâalbi
1990:Camille Chautemps
1969:held in April in
1878:Salah Ben Youssef
1837:Félicien Challaye
1648:Chedly Khairallah
1624:Mahmoud El Materi
1485:Mahmoud El Materi
1473:Congress of Tours
1382:Souhayr Belhassen
1368:Bourguiba in 1917
1358:Abdelaziz Thâalbi
1351:, contributed to
1249:, and kept under
1235:war of succession
1160:Salah Ben Youssef
1117:Tunisian national
1054:
1034:
968:
967:
744:
743:
709:
708:
641:
634:
629:
601:
554:Wassila Ben Ammar
513:
506:
491:
470:Monastir, Tunisia
458:Monastir, Tunisia
251:
181:
104:Bourguiba in 1960
75:
74:
49:quality standards
16:(Redirected from
10324:
10167:
10159:
10158:
10157:
10150:
10142:
10141:
10140:
10133:
10125:
10124:
10123:
10113:
10097:
10096:
10085:
10084:
10083:
10073:
10072:
10071:
10064:
10049:
10041:
10033:
10025:
10017:
10009:
10001:
9993:
9985:
9977:
9969:
9961:
9953:
9951:Martin Charteris
9945:
9937:
9929:
9921:
9913:
9905:
9897:
9878:
9870:
9865:
9863:Richard Malanjum
9857:
9849:
9841:
9833:
9825:
9817:
9809:
9801:
9793:
9785:
9777:
9769:
9761:
9753:
9745:
9737:
9729:
9721:
9713:
9705:
9697:
9689:
9681:
9673:
9665:
9657:
9649:
9641:
9633:
9625:
9617:
9609:
9601:
9599:Abdul Hamid Omar
9593:
9585:
9577:
9569:
9561:
9553:
9545:
9537:
9529:
9521:
9513:
9505:
9497:
9489:
9487:V. T. Sambanthan
9481:
9473:
9462:Grand Commanders
9447:
9440:
9433:
9424:
9423:
9361:Mohamed Ennaceur
9195:
9188:
9181:
9172:
9171:
9158:
9157:
9145:
9144:
8995:
8988:
8981:
8972:
8971:
8958:
8957:
8945:
8925:Mohamed Ennaceur
8886:
8858:
8851:
8844:
8835:
8834:
8802:Preceded by
8777:Preceded by
8752:Preceded by
8727:Preceded by
8705:Preceded by
8700:Honorary titles
8697:
8696:
8685:
8684:
8662:
8643:
8637:Preceded by
8609:Preceded by
8583:Preceded by
8573:
8545:Preceded by
8516:Preceded by
8479:Preceded by
8450:Preceded by
8426:Preceded by
8418:
8417:
8406:
8405:
8352:
8330:
8314:
8305:Belkhodja, Tahar
8300:
8279:Geisser, Vincent
8273:
8264:
8255:
8246:
8237:
8228:
8216:
8207:
8198:
8189:
8180:
8171:
8155:
8136:
8097:
8095:
8088:
8082:
8081:
8069:
8058:
8056:
8048:
8042:
8041:
8033:
8027:
8026:
8008:
8002:
7996:
7990:
7989:
7987:
7981:. Archived from
7980:
7971:
7965:
7964:
7956:
7950:
7949:
7932:
7926:
7925:
7924:on 25 July 2009.
7910:
7893:
7892:
7880:
7869:
7868:
7860:
7854:
7853:
7838:
7832:
7831:
7829:
7827:
7806:
7800:
7799:
7786:
7780:
7779:
7765:
7756:
7755:
7742:
7736:
7735:
7733:
7731:
7710:
7704:
7703:
7701:
7699:
7684:
7678:
7672:
7666:
7660:
7654:
7653:
7651:
7649:
7626:
7620:
7619:
7617:
7615:
7596:
7586:
7580:
7579:
7577:
7575:
7560:
7554:
7553:
7551:
7549:
7534:
7528:
7527:
7525:
7523:
7508:
7499:
7493:
7487:
7481:
7475:
7469:
7460:
7454:
7448:
7447:, p. 90–91.
7442:
7436:
7430:
7424:
7418:
7412:
7406:
7400:
7394:
7388:
7382:
7373:
7367:
7361:
7355:
7346:
7340:
7334:
7328:
7322:
7316:
7310:
7309:
7300:"Jericho Speech"
7296:
7287:
7281:
7275:
7269:
7263:
7257:
7251:
7245:
7236:
7234:
7226:
7220:
7214:
7208:
7202:
7193:
7192:
7178:
7172:
7166:
7160:
7154:
7145:
7143:
7135:
7126:
7125:
7123:
7121:
7100:
7094:
7092:
7073:
7067:
7061:
7055:
7049:
7043:
7037:
7031:
7025:
7019:
7013:
7007:
7001:
6995:
6989:
6983:
6977:
6971:
6965:
6959:
6953:
6947:
6941:
6935:
6929:
6923:
6917:
6911:
6905:
6899:
6898:
6886:
6880:
6879:
6877:
6866:
6858:
6852:
6851:
6837:
6831:
6825:
6819:
6813:
6807:
6801:
6795:
6789:
6783:
6777:
6771:
6770:
6765:. Archived from
6755:
6749:
6743:
6734:
6728:
6722:
6719:Encyclopédie 360
6716:
6710:
6704:
6698:
6692:
6686:
6680:
6674:
6668:
6662:
6656:
6647:
6641:
6635:
6629:
6623:
6622:
6610:
6604:
6602:
6594:
6588:
6587:
6586:on 7 March 2016.
6582:. Archived from
6571:
6565:
6559:
6553:
6547:
6541:
6535:
6529:
6523:
6514:
6508:
6502:
6496:
6490:
6484:
6478:
6472:
6461:
6455:
6449:
6447:
6439:
6433:
6427:
6421:
6415:
6409:
6403:
6397:
6391:
6385:
6379:
6373:
6367:
6361:
6355:
6349:
6343:
6337:
6331:
6322:
6320:
6312:
6306:
6300:
6294:
6288:
6282:
6276:
6270:
6264:
6258:
6252:
6246:
6240:
6234:
6228:
6222:
6221:
6216:. Archived from
6205:
6199:
6193:
6187:
6181:
6175:
6169:
6163:
6157:
6151:
6145:
6134:
6128:
6122:
6116:
6110:
6104:
6093:
6087:
6081:
6075:
6062:
6056:
6050:
6044:
6038:
6032:
6026:
6020:
6011:
6010:
6009:on 14 July 2012.
6005:. Archived from
5998:
5992:
5986:
5980:
5974:
5968:
5966:
5958:
5952:
5951:
5943:
5932:
5930:
5922:
5916:
5910:
5904:
5898:
5892:
5886:
5880:
5874:
5868:
5862:
5856:
5850:
5844:
5838:
5832:
5826:
5820:
5814:
5808:
5802:
5796:
5790:
5784:
5778:
5772:
5766:
5760:
5754:
5748:
5742:
5736:
5730:
5724:
5718:
5707:
5706:
5690:
5684:
5678:
5669:
5663:
5657:
5651:
5642:
5636:
5630:
5624:
5618:
5612:
5606:
5600:
5594:
5588:
5582:
5576:
5567:
5561:
5546:
5540:
5534:
5528:
5517:
5511:
5505:
5499:
5493:
5487:
5481:
5475:
5469:
5463:
5457:
5451:
5445:
5439:
5433:
5427:
5418:
5412:
5403:
5397:
5391:
5385:
5379:
5373:
5367:
5361:
5355:
5349:
5343:
5337:
5331:
5325:
5319:
5317:
5310:
5304:
5298:
5292:
5286:
5277:
5271:
5265:
5259:
5253:
5247:
5241:
5240:
5238:
5236:
5230:
5224:. Archived from
5223:
5214:
5205:
5199:
5193:
5187:
5181:
5180:
5178:
5176:
5170:
5164:. Archived from
5163:
5155:
5149:
5143:
5137:
5131:
5125:
5119:
5113:
5107:
5101:
5095:
5089:
5083:
5077:
5071:
5065:
5059:
5053:
5047:
5041:
5035:
5029:
5023:
5017:
5011:
5005:
4999:
4988:
4987:
4982:. Archived from
4969:
4940:
4934:
4928:
4922:
4913:
4907:
4901:
4895:
4889:
4883:
4877:
4871:
4862:
4856:
4850:
4844:
4838:
4832:
4826:
4820:
4814:
4808:
4802:
4796:
4790:
4784:
4778:
4772:
4766:
4760:
4754:
4745:
4739:
4733:
4727:
4721:
4715:
4709:
4700:
4694:
4688:
4682:
4676:
4670:
4664:
4658:
4652:
4646:
4640:
4634:
4628:
4622:
4616:
4610:
4604:
4598:
4592:
4586:
4580:
4574:
4568:
4562:
4552:
4549:
4415:Cairo University
4383:
4381:
4380:
4365:
4363:
4362:
4351:
4349:
4348:
4333:
4331:
4330:
4315:
4313:
4312:
4297:
4295:
4294:
4279:
4277:
4276:
4261:
4259:
4258:
4243:
4241:
4240:
4225:
4223:
4222:
4207:
4205:
4204:
4190:
4188:
4187:
4172:
4170:
4169:
4154:
4152:
4151:
4143:Order of Idris I
4137:
4135:
4134:
4119:
4117:
4116:
4101:
4099:
4098:
4083:
4081:
4080:
4065:
4063:
4062:
4047:
4045:
4044:
4035:Order of Pahlavi
4029:
4027:
4026:
4011:
4009:
4008:
3993:
3991:
3990:
3975:
3973:
3972:
3957:
3955:
3954:
3939:
3937:
3936:
3916:Grand Cordon of
3892:
3890:
3889:
3834:Mathilde Lorrain
3784:Mohieddine Klibi
3713:anti-Americanism
3563:, and until the
3259:Habib Bourguiba.
2928:Moncef El Materi
2889:underdevelopment
2693:Christian Pineau
2347:Jawaharlal Nehru
2225:Washington, D.C.
2112:Benito Mussolini
2108:Chalon-sur-Saône
1858:Tunis socialiste
1713:Campaign led by
1688:Resident-general
1573:Tunis socialiste
1557:
1554:
1471:, following the
1179:Arab nationalist
1059:
1049:
1047:
1046:الحبيب أبو رقيبة
1039:
1037:il-Ḥbīb Būrgībah
1033:romanized:
1032:
1030:
1019:
1013:
1012:
1011:
1010:
1003:
1000:
999:
996:
993:
990:
987:
984:
981:
960:
953:
946:
935:
906:1987 coup d'état
769:Political career
740:
739:
737:
730:
722:
715:
714:
711:
710:
701:
698:
696:
685:
639:
632:
627:
599:
598:Hajer Bourguiba
581:
579:
575:
571:
567:
546:
544:
540:
527:Mathilde Lorrain
511:
504:
489:
455:
435:
433:
417:Personal details
403:
393:
371:
350:
340:
318:
299:
289:
267:
249:
243:
231:
209:
188:
171:
166:
138:
131:
125:
102:
92:
79:
78:
70:
67:
61:
38:
30:
21:
10332:
10331:
10327:
10326:
10325:
10323:
10322:
10321:
10182:Habib Bourguiba
10172:
10171:
10170:
10166:from Wikisource
10160:
10155:
10153:
10143:
10138:
10136:
10126:
10121:
10119:
10116:
10112:sister projects
10109:at Knowledge's
10107:Habib Bourguiba
10103:
10091:
10081:
10079:
10069:
10067:
10059:
10057:
10052:
10044:
10036:
10031:Franco Frattini
10028:
10020:
10012:
10004:
9996:
9988:
9980:
9972:
9964:
9956:
9948:
9940:
9932:
9924:
9919:Habib Bourguiba
9916:
9911:Ardeshir Zahedi
9908:
9900:
9892:
9881:
9873:
9868:
9860:
9852:
9844:
9836:
9828:
9820:
9812:
9804:
9796:
9788:
9783:Jeanne Abdullah
9780:
9772:
9764:
9756:
9748:
9740:
9732:
9724:
9716:
9708:
9700:
9692:
9684:
9676:
9668:
9660:
9652:
9644:
9636:
9628:
9620:
9612:
9604:
9596:
9588:
9580:
9572:
9567:Raja Azlan Shah
9564:
9556:
9548:
9543:Ismail Mohd Ali
9540:
9532:
9524:
9516:
9508:
9500:
9492:
9484:
9476:
9468:
9457:
9451:
9421:
9416:
9406:
9386:
9346:
9326:
9313:Abdallah Kallel
9298:
9267:Slaheddine Baly
9255:Mahmoud Messadi
9228:
9217:Habib Bourguiba
9205:
9199:
9169:
9164:
9146:
9142:
9137:
9136:
9113:Hichem Mechichi
9013:
9002:Prime ministers
8999:
8969:
8964:
8946:
8937:
8936:
8927:(2019; Interim)
8913:Moncef Marzouki
8909:(2011; Interim)
8895:Habib Bourguiba
8887:
8876:
8862:
8832:
8827:
8822:
8813:
8807:
8797:
8788:
8782:
8772:
8763:
8757:
8747:
8738:
8732:
8716:
8710:
8690:
8682:
8677:
8672:
8661:
8659:
8646:
8642:
8632:
8623:
8614:
8604:
8597:
8588:
8578:
8575:
8572:
8563:
8550:
8548:Tahar Ben Ammar
8540:
8531:
8521:
8506:
8497:
8484:
8474:
8465:
8455:
8445:
8438:
8429:
8411:
8371:
8366:
8360:
8358:Further reading
8355:
8349:
8327:
8297:
8277:Camau, Michel;
8152:
8133:
8105:
8100:
8090:
8089:
8085:
8070:
8061:
8057:, p. 85–86
8049:
8045:
8035:
8034:
8030:
8023:
8009:
8005:
7997:
7993:
7985:
7978:
7972:
7968:
7957:
7953:
7934:
7933:
7929:
7918:Jeudis de l'IMA
7912:
7911:
7896:
7881:
7872:
7861:
7857:
7840:
7839:
7835:
7825:
7823:
7808:
7807:
7803:
7798:. 7 April 2000.
7788:
7787:
7783:
7766:
7759:
7754:. 7 April 2000.
7744:
7743:
7739:
7729:
7727:
7712:
7711:
7707:
7697:
7695:
7685:
7681:
7673:
7669:
7661:
7657:
7647:
7645:
7643:
7627:
7623:
7613:
7611:
7609:
7587:
7583:
7573:
7571:
7562:
7561:
7557:
7547:
7545:
7535:
7531:
7521:
7519:
7509:
7502:
7494:
7490:
7482:
7478:
7470:
7463:
7455:
7451:
7443:
7439:
7431:
7427:
7419:
7415:
7407:
7403:
7395:
7391:
7383:
7376:
7368:
7364:
7356:
7349:
7341:
7337:
7329:
7325:
7317:
7313:
7298:
7297:
7290:
7282:
7278:
7270:
7266:
7258:
7254:
7246:
7239:
7227:
7223:
7215:
7211:
7203:
7196:
7179:
7175:
7167:
7163:
7155:
7148:
7136:
7129:
7119:
7117:
7102:
7101:
7097:
7090:
7074:
7070:
7062:
7058:
7050:
7046:
7038:
7034:
7026:
7022:
7014:
7010:
7002:
6998:
6990:
6986:
6978:
6974:
6966:
6962:
6954:
6950:
6942:
6938:
6930:
6926:
6918:
6914:
6906:
6902:
6887:
6883:
6875:
6864:
6860:
6859:
6855:
6838:
6834:
6826:
6822:
6814:
6810:
6802:
6798:
6790:
6786:
6778:
6774:
6757:
6756:
6752:
6744:
6737:
6729:
6725:
6717:
6713:
6705:
6701:
6693:
6689:
6681:
6677:
6669:
6665:
6657:
6650:
6642:
6638:
6630:
6626:
6611:
6607:
6595:
6591:
6572:
6568:
6560:
6556:
6548:
6544:
6536:
6532:
6524:
6517:
6509:
6505:
6497:
6493:
6485:
6481:
6473:
6464:
6456:
6452:
6440:
6436:
6428:
6424:
6416:
6412:
6404:
6400:
6392:
6388:
6380:
6376:
6368:
6364:
6356:
6352:
6344:
6340:
6332:
6325:
6313:
6309:
6301:
6297:
6289:
6285:
6277:
6273:
6265:
6261:
6253:
6249:
6241:
6237:
6229:
6225:
6206:
6202:
6194:
6190:
6182:
6178:
6170:
6166:
6158:
6154:
6146:
6137:
6129:
6125:
6117:
6113:
6105:
6096:
6088:
6084:
6076:
6065:
6057:
6053:
6045:
6041:
6033:
6029:
6021:
6014:
5999:
5995:
5987:
5983:
5975:
5971:
5959:
5955:
5944:
5935:
5923:
5919:
5911:
5907:
5899:
5895:
5887:
5883:
5875:
5871:
5863:
5859:
5851:
5847:
5839:
5835:
5827:
5823:
5815:
5811:
5803:
5799:
5791:
5787:
5779:
5775:
5767:
5763:
5755:
5751:
5743:
5739:
5731:
5727:
5719:
5710:
5691:
5687:
5679:
5672:
5664:
5660:
5652:
5645:
5637:
5633:
5625:
5621:
5613:
5609:
5601:
5597:
5589:
5585:
5577:
5570:
5566:, pp. 8–9.
5562:
5549:
5541:
5537:
5529:
5520:
5512:
5508:
5500:
5496:
5488:
5484:
5476:
5472:
5464:
5460:
5452:
5448:
5440:
5436:
5428:
5421:
5413:
5406:
5398:
5394:
5386:
5382:
5374:
5370:
5362:
5358:
5350:
5346:
5338:
5334:
5326:
5322:
5312:
5311:
5307:
5299:
5295:
5287:
5280:
5272:
5268:
5260:
5256:
5248:
5244:
5234:
5232:
5231:on 2 April 2015
5228:
5221:
5215:
5208:
5200:
5196:
5188:
5184:
5174:
5172:
5171:on 3 March 2016
5168:
5161:
5157:
5156:
5152:
5144:
5140:
5132:
5128:
5120:
5116:
5108:
5104:
5096:
5092:
5084:
5080:
5072:
5068:
5060:
5056:
5048:
5044:
5036:
5032:
5024:
5020:
5012:
5008:
5000:
4991:
4970:
4943:
4935:
4931:
4923:
4916:
4908:
4904:
4896:
4892:
4884:
4880:
4872:
4865:
4857:
4853:
4845:
4841:
4833:
4829:
4821:
4817:
4809:
4805:
4797:
4793:
4785:
4781:
4773:
4769:
4761:
4757:
4746:
4742:
4734:
4730:
4722:
4718:
4710:
4703:
4695:
4691:
4683:
4679:
4671:
4667:
4659:
4655:
4647:
4643:
4635:
4631:
4623:
4619:
4611:
4607:
4599:
4595:
4587:
4583:
4575:
4571:
4563:
4559:
4555:
4550:
4543:
4539:
4534:
4443:
4420:Honorary Degree
4411:Honorary Degree
4402:Honorary Degree
4398:
4378:
4376:
4360:
4358:
4346:
4344:
4328:
4326:
4310:
4308:
4292:
4290:
4274:
4272:
4256:
4254:
4238:
4236:
4220:
4218:
4202:
4200:
4185:
4183:
4167:
4165:
4149:
4147:
4132:
4130:
4114:
4112:
4096:
4094:
4078:
4076:
4060:
4058:
4042:
4040:
4024:
4022:
4006:
4004:
3988:
3986:
3970:
3968:
3952:
3950:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3865:
3822:
3792:Tahar Ben Ammar
3776:
3740:
3738:One-party state
3732:French language
3688:
3604:
3537:
3531:
3496:
3441:
3402:
3253:
3174:Muammar Gaddafi
3119:
3085:Great Synagogue
2955:Ahmed Ben Salah
2944:
2917:Carthage Palace
2903:accused him of
2869:Mahmoud Messadi
2832:
2827:
2793:gender equality
2705:
2644:
2628:Tahar Belkhodja
2616:, he landed in
2556:Tahar Ben Ammar
2544:
2449:Tahar Ben Ammar
2432:
2370:Ahmed Ben Bella
2284:
2279:
2152:
2058:
1910:
1885:, El Materi in
1782:
1776:
1771:
1729:economic crisis
1604:
1598:
1565:Habiba Menchari
1555:
1537:
1456:
1341:
1328:Manoubi Djarjar
1308:medina of Tunis
1270:
1268:Childhood years
1265:
1259:
1216:one-party state
1204:gender equality
1042:Standard Arabic
1025:Tunisian Arabic
1017:
1006:
1005:
978:
974:
971:Habib Bourguiba
964:
930:
910:
868:
860:
818:
817:
812:
808:
804:
800:
794:
771:
766:
736:Habib Bourguiba
735:
733:
732:
731:
728:
726:
693:
635:
630:
618:
597:
586:
583:
563:
559:
556:
548:
545: 1961)
536:
532:
529:
507:
497:
496:Other political
483:Political party
469:
457:
453:
437:
431:
429:
428:
427:
401:
391:
372:
367:
348:
338:
319:
314:
297:
287:
268:
263:
241:
235:Tahar Ben Ammar
229:
210:
205:
186:
178:King of Tunisia
170:
164:
156:
152:
148:
144:
136:
129:
128:
126:
121:
105:
93:
90:
84:
83:Habib Bourguiba
71:
65:
62:
52:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
10330:
10320:
10319:
10314:
10309:
10304:
10299:
10294:
10289:
10284:
10279:
10274:
10269:
10264:
10259:
10254:
10249:
10244:
10239:
10234:
10229:
10224:
10219:
10214:
10209:
10204:
10199:
10194:
10189:
10184:
10169:
10168:
10151:
10149:from Wikiquote
10134:
10105:
10102:
10101:
10089:
10077:
10054:
10053:
10051:
10050:
10042:
10039:Gaetano Gifuni
10034:
10026:
10018:
10010:
10007:Serm Na Nakorn
10002:
9994:
9986:
9978:
9970:
9962:
9954:
9946:
9938:
9930:
9922:
9914:
9906:
9898:
9889:
9887:
9883:
9882:
9880:
9879:
9871:
9866:
9858:
9850:
9842:
9834:
9831:Md Raus Sharif
9826:
9818:
9815:Arifin Zakaria
9810:
9802:
9794:
9786:
9778:
9770:
9762:
9754:
9746:
9738:
9735:Ghazali Shafie
9730:
9722:
9719:Ling Liong Sik
9714:
9706:
9703:Fatimah Hashim
9698:
9690:
9682:
9674:
9671:Ibrahim Ismail
9666:
9658:
9650:
9642:
9634:
9626:
9618:
9615:Daim Zainuddin
9610:
9602:
9594:
9586:
9578:
9570:
9562:
9554:
9546:
9538:
9530:
9522:
9514:
9506:
9498:
9490:
9482:
9474:
9465:
9463:
9459:
9458:
9450:
9449:
9442:
9435:
9427:
9418:
9417:
9411:
9408:
9407:
9405:
9404:
9397:
9395:
9388:
9387:
9385:
9384:
9378:
9372:
9364:
9357:
9355:
9348:
9347:
9345:
9344:
9337:
9335:
9328:
9327:
9325:
9324:
9316:
9309:
9307:
9300:
9299:
9297:
9296:
9288:
9282:
9279:Habib Boularès
9276:
9270:
9264:
9258:
9252:
9249:Sadok Mokaddem
9246:
9243:Jallouli Fares
9239:
9237:
9230:
9229:
9227:
9226:
9223:Jallouli Fares
9220:
9213:
9211:
9207:
9206:
9198:
9197:
9190:
9183:
9175:
9166:
9165:
9163:
9162:
9151:
9148:
9147:
9140:
9138:
9135:
9134:
9128:
9122:
9116:
9110:
9107:Elyes Fakhfakh
9104:
9101:Youssef Chahed
9098:
9092:
9086:
9080:
9074:
9068:
9062:
9056:
9053:Hédi Baccouche
9050:
9044:
9038:
9035:Mohammed Mzali
9032:
9026:
9019:
9018:
9015:
9014:
8998:
8997:
8990:
8983:
8975:
8966:
8965:
8963:
8962:
8951:
8948:
8947:
8940:
8938:
8935:
8934:
8933:(2019–present)
8928:
8922:
8916:
8910:
8904:
8898:
8891:
8890:
8888:
8881:
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8668:
8665:
8647:
8638:
8634:
8633:
8628:
8625:
8615:
8610:
8606:
8605:
8603:Sadok Mokaddem
8602:
8599:
8589:
8584:
8580:
8579:
8568:
8565:
8556:Prime minister
8551:
8546:
8542:
8541:
8538:Jallouli Fares
8536:
8533:
8522:
8517:
8513:
8512:
8508:
8507:
8502:
8499:
8485:
8480:
8476:
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8467:
8456:
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8440:
8430:
8427:
8423:
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8416:
8413:
8412:
8403:
8402:
8390:
8385:Obituary from
8382:
8377:
8370:
8369:External links
8367:
8362:Main article:
8359:
8356:
8354:
8353:
8347:
8331:
8325:
8301:
8295:
8274:
8265:
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8247:
8238:
8229:
8221:Ounaies, Ahmed
8217:
8208:
8199:
8190:
8181:
8172:
8156:
8150:
8137:
8131:
8111:Bessis, Sophie
8106:
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8028:
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7991:
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7927:
7894:
7870:
7855:
7833:
7801:
7781:
7757:
7737:
7705:
7679:
7677:, p. 187.
7675:Belkhodja 1998
7667:
7665:, p. 186.
7663:Belkhodja 1998
7655:
7641:
7621:
7607:
7581:
7555:
7529:
7500:
7498:, p. 197.
7496:Belkhodja 1998
7488:
7486:, p. 175.
7484:Belkhodja 1998
7476:
7474:, p. 171.
7472:Belkhodja 1998
7461:
7459:, p. 115.
7457:Belkhodja 1998
7449:
7445:Belkhodja 1998
7437:
7435:, p. 144.
7433:Belkhodja 1998
7425:
7423:, p. 142.
7421:Belkhodja 1998
7413:
7411:, p. 123.
7409:Belkhodja 1998
7401:
7399:, p. 122.
7397:Belkhodja 1998
7389:
7385:Belkhodja 1998
7374:
7370:Belkhodja 1998
7362:
7358:Belkhodja 1998
7347:
7343:Belkhodja 1998
7335:
7331:Belkhodja 1998
7323:
7319:Belkhodja 1998
7311:
7288:
7284:Belkhodja 1998
7276:
7272:Belkhodja 1998
7264:
7260:Belkhodja 1998
7252:
7248:Belkhodja 1998
7237:
7221:
7217:Belkhodja 1998
7209:
7205:Belkhodja 1998
7194:
7173:
7161:
7146:
7127:
7095:
7088:
7068:
7064:Belkhodja 1998
7056:
7044:
7032:
7020:
7008:
6996:
6984:
6972:
6960:
6948:
6936:
6924:
6920:Belkhodja 1998
6912:
6908:Belkhodja 1998
6900:
6881:
6853:
6832:
6830:, p. 220.
6820:
6816:Belkhodja 1998
6808:
6806:, p. 155.
6796:
6784:
6772:
6750:
6748:, p. 218.
6735:
6733:, p. 217.
6723:
6711:
6709:, p. 215.
6699:
6697:, p. 214.
6687:
6685:, p. 212.
6675:
6673:, p. 126.
6663:
6661:, p. 123.
6648:
6646:, p. 260.
6636:
6634:, p. 208.
6624:
6605:
6589:
6566:
6554:
6542:
6530:
6528:, p. 203.
6515:
6503:
6501:, p. 168.
6491:
6489:, p. 167.
6479:
6477:, p. 200.
6462:
6460:, p. 222.
6458:El Mechat 1992
6450:
6434:
6422:
6420:, p. 493.
6410:
6408:, p. 193.
6398:
6396:, p. 136.
6386:
6384:, p. 491.
6374:
6372:, p. 490.
6362:
6350:
6338:
6336:, p. 190.
6323:
6307:
6305:, p. 237.
6295:
6293:, p. 187.
6283:
6271:
6269:, p. 248.
6259:
6257:, p. 186.
6247:
6245:, p. 184.
6235:
6233:, p. 220.
6223:
6200:
6188:
6176:
6174:, p. 217.
6164:
6162:, p. 207.
6152:
6150:, p. 182.
6135:
6133:, p. 419.
6123:
6121:, p. 131.
6111:
6094:
6092:, p. 459.
6082:
6063:
6061:, p. 174.
6051:
6039:
6027:
6025:, p. 274.
6012:
5993:
5981:
5979:, p. 172.
5969:
5953:
5933:
5917:
5915:, p. 170.
5905:
5903:, p. 167.
5893:
5891:, p. 164.
5881:
5879:, p. 161.
5869:
5867:, p. 159.
5857:
5853:El Mechat 1992
5845:
5841:El Mechat 1992
5833:
5831:, p. 157.
5821:
5819:, p. 156.
5809:
5805:El Mechat 1992
5797:
5793:El Mechat 1992
5785:
5783:, p. 456.
5773:
5769:El Mechat 1992
5761:
5757:El Mechat 1992
5749:
5745:El Mechat 1992
5737:
5735:, p. 159.
5725:
5708:
5685:
5683:, p. 152.
5670:
5668:, p. 454.
5658:
5643:
5631:
5619:
5607:
5605:, p. 120.
5603:Casemajor 2009
5595:
5593:, p. 111.
5583:
5581:, p. 110.
5568:
5564:Belkhodja 1998
5547:
5545:, p. 406.
5535:
5518:
5506:
5502:Casemajor 2009
5494:
5492:, p. 101.
5482:
5480:, p. 139.
5470:
5468:, p. 159.
5458:
5446:
5444:, p. 149.
5434:
5419:
5404:
5402:, p. 108.
5392:
5380:
5376:Casemajor 2009
5368:
5366:, p. 101.
5356:
5344:
5332:
5330:, p. 110.
5320:
5305:
5293:
5278:
5266:
5254:
5242:
5206:
5194:
5182:
5150:
5138:
5136:, p. 120.
5126:
5114:
5110:Casemajor 2009
5102:
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5018:
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4429:Nelson Mandela
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4367:United Kingdom
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4110:
4092:
4074:
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4020:
4002:
3984:
3966:
3948:
3928:
3927:Foreign honors
3925:
3924:
3923:
3922:
3921:
3918:Nichan Iftikar
3914:
3907:
3900:
3881:
3878:
3864:
3861:
3821:
3818:
3775:
3772:
3746:and political
3739:
3736:
3704:Jean Lacouture
3687:
3686:Foreign policy
3684:
3668:Jacques Berque
3632:Women's rights
3603:
3602:Social reforms
3600:
3533:Main article:
3530:
3527:
3515:Mohamed Charfi
3495:
3492:
3476:Jacques Chirac
3440:
3437:
3401:
3398:
3385:United Nations
3329:Mohamed Charfi
3252:
3249:
3118:
3115:
3070:United Nations
3054:Anwar el-Sadat
2943:
2940:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2811:Jallouli Fares
2769:United Kingdom
2753:United Nations
2704:
2701:
2643:
2640:
2543:
2540:
2506:Pierre Voizard
2431:
2430:Armed struggle
2428:
2374:Les Onze Noirs
2326:Robert Schuman
2322:Vincent Auriol
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2213:United Nations
2151:
2148:
2100:Fort de Vancia
2096:Montluc prison
2057:
2054:
2036:
2035:
2032:
2029:
1922:Armand Guillon
1909:
1906:
1902:Bordj le Boeuf
1775:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1719:following the
1600:Main article:
1597:
1594:
1536:
1533:
1481:Mahatma Gandhi
1455:
1452:
1340:
1337:
1312:Sadiki College
1304:Tourbet el Bey
1300:Ali Bach Hamba
1269:
1266:
1261:Main article:
1258:
1255:
1093:Sadiki College
1062:prime minister
1029:الحبيب بورقيبة
966:
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936:
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456:(aged 96)
450:
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443:French Tunisia
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407:Jallouli Fares
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343:Office created
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169:Office created
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150:Mohammed Mzali
139:
137:Prime Minister
133:
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110:
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106:
103:
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94:
91:الحبيب بورقيبة
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9808:
9807:Abdullah Ayub
9803:
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9779:
9776:
9775:Endon Mahmood
9771:
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9767:Lim Keng Yaik
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9607:Suhailah Noah
9603:
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9560:
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9551:Jugah Barieng
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9286:
9285:Fouad Mebazaa
9283:
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9189:
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9177:
9176:
9173:
9161:
9153:
9152:
9149:
9132:
9131:Kamel Madouri
9129:
9126:
9125:Ahmed Hachani
9123:
9120:
9117:
9114:
9111:
9108:
9105:
9102:
9099:
9096:
9093:
9090:
9087:
9084:
9083:Ali Laarayedh
9081:
9078:
9077:Hamadi Jebali
9075:
9072:
9069:
9066:
9063:
9060:
9057:
9054:
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8914:
8911:
8908:
8907:Fouad Mebazaa
8905:
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8806:
8800:
8796:
8787:
8781:
8775:
8771:
8762:
8756:
8750:
8746:
8745:Fouad Mebazaa
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8407:
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8400:archive.today
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8093:
8092:Jeune Afrique
8087:
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8078:Jeune Afrique
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8022:1-58826-266-9
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7963:. p. 55.
7962:
7955:
7947:
7943:
7942:
7937:
7931:
7923:
7919:
7915:
7909:
7907:
7905:
7903:
7901:
7899:
7890:
7886:
7879:
7877:
7875:
7866:
7859:
7851:
7847:
7843:
7837:
7821:
7817:
7816:
7811:
7805:
7797:
7796:
7791:
7785:
7777:
7776:
7775:Jeune Afrique
7771:
7764:
7762:
7753:
7752:
7747:
7741:
7725:
7721:
7720:
7715:
7709:
7694:
7690:
7683:
7676:
7671:
7664:
7659:
7644:
7638:
7634:
7633:
7625:
7610:
7608:0-253-21131-X
7604:
7600:
7595:
7594:
7585:
7569:
7565:
7559:
7544:
7540:
7533:
7518:
7514:
7507:
7505:
7497:
7492:
7485:
7480:
7473:
7468:
7466:
7458:
7453:
7446:
7441:
7434:
7429:
7422:
7417:
7410:
7405:
7398:
7393:
7387:, p. 85.
7386:
7381:
7379:
7372:, p. 82.
7371:
7366:
7360:, p. 77.
7359:
7354:
7352:
7345:, p. 74.
7344:
7339:
7333:, p. 73.
7332:
7327:
7321:, p. 94.
7320:
7315:
7307:
7306:
7301:
7295:
7293:
7286:, p. 18.
7285:
7280:
7274:, p. 61.
7273:
7268:
7262:, p. 60.
7261:
7256:
7250:, p. 57.
7249:
7244:
7242:
7235:, p. 320
7232:
7225:
7219:, p. 55.
7218:
7213:
7207:, p. 56.
7206:
7201:
7199:
7190:
7189:
7184:
7177:
7170:
7165:
7158:
7153:
7151:
7144:, p. 191
7141:
7134:
7132:
7115:
7111:
7110:
7105:
7099:
7093:, p. 216
7091:
7089:9782296554009
7085:
7081:
7080:
7072:
7066:, p. 39.
7065:
7060:
7054:, p. 69.
7053:
7048:
7042:, p. 63.
7041:
7036:
7030:, p. 62.
7029:
7024:
7018:, p. 61.
7017:
7012:
7006:, p. 79.
7005:
7000:
6993:
6988:
6981:
6976:
6970:, p. 68.
6969:
6964:
6958:, p. 65.
6957:
6952:
6946:, p. 57.
6945:
6940:
6934:, p. 58.
6933:
6928:
6922:, p. 15.
6921:
6916:
6910:, p. 25.
6909:
6904:
6896:
6892:
6885:
6874:
6870:
6863:
6857:
6849:
6848:
6847:Jeune Afrique
6843:
6836:
6829:
6824:
6818:, p. 53.
6817:
6812:
6805:
6800:
6793:
6788:
6781:
6776:
6768:
6764:
6760:
6754:
6747:
6742:
6740:
6732:
6727:
6720:
6715:
6708:
6703:
6696:
6691:
6684:
6679:
6672:
6667:
6660:
6655:
6653:
6645:
6640:
6633:
6628:
6620:
6616:
6609:
6600:
6593:
6585:
6581:
6577:
6570:
6563:
6558:
6551:
6546:
6540:, p. 90.
6539:
6534:
6527:
6522:
6520:
6512:
6507:
6500:
6495:
6488:
6483:
6476:
6471:
6469:
6467:
6459:
6454:
6448:, p. 227
6445:
6438:
6432:, p. 78.
6431:
6426:
6419:
6414:
6407:
6402:
6395:
6390:
6383:
6378:
6371:
6366:
6359:
6354:
6348:, p. 76.
6347:
6342:
6335:
6330:
6328:
6321:, p. 166
6318:
6311:
6304:
6299:
6292:
6287:
6281:, p. 63.
6280:
6275:
6268:
6263:
6256:
6251:
6244:
6239:
6232:
6227:
6219:
6215:
6211:
6204:
6198:, p. 35.
6197:
6192:
6186:, p. 68.
6185:
6180:
6173:
6168:
6161:
6156:
6149:
6144:
6142:
6140:
6132:
6127:
6120:
6115:
6108:
6103:
6101:
6099:
6091:
6086:
6079:
6074:
6072:
6070:
6068:
6060:
6055:
6049:, p. 83.
6048:
6043:
6037:, p. 80.
6036:
6031:
6024:
6019:
6017:
6008:
6004:
5997:
5991:, p. 54.
5990:
5985:
5978:
5973:
5964:
5957:
5949:
5942:
5940:
5938:
5931:, p. 261
5928:
5921:
5914:
5909:
5902:
5897:
5890:
5885:
5878:
5873:
5866:
5861:
5855:, p. 54.
5854:
5849:
5843:, p. 51.
5842:
5837:
5830:
5825:
5818:
5813:
5807:, p. 47.
5806:
5801:
5795:, p. 46.
5794:
5789:
5782:
5777:
5771:, p. 43.
5770:
5765:
5759:, p. 19.
5758:
5753:
5747:, p. 38.
5746:
5741:
5734:
5729:
5722:
5717:
5715:
5713:
5704:
5700:
5696:
5689:
5682:
5677:
5675:
5667:
5662:
5655:
5650:
5648:
5640:
5635:
5629:, p. 47.
5628:
5623:
5617:, p. 90.
5616:
5611:
5604:
5599:
5592:
5587:
5580:
5575:
5573:
5565:
5560:
5558:
5556:
5554:
5552:
5544:
5539:
5533:, p. 36.
5532:
5527:
5525:
5523:
5516:, p. 35.
5515:
5510:
5504:, p. 95.
5503:
5498:
5491:
5486:
5479:
5474:
5467:
5466:Arnoulet 1995
5462:
5456:, p. 99.
5455:
5450:
5443:
5442:Arnoulet 1995
5438:
5431:
5426:
5424:
5416:
5411:
5409:
5401:
5396:
5390:, p. 95.
5389:
5384:
5378:, p. 88.
5377:
5372:
5365:
5360:
5354:, p. 93.
5353:
5348:
5342:, p. 14.
5341:
5336:
5329:
5324:
5318:, p. 138
5315:
5309:
5303:, p. 32.
5302:
5297:
5290:
5285:
5283:
5276:, p. 87.
5275:
5270:
5264:, p. 86.
5263:
5258:
5251:
5246:
5227:
5220:
5213:
5211:
5203:
5198:
5192:, p. 29.
5191:
5186:
5167:
5160:
5154:
5148:, p. 82.
5147:
5142:
5135:
5130:
5124:, p. 79.
5123:
5118:
5112:, p. 73.
5111:
5106:
5100:, p. 78.
5099:
5094:
5088:, p. 28.
5087:
5082:
5076:, p. 76.
5075:
5070:
5064:, p. 74.
5063:
5058:
5052:, p. 75.
5051:
5046:
5040:, p. 27.
5039:
5034:
5028:, p. 73.
5027:
5022:
5016:, p. 72.
5015:
5010:
5004:, p. 71.
5003:
4998:
4996:
4994:
4985:
4981:
4980:
4979:Jeune Afrique
4975:
4968:
4966:
4964:
4962:
4960:
4958:
4956:
4954:
4952:
4950:
4948:
4946:
4939:, p. 99.
4938:
4933:
4927:, p. 24.
4926:
4921:
4919:
4912:, p. 23.
4911:
4906:
4900:, p. 22.
4899:
4894:
4888:, p. 69.
4887:
4882:
4876:, p. 68.
4875:
4870:
4868:
4861:, p. 66.
4860:
4855:
4849:, p. 67.
4848:
4843:
4837:, p. 21.
4836:
4831:
4825:, p. 65.
4824:
4819:
4813:, p. 63.
4812:
4807:
4801:, p. 62.
4800:
4795:
4789:, p. 60.
4788:
4783:
4777:, p. 58.
4776:
4771:
4765:, p. 55.
4764:
4759:
4753:
4751:
4744:
4738:, p. 53.
4737:
4732:
4726:, p. 50.
4725:
4720:
4714:, p. 47.
4713:
4708:
4706:
4699:, p. 44.
4698:
4693:
4687:, p. 41.
4686:
4681:
4675:, p. 43.
4674:
4669:
4663:, p. 40.
4662:
4657:
4651:, p. 39.
4650:
4645:
4639:, p. 37.
4638:
4633:
4627:, p. 16.
4626:
4621:
4615:, p. 35.
4614:
4609:
4603:, p. 33.
4602:
4597:
4591:, p. 32.
4590:
4585:
4579:, p. 29.
4578:
4573:
4567:, p. 26.
4566:
4561:
4557:
4548:
4546:
4541:
4526:
4523:
4520:
4517:
4514:
4511:
4508:
4505:
4502:
4499:
4496:
4493:
4490:
4487:
4484:
4481:
4478:
4475:
4472:
4469:
4466:
4463:
4460:
4457:
4454:
4451:
4448:
4445:
4444:
4436:
4433:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4403:
4400:
4399:
4390:
4386:
4375:
4372:
4368:
4357:
4354:
4343:
4340:
4336:
4325:
4323:(22 May 1963)
4322:
4318:
4307:
4304:
4300:
4289:
4287:(24 May 1968)
4286:
4282:
4271:
4268:
4264:
4253:
4250:
4249:Order of Oman
4246:
4235:
4232:
4228:
4217:
4214:
4210:
4199:
4197:
4193:
4182:
4179:
4175:
4164:
4161:
4157:
4146:
4144:
4140:
4129:
4126:
4122:
4111:
4108:
4104:
4093:
4090:
4086:
4075:
4072:
4068:
4057:
4055:(25 May 1962)
4054:
4050:
4039:
4036:
4032:
4021:
4018:
4014:
4003:
4000:
3996:
3985:
3982:
3978:
3967:
3964:
3960:
3949:
3946:
3942:
3931:
3930:
3919:
3915:
3912:
3908:
3905:
3901:
3898:
3897:
3895:
3884:
3883:
3874:
3869:
3860:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3845:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3826:
3820:Personal life
3817:
3814:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3801:
3797:
3796:Ahmed Mestiri
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3767:
3763:
3761:
3755:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3735:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3716:
3714:
3710:
3709:non-alignment
3705:
3697:
3692:
3683:
3681:
3675:
3672:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3652:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3616:
3612:
3610:
3599:
3597:
3592:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3572:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3561:welfare state
3558:
3554:
3550:
3541:
3536:
3526:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3511:
3509:
3500:
3491:
3487:
3485:
3484:Hosni Mubarak
3482:and Egyptian
3481:
3480:Yasser Arafat
3477:
3473:
3469:
3464:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3436:
3433:
3426:
3421:
3415:
3411:
3406:
3397:
3395:
3391:
3386:
3380:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3356:
3352:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3336:
3334:
3333:regime crisis
3330:
3325:
3321:
3316:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3300:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3289:
3288:Jeune Afrique
3284:
3280:
3279:Mohamed Mzali
3274:
3269:
3266:
3257:
3248:
3245:
3241:
3240:Mutuelleville
3235:
3233:
3229:
3224:
3220:
3218:
3213:
3203:
3198:
3196:
3189:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3169:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3153:
3151:
3150:El Moussaouar
3146:
3143:
3138:
3136:
3127:
3123:
3114:
3110:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3095:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3073:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3046:
3042:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3027:
3025:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3009:
3005:
3000:
2996:
2990:
2986:
2985:, he stated:
2984:
2979:
2975:
2970:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2948:
2939:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2920:
2918:
2914:
2911:officer told
2908:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2877:
2873:
2870:
2863:
2858:
2854:
2852:
2847:
2845:
2836:
2822:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2806:
2803:
2799:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2776:
2774:
2773:United States
2770:
2766:
2765:Maurice Faure
2761:
2756:
2754:
2749:
2746:, divided in
2745:
2739:
2737:
2733:
2726:
2721:
2719:
2709:
2700:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2684:
2682:
2678:
2672:
2668:
2666:
2662:
2656:
2648:
2639:
2635:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2624:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2610:Ville d'Alger
2602:
2598:
2596:
2591:
2588:
2584:
2579:
2575:
2572:
2568:
2563:
2559:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2539:
2537:
2533:
2528:
2518:
2514:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2500:
2499:La Main rouge
2495:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2464:
2462:
2458:
2452:
2450:
2446:
2436:
2427:
2424:
2418:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2390:San Francisco
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2362:
2358:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2338:
2335:
2329:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2313:
2310:
2309:Hôtel Lutetia
2305:
2301:
2300:Medjez el-Bab
2297:
2288:
2274:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2258:
2254:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2237:
2235:
2229:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2205:
2203:
2199:
2198:New York City
2195:
2192:, abroad the
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2174:United States
2170:
2165:
2162:
2157:
2147:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2122:
2121:Alphonse Juin
2118:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2053:
2051:
2045:
2040:
2033:
2030:
2027:
2026:
2025:
2021:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1986:
1984:
1981:and Egyptian
1980:
1976:
1975:Chekib Arslan
1972:
1968:
1964:
1958:
1956:
1955:Pierre Viénot
1952:
1948:
1944:
1943:Habib Thameur
1938:
1936:
1932:
1931:Popular Front
1927:
1923:
1914:
1905:
1903:
1898:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1853:
1851:
1846:
1840:
1838:
1829:
1824:
1820:
1818:
1813:
1807:
1804:
1800:
1795:
1786:
1781:
1766:
1763:
1758:
1755:
1751:
1745:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1722:
1718:
1717:
1711:
1707:
1704:
1703:
1696:
1694:
1689:
1685:
1684:preponderants
1681:
1676:
1674:
1670:
1661:
1657:
1655:
1654:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1603:
1593:
1590:
1585:
1581:
1576:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1549:
1545:
1543:
1542:Destour party
1532:
1530:
1526:
1520:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1501:
1492:
1488:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1465:
1461:
1451:
1449:
1445:
1444:baccalaureate
1441:
1437:
1433:
1432:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1406:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1391:
1387:
1386:Sophie Bessis
1383:
1379:
1375:
1366:
1362:
1359:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1336:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1315:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1287:
1283:
1281:
1280:
1275:
1264:
1254:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1231:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1192:
1188:and acted as
1187:
1182:
1180:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1136:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1105:baccalaureate
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1085:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1058:
1052:
1043:
1038:
1026:
1022:
1021:
1009:
1002:
972:
961:
956:
954:
949:
947:
942:
941:
939:
938:
934:
927:
924:
923:
920:
917:
915:
912:
911:
907:
904:
902:
899:
897:
894:
892:
889:
887:
884:
882:
879:
878:
875:
874:
870:
869:
867:
866:
865:
857:
854:
852:
849:
848:
845:
842:
838:
835:
834:
833:
830:
828:
825:
823:
820:
819:
816:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
788:
787:
783:
782:
779:
778:
774:
773:
772:
770:
763:
762:Personal life
760:
758:
755:
753:
750:
749:
748:
747:
738:
724:
721:
717:
716:
713:
712:
704:
700:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
673:
670:
666:
663:
660:
656:
653:
650:
648:
644:
638:
625:
621:
614:
611:
610:
608:
604:
596:
593:
589:
555:
550:
528:
523:
522:
520:
516:
510:
503:
500:
494:
488:
485:
481:
477:
473:
468:
465:
463:Resting place
461:
451:
447:
444:
440:
436:3 August 1903
424:
420:
415:
411:
408:
405:
399:
395:
389:
386:
385:Muhammad VIII
383:
380:
376:
370:
365:
362:
358:
355:
352:
346:
342:
336:
333:
332:Muhammad VIII
330:
327:
323:
317:
312:
309:
305:
301:
295:
291:
285:
282:
281:Muhammad VIII
279:
276:
272:
266:
261:
258:
254:
248:
245:
239:
236:
233:
227:
224:
223:Muhammad VIII
221:
218:
214:
208:
203:
200:
196:
193:
190:
184:
179:
175:
174:Muhammad VIII
168:
162:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
140:
134:
124:
119:
116:
112:
108:
101:
96:
87:
80:
77:
69:
59:
55:
50:
46:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
10161:
10144:
10132:from Commons
10127:
10106:
9927:Willy Brandt
9918:
9895:Lee Tong Won
9623:Lim Chong Eu
9479:Tan Siew Sin
9412:
9403:(since 2024)
9401:Imed Derbali
9394:(since 2022)
9383:(since 2023)
9366:
9354:(since 2014)
9318:
9292:Sahbi Karoui
9290:
9216:
9133:(since 2024)
9119:Najla Bouden
9059:Hamed Karoui
9023:Bahi Ladgham
8894:
8810:
8804:
8785:
8779:
8760:
8754:
8735:
8729:
8720:
8713:
8707:
8649:
8630:Bahi Ladgham
8617:
8611:
8591:
8585:
8570:Bahi Ladgham
8553:
8524:
8518:
8487:
8458:
8453:New Creation
8452:
8432:
8386:
8338:
8310:
8282:
8269:
8260:
8251:
8242:
8233:
8224:
8212:
8203:
8194:
8185:
8176:
8167:
8141:
8118:
8096:, p. 53
8091:
8086:
8077:
8052:
8046:
8037:
8031:
8012:
8006:
7994:
7983:the original
7969:
7960:
7954:
7946:the original
7939:
7930:
7922:the original
7917:
7888:
7865:France Inter
7864:
7858:
7850:the original
7845:
7836:
7824:. Retrieved
7820:the original
7813:
7804:
7793:
7784:
7773:
7749:
7740:
7728:. Retrieved
7724:the original
7717:
7708:
7696:. Retrieved
7692:
7682:
7670:
7658:
7646:. Retrieved
7631:
7624:
7612:. Retrieved
7592:
7584:
7572:. Retrieved
7567:
7558:
7546:. Retrieved
7542:
7532:
7520:. Retrieved
7516:
7491:
7479:
7452:
7440:
7428:
7416:
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7338:
7326:
7314:
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7176:
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7139:
7118:. Retrieved
7114:the original
7107:
7098:
7078:
7071:
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7047:
7035:
7023:
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6987:
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6963:
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6927:
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6884:
6873:the original
6868:
6856:
6845:
6835:
6823:
6811:
6799:
6787:
6775:
6767:the original
6762:
6753:
6726:
6718:
6714:
6702:
6690:
6678:
6666:
6639:
6627:
6618:
6608:
6603:, p. 17
6598:
6592:
6584:the original
6579:
6569:
6557:
6545:
6533:
6506:
6494:
6482:
6453:
6443:
6437:
6425:
6418:Ounaies 2010
6413:
6401:
6389:
6382:Ounaies 2010
6377:
6370:Ounaies 2010
6365:
6358:Ounaies 2010
6353:
6341:
6316:
6310:
6298:
6286:
6274:
6267:Mestiri 1991
6262:
6250:
6238:
6226:
6218:the original
6213:
6203:
6191:
6179:
6172:Mestiri 1991
6167:
6160:Mestiri 1991
6155:
6126:
6119:Mestiri 1991
6114:
6090:Ounaies 2010
6085:
6054:
6047:Mestiri 1991
6042:
6035:Mestiri 1991
6030:
6007:the original
5996:
5989:Mestiri 1991
5984:
5972:
5967:, p. 73
5962:
5956:
5947:
5926:
5920:
5908:
5896:
5884:
5872:
5860:
5848:
5836:
5824:
5812:
5800:
5788:
5781:Ounaies 2010
5776:
5764:
5752:
5740:
5728:
5703:the original
5698:
5688:
5666:Ounaies 2010
5661:
5634:
5622:
5610:
5598:
5586:
5543:Ounaies 2010
5538:
5509:
5497:
5485:
5473:
5461:
5449:
5437:
5395:
5383:
5371:
5359:
5347:
5335:
5323:
5313:
5308:
5296:
5269:
5257:
5245:
5233:. Retrieved
5226:the original
5202:Mestiri 2011
5197:
5185:
5173:. Retrieved
5166:the original
5153:
5141:
5134:Mestiri 2011
5129:
5117:
5105:
5093:
5081:
5069:
5057:
5045:
5033:
5021:
5009:
4984:the original
4977:
4932:
4905:
4893:
4881:
4854:
4842:
4830:
4818:
4806:
4794:
4782:
4770:
4758:
4749:
4743:
4731:
4719:
4692:
4680:
4668:
4656:
4644:
4632:
4620:
4608:
4596:
4584:
4572:
4560:
4524:
4518:
4512:
4506:
4500:
4494:
4488:
4482:
4476:
4470:
4464:
4458:
4452:
4446:
4441:Publications
3856:
3846:
3831:
3815:
3810:
3806:
3804:
3777:
3774:Power of one
3759:
3756:
3741:
3728:Hamani Diori
3720:Francophonie
3717:
3701:
3676:
3673:
3653:
3630:, who was a
3628:Tahar Haddad
3621:
3605:
3593:
3573:
3546:
3523:Tahar Haddad
3512:
3505:
3488:
3465:
3442:
3429:
3408:Bourguiba's
3381:
3361:
3342:launched an
3337:
3319:
3317:
3301:
3286:
3276:
3271:
3262:
3236:
3225:
3221:
3208:
3191:
3171:
3155:
3149:
3139:
3132:
3120:
3112:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3077:heart attack
3074:
3051:
3028:
3012:
2995:cooperatives
2992:
2988:
2977:
2971:
2962:
2953:
2935:
2932:Aide-de-camp
2921:
2913:Bahi Ladgham
2909:
2893:orange juice
2882:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2848:
2841:
2807:
2777:
2757:
2744:governorates
2740:
2732:Bahi Ladgham
2728:
2723:
2714:
2697:Bardo Treaty
2689:Quai d'Orsay
2685:
2673:
2669:
2657:
2653:
2636:
2621:
2609:
2607:
2592:
2580:
2576:
2564:
2560:
2545:
2523:
2503:
2491:
2485:
2465:
2460:
2453:
2441:
2419:
2373:
2367:
2339:
2330:
2314:
2293:
2259:
2255:
2238:
2230:
2209:Dean Acheson
2206:
2194:Liberty ship
2193:
2166:
2156:Taha Hussein
2153:
2125:
2104:Klaus Barbie
2089:
2076:
2062:World War II
2059:
2046:
2042:
2037:
2023:
2018:
2006:
1987:
1979:Messali Hadj
1967:capitulation
1959:
1939:
1919:
1899:
1893:and Sfar in
1866:Le Populaire
1865:
1861:
1857:
1854:
1849:
1841:
1833:
1808:
1793:
1791:
1759:
1753:
1749:
1746:
1741:
1726:
1714:
1700:
1697:
1692:
1683:
1679:
1677:
1672:
1668:
1666:
1651:
1640:Le Croissant
1639:
1605:
1589:Tahar Haddad
1577:
1572:
1568:
1561:
1538:
1521:
1504:
1497:
1457:
1447:
1429:
1426:Habiba Msika
1407:
1371:
1353:malnutrition
1342:
1331:
1316:
1292:
1277:
1271:
1251:house arrest
1232:
1189:
1183:
1176:conservative
1168:Bourguibists
1137:
1133:World War II
1097:Lycée Carnot
1086:
1082:protectorate
1074:independence
970:
969:
926:Bibliography
871:
862:
861:
844:Independence
814:1949 to 1956
810:1945 to 1949
806:1939 to 1945
802:1934 to 1939
798:1930 to 1934
796:
784:
775:
768:
767:
734:
498:affiliations
454:(2000-04-06)
452:6 April 2000
402:Succeeded by
368:
354:Bahi Ladgham
349:Succeeded by
315:
298:Succeeded by
264:
250:(Indirectly)
247:Bahi Ladgham
242:Succeeded by
206:
187:Succeeded by
142:Bahi Ladgham
122:
76:
63:
54:You can help
44:
10192:2000 deaths
10187:1903 births
9991:Kris Sivara
9855:Arshad Ayub
9655:Eusoff Chin
9647:Ghafar Baba
9575:Salleh Abas
9377:(2019–2021)
9363:(2014–2019)
9343:(2011–2014)
9334:(2011–2014)
9320:Mekki Aloui
9315:(2005–2011)
9287:(1997–2011)
9281:(1991–1997)
9275:(1990–1991)
9269:(1988–1990)
9263:(1987–1988)
9261:Rachid Sfar
9257:(1981–1987)
9251:(1964–1981)
9245:(1959–1964)
9236:(1959–2011)
9225:(1956–1959)
9127:(2023–2024)
9121:(2021–2023)
9115:(2020–2021)
9103:(2016–2020)
9097:(2015–2016)
9095:Habib Essid
9091:(2014–2015)
9089:Mehdi Jomaa
9085:(2013–2014)
9079:(2011–2013)
9067:(1999–2011)
9061:(1989–1999)
9055:(1987–1989)
9043:(1986–1987)
9041:Rachid Sfar
9037:(1980–1986)
9031:(1970–1980)
9025:(1969–1970)
8921:(2014–2019)
8915:(2011–2014)
8903:(1987–2011)
8897:(1957–1987)
8490:Neo Destour
8461:Neo-Destour
7826:24 December
7730:24 December
7698:13 December
7188:Dailymotion
7120:24 December
7052:Martel 1999
6804:Khlifi 2005
6792:Khlifi 2005
6780:Khlifi 2005
6671:Khlifi 2005
6659:Khlifi 2005
6562:Khlifi 2005
6550:Khlifi 2005
6538:Khlifi 2005
6511:Khlifi 2005
6499:Julien 1985
6487:Julien 1985
6430:Khlifi 2005
6394:Julien 1985
6346:Khlifi 2005
6279:Julien 1985
6231:Julien 1952
6196:Julien 1985
6184:Khlifi 2005
6023:Grimal 1985
5733:Julien 1952
5627:Martel 1999
5615:Julien 1952
5531:Martel 1999
5514:Martel 1999
5340:Khlifi 2005
5301:Martel 1999
5190:Martel 1999
5086:Martel 1999
5038:Martel 1999
4925:Martel 1999
4910:Martel 1999
4898:Martel 1999
4835:Martel 1999
4625:Martel 1999
4067:Ivory Coast
4013:Netherlands
3853:bourgeoisie
3696:White House
3664:Jean Daniel
3596:opportunism
3557:corporatist
3535:Bourguibism
3529:Bourguibism
3445:pneumonitis
3365:Rachid Sfar
3265:Clientelism
3135:Hedi Nouira
3081:Six-Day War
3039:olive trees
3015:devaluation
3004:bureaucracy
2926:'s nephew,
2748:delegations
2618:La Goulette
2587:Edgar Faure
2483:took over.
2250:Pan-arabism
2182:Switzerland
2161:Arab League
2002:Pan-Arabism
1983:Nahas Pasha
1977:, Algerian
1963:Switzerland
1947:Hédi Nouira
1889:, Guiga in
1887:Ben Gardane
1817:Neo-Destour
1799:Ksar Hellal
1636:Paul Doumer
1616:Bahri Guiga
1556: 1931
1422:Bahri Guiga
1410:Mathematics
1345:World War I
1239:clientelism
1148:Arab League
1125:Neo Destour
896:Bread riots
851:Premiership
832:Neo Destour
786:Bourguibism
637:Saïda Sassi
502:Neo Destour
490:(1964–1987)
475:Citizenship
392:Preceded by
339:Preceded by
288:Preceded by
230:Preceded by
165:Preceded by
154:Rachid Sfar
146:Hédi Nouira
10176:Categories
10146:Quotations
10047:Sirindhorn
9839:Samy Vellu
9743:Musa Hitam
9631:Raja Mohar
9527:Rahah Noah
8931:Kais Saied
8865:Presidents
8640:Lamine Bey
8612:New office
8586:New office
8519:New office
8103:References
7751:L'Humanité
4385:Yugoslavia
4174:Mauritania
3873:Lamine Bey
3722:alongside
3584:liberalism
3549:pragmatism
3457:Kofi Annan
3217:depression
3186:referendum
3162:Mauritania
3094:decree-law
2661:Ez-Zitouna
2632:Mongi Slim
2461:Tunis Soir
2262:Moncef Bey
2178:Alexandria
2146:in April.
2117:Moncef Bey
2050:Téboursouk
1862:L'Humanité
1778:See also:
1620:Tahar Sfar
1525:Jean Habib
1477:Bolsheviks
1418:Tahar Sfar
1414:Philosophy
1378:secularism
1349:war effort
914:Later life
873:Presidency
793:Chronology
757:Early life
697:.bourguiba
668:Profession
658:Occupation
647:Alma mater
600:(adoptive)
572:;
432:1903-08-03
10257:Gandhians
9791:Zaki Azmi
8805:New Title
8780:New Title
8755:New Title
8730:New Title
8721:Incumbent
8708:New Title
8652:President
8574:(1969–70)
8527:President
8119:Bourguiba
7889:Afrik.com
4507:Citations
3748:pluralism
3744:democracy
3660:Hélé Béji
3571:outlook.
3410:mausoleum
3324:red belts
3089:Ouerdanin
2999:Djerbiens
2959:socialist
2614:Marseille
2567:Chantilly
2511:Fellaghas
2488:La Galite
2394:Stockholm
2351:New Delhi
2070:Marseille
2066:destroyer
1935:Leon Blum
1883:Tataouine
1860:but also
1727:With the
1469:Leon Blum
1436:socialism
1172:modernism
1152:La Galite
1129:Marseille
1051:romanized
678:Signature
633:(brother)
628:(brother)
623:Relatives
512:(1930–34)
505:(1934–64)
369:In office
316:In office
265:In office
207:In office
123:In office
66:July 2018
58:talk page
18:Bourguiba
10099:Politics
8396:Archived
8337:(2009).
8317:Publisud
8307:(1998).
8287:Karthala
8281:(2004).
8223:(2010).
8166:(2003).
8117:(2012).
8038:Réalités
7815:Le Monde
7719:Le Monde
7109:Le Monde
4387: :
4156:Malaysia
3977:Ethiopia
3896: :
3698:in 1961.
3641:polygamy
3576:Kemalism
3553:populist
3425:Monastir
3414:Monastir
3373:paranoia
3369:Islamism
3320:Le Monde
3312:Nefzaoua
3295:and the
3212:Monastir
3166:Kairouan
2978:Tunisois
2963:Tunisois
2905:apostasy
2897:Muhammad
2815:monarchy
2802:polygyny
2771:and the
2755:member.
2665:Kairouan
2343:Pakistan
2234:Damascus
2204:opened.
1971:Montreux
1891:Médenine
1762:Monastir
1632:Carthage
1464:Sorbonne
1448:Le Oujda
1431:L'Aiglon
1274:Monastir
1243:Islamism
1196:Republic
1191:de facto
1111:and the
1089:Monastir
1087:Born in
752:Ancestry
591:Children
478:Tunisian
439:Monastir
378:Monarchs
325:Monarchs
274:Monarchs
216:Monarchs
10087:History
10061:Portals
9413:Italics
9203:Tunisia
9006:Tunisia
8869:Tunisia
8654:of the
8558:of the
8434:Destour
8410:Offices
7999:Tunisia
5235:19 July
5175:18 July
4263:Senegal
4209:Morocco
4192:Morocco
4121:Liberia
3941:Denmark
3894:Tunisia
3645:divorce
3569:statist
3508:Lebanon
3195:Mashreq
3158:Morocco
3066:Jericho
2885:Ramadan
2677:Tripoli
2571:Algeria
2457:Tabarka
2402:Morocco
2355:Sukarno
2296:Bizerte
2190:Antwerp
2186:Belgium
2184:, then
1803:Moknine
1738:Bizerte
1612:Destour
1395:Destour
1306:in the
1298:led by
1164:Maghreb
1131:during
1121:Destour
1064:of the
1053::
690:Website
640:(niece)
606:Parents
582:
562:
558:
547:
535:
531:
518:Spouses
509:Destour
10075:Africa
10045:2009:
10037:2003:
10029:2003:
10021:2003:
10013:1982:
10005:1979:
9997:1973:
9989:1973:
9981:1973:
9973:1973:
9965:1973:
9957:1972:
9949:1972:
9941:1972:
9933:1971:
9925:1969:
9917:1969:
9909:1968:
9901:1967:
9893:1966:
9874:2022:
9861:2020:
9853:2020:
9845:2020:
9837:2017:
9829:2017:
9821:2017:
9813:2012:
9805:2011:
9797:2010:
9789:2009:
9781:2009:
9773:2009:
9765:2008:
9757:2008:
9749:2008:
9741:2006:
9733:2005:
9725:2005:
9717:2004:
9709:2003:
9701:2003:
9693:2003:
9685:2002:
9677:2001:
9669:2000:
9661:1998:
9653:1997:
9645:1995:
9637:1993:
9629:1992:
9621:1991:
9613:1991:
9605:1990:
9597:1989:
9589:1987:
9581:1987:
9573:1985:
9565:1983:
9557:1982:
9549:1981:
9541:1980:
9533:1979:
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9371:(2019)
9323:(2011)
9295:(2011)
9219:(1956)
9109:(2020)
9073:(2011)
9049:(1987)
8689:Titles
8345:
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8123:Elyzad
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7639:
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