2203:
2389:
424:
733:
2257:
411:, a "Joint Statement by Experts on the Establishment of an International Monetary Fund", was published simultaneously in a number of Allied countries on April 21, 1944. On May 25, 1944, the U.S. government invited the Allied countries to send representatives to an international monetary conference "for the purpose of formulating definite proposals for an International Monetary Fund and possibly a Bank for Reconstruction and Development. IBRD." (The word "International" was added to the Bank's title late in the Bretton Woods Conference.) The United States also invited a smaller group of countries to send experts to a preliminary conference in
1968:
2364:
2295:
1800:
2240:
2222:
1562:
1541:
1878:
1762:
2183:
1990:
1467:
1840:
1725:
1613:
1495:
520:
1703:
2275:
2066:
1935:
578:. During the Second World War, it helped the Germans transfer assets from occupied countries. Moreover, now that IMF was to be established, the BIS seemed to be superfluous. Commission III of the Bretton Woods Conference, therefore, considered Norway's proposal for "liquidation of the Bank for International Settlements at the earliest possible moment." The proposal passed Commission III without objection and was adopted as part of the Final Act of the conference.
2086:
1781:
1668:
2027:
31:
2107:
2345:
1859:
2165:
1899:
1647:
2009:
1917:
1743:
1523:
2327:
2147:
2127:
2045:
1594:
1686:
1819:
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1348:
1428:
1412:
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1332:
1316:
1300:
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1044:
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996:
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932:
916:
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884:
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852:
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820:
804:
788:
772:
756:
740:
384:, published in 1919. Thus, to prevent a new crisis in the post-war world, the world economies deemed it imperative to establish a system that fostered international economic cooperation. However, the U.S. and the U.K., the most influential parties in the conference, had not decided whether such a system was in their national best interests.
503:. This meant countries would maintain their national interest, but trade blocs and economic spheres of influence would no longer be their means. The second idea behind the Bretton Woods Conference was joint management of the Western political-economic order, meaning that the foremost industrial democratic nations must lower
692:
On top of that, each country would have an overdraft facility in its "bancor" account with the ICU. Keynes proposed having a maximum overdraft of half the average trade size over five years. If a country went over that, it would be charged interest, obliging a country to reduce its currency value and
550:
The main goal of the conference was to achieve an agreement on the IMF. Enough consensus existed that the conference was also able to achieve an agreement on the IBRD. Doing so required extending the conference from its original closing date of July 19, 1944 to July 22. Because the United States was
546:
Each commission had a number of committees, and some committees had subcommittees. Every country at the conference was entitled to send delegates to all meetings of the commissions and the "standing committees", but other committees and subcommittees had restricted membership, to allow them to work
329:
Multilateral economic cooperation among countries was crucial for the post-war world economies. Countries sought to establish an international monetary and financial system that fostered collaboration and growth among the participating countries. They wanted to avoid the complications, faced during
477:
position, governments had the power to revise them by up to 10% from the initially agreed level ("par value") without objection by the IMF. The IMF could concur in or object to changes beyond that level. The IMF could not force a member to undo a change, but could deny the member access to the
2411:, which had signed the Bretton Woods Final Act but had then decided not to ratify it, rejecting the inclusion of the dollar alongside gold and citing that the institutions they had created were "branches of Wall Street". The USSR never joined the IMF and IBRD, though its successor the
712:
Instead, White proposed an
International Stabilization Fund, which would place the burden of maintaining the balance of trade on the deficit nations, and impose no limit on the surplus that rich countries could accumulate. White also proposed the creation of the IBRD (now part of the
369:
greatly affected the German economy. Prices rose 41 percent per day. In the autumn of 1923, 1 Dollar was worth about 4 trillion Marks, forcing the population to barter. Germany's subsequent economic turmoil led to its financial collapse and eventually to the rise of
481:
All member countries were required to subscribe to the IMF's capital. Membership in the IBRD was conditioned on being a member of the IMF. Voting in both institutions was apportioned according to formulas giving greater weight to countries contributing more capital
3066:
3490:
547:
more efficiently. Except when registering final approval or disapproval of proposals, the work of the conference generally proceeded by negotiation and informal consensus rather than by formal voting. When voting occurred, each country had one vote.
697:
the size of their permitted overdraft, obliging them to increase their currency values and export more capital. If at the year's end, their credit exceeded the maximum (half the size of the overdraft in surplus), the surplus would be confiscated.
2399:
The
Articles of Agreement for the IMF and IBRD signed at Bretton Woods did not come into force until ratified by countries with at least 80 percent of the capital subscriptions ("quotas"). The threshold was reached on December 27, 1945.
443:
and to foster economic development, especially through lending to build infrastructure. (3) Other recommendations for international economic cooperation. The Final Act of the conference incorporated these agreements and recommendations.
704:
reported that "it would be difficult to exaggerate the electrifying effect on thought throughout the whole relevant apparatus of government ... nothing so imaginative and so ambitious had ever been discussed". However,
2438:
Because of its success in founding two international organizations that have had long and influential lives, the
Bretton Woods Conference is sometimes cited as an example worthy of imitation. In particular, since the
539:, economic adviser to the British Chancellor of the Exchequer and the chief British negotiator at the conference. Commission III dealt with "other means of international financial cooperation" and was chaired by
3495:
527:
The highest body of the
Bretton Woods Conference was the plenary session, which met only in the first and last days of the conference and existed mainly to confirm decisions reached by the lower bodies.
685:
would be unable to climb out of it, paying ever more interest to service their ever-greater debt, and therefore stifling global growth. The ICU would effectively be a bank with its own currency (the "
470:. The goal of widespread current account convertibility did not become operative until December 1958, when the currencies of the IMF's Western European members and their colonies became convertible.
551:
the world's largest economy at the time, and the main prospective source of funds for the IMF and IBRD, the U.S. delegation had the largest influence on the proposals agreed to at
Bretton Woods.
466:
transactions. There were, however, transitional provisions that allowed for indefinite delay in accepting that obligation, and the IMF agreement explicitly allowed member countries to regulate
632:
The
Bretton Woods Conference recommended that participating governments reach agreement to reduce obstacles to international trade. The recommendation was later embodied in the proposed
447:
Within the Final Act, the most important part in the eyes of the conference participants and for the later operation of the world economy was the IMF agreement. Its major features were:
2936:
Edward S. Mason and Robert E. Asher, "The World Bank Since
Bretton Woods: The Origins, Policies, Operations and Impact of the International Bank for Reconstruction". (Washington DC:
2911:
A full list of conference attendees is in Kurt
Schuler and Mark Bernkopf, "Who Was at Bretton Woods?," Center for Financial Stability Paper in Financial History, July 1, 2014,
2507:
689:"), exchangeable with national currencies at a fixed rate. It would be the unit for accounting between nations, so their trade deficits or surpluses could be measured by it.
709:, representing the United States, which was the world's biggest creditor, said "We have been perfectly adamant on that point. We have taken the position of absolutely no."
3157:
3336:
3549:
664:(WTO) as the replacement body for GATT. The GATT principles and agreements were adopted by the WTO, which was charged with administering and extending them.
436:
68:
535:, Assistant to the Secretary of the U.S. Treasury and the chief American negotiator at the conference. Commission II dealt with the IBRD and was chaired by
3653:
2502:
574:
The BIS, formed in 1930, was originally primarily intended to facilitate settling financial obligations arising from the peace treaties that concluded the
2512:
2444:
540:
1443:
543:, Mexico's Minister of Finance and the leader of the Mexican delegation. It was a venue for ideas that did not fall under the other two commissions.
67:
The conference was held from July 1 to 22, 1944. Agreements were signed that, after legislative ratification by member governments, established the
3292:
3150:
455:
rate system: Exchange rates were pegged to gold. Governments were only supposed to alter exchange rates to correct a "fundamental disequilibrium".
2497:
732:
3703:
2715:
2755:
3693:
3182:
2775:
3658:
640:. The ITO would have complemented the IMF and IBRD. The ITO charter was agreed on at the U.N. Conference on Trade and Employment (held in
3200:
3143:
316:
3102:
3668:
400:
17:
2423:
were likewise absent from formal participation at
Savannah (Australia sent observers), though they joined the IMF and IBRD later.
3698:
3435:
3174:
693:
prevent capital exports. But countries with trade surpluses would also be charged interest at 10% if their surplus was more than
3109:
Proceedings and
Documents of the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, July 1â22, 1944
3571:
653:
380:
3079:
3026:
3000:
2839:
2691:
2634:
2601:
2408:
1598:
645:
463:
403:
independently began to develop ideas about the financial order of the postwar world. (See below for Keynes's proposal for an
415:, to develop draft proposals for the Bretton Woods conference. The Atlantic City conference was held from June 15â30, 1944.
3638:
3633:
3021:. Essays in International Finance 192. Princeton: International Finance Section, Dept. of Economics, Princeton University.
3648:
3411:
3188:
3118:
3114:
531:
The conference conducted its major work through three "commissions". Commission I dealt with the IMF and was chaired by
435:, whose purpose was to promote stability of exchange rates and financial flows. (2) Articles of Agreement to create the
3166:
3045:
1481:
601:
and open system of trade at the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference. These allowed for the synthesis of Britain's desire for
560:
342:, and trade wars that spread the depression globally. There would be a need for an entity that fostered equilibrium in
3683:
3678:
3423:
2963:
1883:
1618:
407:.) After negotiation between officials of the United States and the United Kingdom and consultation with some other
3623:
3602:
3566:
2519:
1690:
633:
627:
3483:
2207:
2202:
681:
first proposed the ICU in 1941, as a way to regulate the balance of trade. His concern was that countries with a
177:
3673:
3597:
3381:
2491:
589:, the top U.S. officials most critical of the BIS left office, and by 1948 the liquidation had been put aside.
309:
3525:
3447:
2912:
2388:
57:
427:
The United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire on 1â22 July 1944.
3581:
3576:
3272:
3248:
3224:
1714:
721:
after the war. The IMF as agreed to at Bretton Woods was much closer to White's proposal than to Keynes's.
673:
404:
53:
3459:
3369:
3067:
The Battle of Bretton Woods: John Maynard Keynes, Harry Dexter White, and the Making of a New World Order
2412:
432:
76:
423:
3531:
3071:
1552:
131:
2193:
353:
Additionally, countries were concerned with crisis like the one suffered by Germany in the 1920s. The
3688:
3663:
3491:
Treaty between the United States and China for the Relinquishment of Extraterritorial Rights in China
3453:
3387:
3304:
3218:
2955:
2729:
2568:
2392:
Bretton Woods Conference Participating Nations Flag Display Case located within the Gold Room at the
1949:
412:
302:
121:
3393:
3316:
3310:
3260:
3230:
3206:
2899:
2818:
2805:
2792:
2752:
2117:
661:
2772:
2594:
The battle of Bretton Woods John Maynard Keynes, Harry Dexter, and the making of a new world order
3537:
3322:
3286:
3254:
2992:
2461:
1957:
718:
452:
358:
223:
208:
167:
3127:
1829:
3643:
3471:
3465:
3417:
2432:
2393:
1657:
473:
As it was possible that exchange rates thus established might not be favourable to a country's
408:
285:
136:
49:
34:
2443:
of the system of pegged exchange rates agreed to at Bretton Woods there have been a number of
3543:
3236:
2937:
2684:
The downfall of money : Germany's hyperinflation and the destruction of the middle class
2369:
2244:
2239:
582:
508:
431:
The Bretton Woods Conference had three main results: (1) Articles of Agreement to create the
290:
244:
213:
126:
2456:
2305:
1572:
649:
610:
500:
496:
354:
146:
141:
116:
80:
2658:
8:
3628:
3519:
3477:
3399:
2481:
2375:
2285:
1979:
678:
637:
536:
474:
388:
3343:
3212:
3015:
2709:
2317:
2076:
1730:
706:
532:
396:
151:
2925:
597:
The need for post-war Western economic order was resolved with the agreements made on
3513:
3507:
3279:
3135:
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3041:
3022:
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2959:
2835:
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2597:
2404:
1845:
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2056:
1889:
3501:
3429:
3363:
3329:
3266:
3242:
3194:
3010:
2466:
1805:
1767:
1576:
495:. In his closing remarks at the conference, its president, U.S. Treasury Secretary
440:
392:
339:
270:
203:
172:
72:
2383:
3441:
3405:
2984:
2779:
2759:
2137:
1995:
1584:
1509:
1477:
602:
586:
331:
198:
2989:
John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace
2830:
On the points discussed in this section, see Kurt Schuler and Andrew Rosenberg,
519:
3496:
Sino-British Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extra-Territorial Rights in China
2952:
Developmental Peace: Theorizing China's Approach to International Peacebuilding
2476:
2470:
2280:
1953:
1945:
1708:
1580:
1513:
701:
459:
366:
2629:(2nd ed.). Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 544â546.
3617:
3375:
2701:
2644:
2611:
2535:
2524:
2486:
2300:
1629:
682:
657:
504:
467:
350:
while ensuring domestic policy autonomy for high employment and real income.
343:
335:
280:
275:
254:
218:
111:
106:
2878:
2313:
2262:
1973:
1633:
1505:
1485:
375:
347:
249:
61:
3108:
2913:
http://www.centerforfinancialstability.org/bw/Who_Was_at_Bretton_Woods.pdf
499:, stated that the establishment of the IMF and the IBRD marked the end of
2898:
Bretton Woods Final Act, Section VII, "International Economic Problems,"
2529:
2440:
2420:
2309:
2096:
2091:
2071:
1940:
1786:
575:
492:
362:
2032:
1673:
1637:
1625:
1546:
714:
606:
598:
491:
The seminal idea behind the Bretton Woods Conference was the notion of
48:, was the gathering of 730 delegates from all 44 allied nations at the
30:
2416:
2350:
2112:
1864:
1472:
652:. As a result, the ITO never came into existence. The less ambitious
568:
554:
2403:
The institutions were formally organized at an inaugural meeting in
2170:
1904:
1652:
193:
3128:
Transcripts and other resources for the conference hosted at the
2332:
2014:
1922:
1748:
1528:
1500:
2900:
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/430/item/7570?start_page=950
2819:
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/430/item/7570?start_page=960
2806:
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/430/item/7570?start_page=960
2793:
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/430/item/7570?start_page=954
2753:
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/430/item/7569?start_page=506
3122:
3097:
2773:
https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/430/item/7570?start_page=12
2771:"Invitation of the United States of America to the Conference,"
2384:
Ratification of Bretton Woods Final Act and Savannah Conference
2227:
2152:
2132:
2050:
1824:
1567:
686:
641:
564:
371:
1593:
2407:, on March 8â18, 1946. Notably absent from Savannah was the
511:, in addition to their responsibility to govern the system.
2435:
was adopted as the primary measure of country's economies.
2188:
1685:
581:
Momentum for dissolving the BIS faded after U.S. President
567:
delegation put forth evidence that the BIS was involved in
2834:
pp. 7â9 (New York: Center for Financial Stability, 2013),
378:, aligning with some of John Maynard Keynes's concerns in
605:
and economic stability and the United States' desire for
1551:
Artur de Sousa Costa, Francisco Alves dos Santos Filho,
3337:
United Nations Conference on International Organization
2804:
IMF Articles of Agreement, Articles VI, VIII, and XIV,
656:(GATT) was adopted in its place. However, in 1995, the
3550:
Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany
3165:
2817:
IMF Articles of Agreement, Article IV, Sections 5â6,
2624:
613:
of pegged exchange rates lasted into the early 1970s.
439:, whose purpose was to speed reconstruction after the
83:
for international commercial and financial relations.
2508:
The "Revived Bretton Woods system" identified in 2003
592:
69:
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
27:
International conference in New Hampshire, US in 1944
2926:
https://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/chron/chron.asp
621:
3014:
2851:United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference,
555:The Bank for International Settlements controversy
458:Member countries pledged to make their currencies
2625:Blume, Lawrence; Steven N. Durlauf, eds. (2008).
3615:
644:, Cuba, in March 1948), but the charter was not
46:United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference
667:
514:
3151:
2503:The post Bretton Woods system: 1971 â present
636:(ITO) to establish rules and regulations for
310:
2360:
563:(BIS) became an object of scrutiny when the
3654:Diplomatic conferences in the United States
3035:
486:
3158:
3144:
2714:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1796:
317:
303:
58:international monetary and financial order
3038:Bretton Woods: Birth of a Monetary System
585:died in April 1945. Under his successor,
3293:Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference
3009:
2983:
2627:The new Palgrave dictionary of economics
2555:
2387:
1836:
518:
422:
29:
2879:"A brief history of the BIS, 1930â2005"
2791:IMF Articles of Agreement, Article IV,
1874:
1758:
1609:
79:(IMF). This led to what was called the
14:
3616:
3572:Sino-American Cooperative Organization
2730:"Creation of the Bretton Woods System"
2681:
2569:"Creation of the Bretton Woods System"
1986:
1964:
654:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
381:The Economic Consequences of the Peace
3704:July 1944 events in the United States
3139:
3063:
660:of GATT negotiations established the
3694:History of international development
2949:
2591:
3659:20th-century diplomatic conferences
3436:GermanâTurkish Treaty of Friendship
3017:The Bretton Woods Debates: A Memoir
2943:
616:
24:
3167:Diplomatic history of World War II
3056:
2858:
2855:(London et al., 1944), Article IV.
1678:Francisco de Paula Gutiérrez Ross
717:) which would provide capital for
593:Monetary order in a post-war world
561:Bank for International Settlements
25:
3715:
3090:
2686:(First U.S. ed.). New York.
418:
401:United States Treasury Department
56:, United States, to regulate the
3603:Japanese Instrument of Surrender
3567:Anglo-French Supreme War Council
3412:Declaration of St James's Palace
3096:
3040:. New York: Holmes & Meier.
2520:List of World War II conferences
2498:The Bretton Woods Era: 1945â1971
2445:Calls for a "New Bretton Woods".
2362:
2343:
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2273:
2255:
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2220:
2201:
2181:
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2125:
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2007:
1988:
1966:
1933:
1915:
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1074:
1058:
1042:
1026:
1010:
994:
978:
962:
946:
930:
914:
898:
882:
866:
850:
834:
818:
802:
786:
770:
754:
738:
731:
634:International Trade Organization
628:International Trade Organization
622:International Trade Organization
3669:1944 in international relations
3484:Declaration of the Four Nations
2976:
2930:
2918:
2905:
2892:
2871:
2845:
2824:
2811:
2798:
2785:
2513:Calls for a "New Bretton Woods"
178:Retail foreign exchange trading
3699:History of international trade
3598:German Instrument of Surrender
3424:Armistice of Saint Jean d'Acre
3382:Anglo-Thai Non-Aggression Pact
3201:Second Inter-Allied Conference
3130:Center for Financial Stability
2866:The Bretton Woods Transcripts,
2832:The Bretton Woods Transcripts,
2765:
2746:
2722:
2675:
2651:
2618:
2596:. Princeton University Press.
2585:
2561:
2549:
2492:International monetary systems
724:
13:
1:
3448:Declaration by United Nations
3219:Third Inter-Allied Conference
3189:First Inter-Allied Conference
3183:U.S.âBritish Staff Conference
2808:, pp. 951â52, 954â57, 965â66.
2542:
2267:Mikhail Stepanovich Stepanov
523:Bretton Woods Conference room
361:for the damages it caused in
86:
3582:Council of Foreign Ministers
3577:European Advisory Commission
3273:Greater East Asia Conference
3225:Second Washington Conference
3036:Van Dormael, Armand (1978).
2426:
1347:
674:International Clearing Union
668:International Clearing Union
462:for trade-related and other
405:International Clearing Union
54:Bretton Woods, New Hampshire
7:
3639:Global economic conferences
3634:International Monetary Fund
3460:Anglo-Soviet Treaty of 1942
3249:Third Washington Conference
3119:Bretton Woods Agreement Act
2449:
2441:collapse in the early 1970s
515:Structure of the conference
77:International Monetary Fund
10:
3720:
3649:United Nations conferences
3113:Documents relating to the
3072:Princeton University Press
1553:Roberto de Oliveira Campos
1427:
1411:
1395:
1379:
1363:
1331:
1315:
1299:
1283:
1267:
1251:
1235:
1219:
1203:
1187:
1171:
1155:
1139:
1123:
1107:
1091:
1075:
1059:
1043:
1027:
1011:
995:
979:
963:
947:
931:
915:
899:
883:
867:
851:
835:
819:
803:
787:
771:
755:
739:
671:
625:
359:reparations on the country
3590:
3559:
3454:Punishment for War Crimes
3388:Destroyers-for-bases deal
3354:
3305:Dumbarton Oaks Conference
3173:
2956:Columbia University Press
2157:Augusto Guillermo Arango
2099:, Edward Coldham Fussell
1950:Ardeshir Darabshaw Shroff
413:Atlantic City, New Jersey
122:Exchange-rate flexibility
71:(IBRD, later part of the
3684:1944 in economic history
3679:World War II conferences
3394:Franco-Italian Armistice
3317:Fourth Moscow Conference
3311:Second Quebec Conference
3299:Bretton Woods Conference
3231:Second Moscow Conference
3115:Bretton Woods Conference
3103:Bretton Woods Conference
2118:Guillermo Sevilla Sacasa
1660:, Miguel LĂłpez Pumarejo
1533:René Balliviån Calderón
662:World Trade Organization
487:Encouraging open markets
348:competitive devaluations
240:Bretton Woods Conference
60:after the conclusion of
44:, formally known as the
42:Bretton Woods Conference
18:Bretton Woods conference
3624:Foreign exchange market
3538:Treaty of San Francisco
3370:MolotovâRibbentrop Pact
3287:Second Cairo Conference
3261:Third Moscow Conference
3255:First Quebec Conference
3207:First Moscow Conference
2993:Oxford University Press
2924:IMF, "IMF Chronology,"
2864:Schuler and Rosenberg,
2734:Federal Reserve History
2573:Federal Reserve History
2462:Bretton Woods Committee
2337:Mario La Gamma Acevedo
2194:Pedro BeltrĂĄn Espantoso
1958:R. K. Shanmukham Chetty
1869:Manuel Noriega Morales
719:economic reconstruction
453:foreign exchange market
387:Early in World War II,
224:Foreign exchange option
209:Non-deliverable forward
168:Foreign exchange market
3526:United Nations Charter
3466:Armistice of Cassibile
3418:Anglo-Soviet Agreement
3070:. Princeton, NJ:
2950:Meng, Wenting (2024).
2433:gross domestic product
2396:
2394:Mount Washington Hotel
2019:William E. Dennis Sr.
1811:Ephrem Tewelde Medhen
1695:Eduardo I. Montoulieu
1658:Carlos Lleras Restrepo
1619:China, the Republic of
524:
428:
286:Foreign exchange fraud
137:Floating exchange rate
50:Mount Washington Hotel
37:
35:Mount Washington Hotel
3674:1944 in New Hampshire
3544:Austrian State Treaty
3237:Casablanca Conference
2938:Brookings Institution
2682:Taylor, Fred (2013).
2391:
1851:Kyriakos Varvaressos
1791:AgustĂn Alfaro MorĂĄn
1713:Ladislav Feierabend (
522:
478:resources of the IMF.
451:An adjustably pegged
426:
334:, due to leaving the
291:Currency intervention
245:Smithsonian Agreement
232:Historical agreements
214:Foreign exchange swap
33:
3532:Paris Peace Treaties
3105:at Wikimedia Commons
3064:Steil, Benn (2013).
2592:Benn, Steil (2014).
2457:Bretton Woods system
2306:Henry Morgenthau Jr.
1830:Pierre MendĂšs France
1573:James Lorimer Ilsley
1444:class=notpageimage|
611:Bretton Woods system
501:economic nationalism
340:the great depression
147:Managed float regime
142:Linked exchange rate
117:Exchange rate regime
81:Bretton Woods system
3520:Potsdam Declaration
3478:Moscow Declarations
3400:Moscow Peace Treaty
3195:Atlantic Conference
2482:Fixed exchange rate
2431:At the conference,
2286:John Maynard Keynes
2175:Celso R. VelĂĄzquez
1980:Abol Hassan Ebtehaj
1603:Luis Ălamos Barros
1459:Delegation members
1447:Signatory countries
679:John Maynard Keynes
638:international trade
537:John Maynard Keynes
509:movement of capital
475:balance of payments
389:John Maynard Keynes
132:Fixed exchange rate
3344:Potsdam Conference
3213:Arcadia Conference
2778:2018-08-10 at the
2758:2018-08-10 at the
2413:Russian Federation
2397:
2318:Harry Dexter White
2077:Johan Willem Beyen
2037:Hugues Le Gallais
1927:MagnĂșs SigurĂ°sson
1909:JuliĂĄn R. CĂĄceres
1731:Dominican Republic
707:Harry Dexter White
583:Franklin Roosevelt
533:Harry Dexter White
525:
429:
397:Harry Dexter White
152:Dual exchange rate
38:
3611:
3610:
3514:Potsdam Agreement
3508:Nuremberg Charter
3472:Cairo Declaration
3280:Tehran Conference
3101:Media related to
3081:978-0-691-14909-7
3028:978-0-881-65099-0
3002:978-0-198-29236-4
2840:978-1-941801-01-7
2693:978-1-62040-236-8
2636:978-0-333-78676-5
2603:978-0-691-16237-9
2405:Savannah, Georgia
2381:
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1773:Sany Lackany Bey
1753:Esteban F. Carbo
1482:Frederick Wheeler
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16:(Redirected from
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3689:July 1944 events
3664:1944 conferences
3502:Moscow Armistice
3430:Atlantic Charter
3364:Munich Agreement
3330:Yalta Conference
3323:Malta Conference
3267:Cairo Conference
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587:Harry S. Truman
576:First World War
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199:Currency future
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3091:External links
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3055:
3053:
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3047:978-0333233696
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2958:. p. 54.
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2764:
2762:, pp. 1629â36.
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1946:Jeremy Raisman
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594:
591:
556:
553:
541:Eduardo SuĂĄrez
516:
513:
488:
485:
484:
483:
479:
471:
456:
420:
419:The agreements
417:
367:hyperinflation
346:and prevented
344:exchange rates
325:
324:
322:
321:
314:
307:
299:
296:
295:
294:
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
265:
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260:
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196:
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157:
156:
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149:
144:
139:
134:
129:
124:
119:
114:
109:
101:
100:
99:Exchange rates
96:
95:
88:
85:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3716:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
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3682:
3680:
3677:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3644:Gold standard
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3621:
3619:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
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3593:
3589:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3564:
3562:
3560:Organizations
3558:
3551:
3548:
3545:
3542:
3539:
3536:
3533:
3530:
3527:
3524:
3521:
3518:
3515:
3512:
3509:
3506:
3503:
3500:
3497:
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3437:
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3428:
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3422:
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3416:
3413:
3410:
3407:
3404:
3401:
3398:
3395:
3392:
3389:
3386:
3383:
3380:
3377:
3376:Pact of Steel
3374:
3371:
3368:
3365:
3362:
3361:
3359:
3353:
3346:
3345:
3341:
3338:
3335:
3332:
3331:
3327:
3324:
3321:
3318:
3315:
3312:
3309:
3306:
3303:
3300:
3297:
3294:
3291:
3288:
3285:
3282:
3281:
3277:
3274:
3271:
3268:
3265:
3262:
3259:
3256:
3253:
3250:
3247:
3244:
3241:
3238:
3235:
3232:
3229:
3226:
3223:
3220:
3217:
3214:
3211:
3208:
3205:
3202:
3199:
3196:
3193:
3190:
3187:
3184:
3181:
3180:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3161:
3156:
3154:
3149:
3147:
3142:
3141:
3138:
3132:
3131:
3126:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3104:
3099:
3095:
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3083:
3077:
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3069:
3068:
3062:
3061:
3049:
3043:
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3034:
3030:
3024:
3019:
3018:
3012:
3008:
3004:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2981:
2967:
2965:9783838219073
2961:
2957:
2953:
2946:
2939:
2933:
2927:
2921:
2914:
2908:
2901:
2895:
2887:
2880:
2874:
2867:
2861:
2854:
2848:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2827:
2821:, pp. 946â47.
2820:
2814:
2807:
2801:
2795:, pp. 945â48.
2794:
2788:
2781:
2777:
2774:
2768:
2761:
2757:
2754:
2749:
2735:
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2599:
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2564:
2557:
2556:Markwell 2006
2552:
2548:
2537:
2536:Protectionism
2534:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2525:Marshall Plan
2523:
2521:
2518:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2487:Gold standard
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2454:
2447:
2446:
2442:
2436:
2434:
2424:
2422:
2418:
2415:did in 1992.
2414:
2410:
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2395:
2390:
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2374:
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2301:United States
2291:
2290:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2271:
2270:
2266:
2264:
2253:
2252:
2248:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2235:
2231:
2229:
2218:
2217:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2198:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2179:
2178:
2174:
2172:
2161:
2160:
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2143:
2142:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2123:
2122:
2119:
2116:
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2103:
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2098:
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2082:
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2075:
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2062:
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2054:
2052:
2041:
2040:
2036:
2034:
2023:
2022:
2018:
2016:
2005:
2004:
2000:
1997:
1985:
1984:
1981:
1978:
1975:
1963:
1962:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1931:
1930:
1926:
1924:
1913:
1912:
1908:
1906:
1895:
1894:
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1868:
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1855:
1854:
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1826:
1815:
1814:
1810:
1807:
1795:
1794:
1790:
1788:
1777:
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1772:
1769:
1757:
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1752:
1750:
1739:
1738:
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1721:
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1699:
1698:
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1677:
1675:
1664:
1663:
1659:
1656:
1654:
1643:
1642:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1630:Tsiang Tingfu
1627:
1624:
1620:
1607:
1606:
1602:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1589:
1586:
1582:
1578:
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1558:
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1519:
1518:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1504:
1502:
1491:
1490:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1463:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1453:
1445:
734:
722:
720:
716:
710:
708:
703:
699:
696:
690:
688:
684:
683:trade deficit
680:
675:
665:
663:
659:
658:Uruguay Round
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
629:
614:
612:
608:
604:
600:
590:
588:
584:
579:
577:
572:
570:
566:
562:
552:
548:
544:
542:
538:
534:
529:
521:
512:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
480:
476:
472:
469:
468:capital flows
465:
461:
457:
454:
450:
449:
448:
445:
442:
438:
434:
425:
416:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
385:
383:
382:
377:
373:
368:
364:
360:
356:
351:
349:
345:
341:
337:
336:gold standard
333:
320:
315:
313:
308:
306:
301:
300:
298:
297:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
281:Currency pair
279:
277:
276:Hard currency
274:
272:
269:
268:
267:
266:
262:
261:
256:
255:Louvre Accord
253:
251:
248:
246:
243:
241:
238:
237:
236:
235:
231:
230:
225:
222:
220:
219:Currency swap
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
191:
190:
189:
185:
184:
179:
176:
174:
171:
169:
166:
165:
164:
163:
159:
158:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
135:
133:
130:
128:
127:Dollarization
125:
123:
120:
118:
115:
113:
112:Exchange rate
110:
108:
107:Currency band
105:
104:
103:
102:
98:
97:
93:
92:
84:
82:
78:
74:
70:
65:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
36:
32:
19:
3357:and treaties
3355:Declarations
3342:
3328:
3298:
3278:
3215:(1941â 1942)
3129:
3065:
3037:
3016:
2988:
2977:Bibliography
2951:
2945:
2940:, 1973), 29.
2932:
2920:
2907:
2894:
2885:
2873:
2865:
2860:
2852:
2847:
2831:
2826:
2813:
2800:
2787:
2767:
2748:
2737:. Retrieved
2733:
2724:
2683:
2677:
2666:. Retrieved
2662:
2653:
2626:
2620:
2593:
2587:
2576:. Retrieved
2572:
2563:
2551:
2469:, 1941 (pre
2437:
2430:
2402:
2398:
2314:Dean Acheson
2263:Soviet Union
2245:South Africa
1634:Kuo Ping-Wen
1506:Camille Gutt
1486:Arthur Tange
711:
700:
694:
691:
677:
631:
596:
580:
573:
558:
549:
545:
530:
526:
493:open markets
490:
446:
430:
386:
379:
376:World War II
352:
328:
250:Plaza Accord
239:
66:
62:World War II
45:
41:
39:
3175:Conferences
2530:Nixon Shock
2494:including:
2421:New Zealand
2310:Fred Vinson
2208:Philippines
2097:Walter Nash
2092:New Zealand
2072:Netherlands
1787:El Salvador
725:Negotiators
650:U.S. Senate
482:("quotas").
460:convertible
363:World War I
3629:World Bank
3618:Categories
2991:. Oxford:
2954:. Ibidem.
2782:, pp. 3â5.
2739:2021-04-17
2668:2021-04-17
2578:2021-04-17
2543:References
2370:Yugoslavia
2033:Luxembourg
1674:Costa Rica
1638:Tsuyee Pei
1626:H. H. Kung
715:World Bank
607:free trade
569:war crimes
87:Background
75:) and the
2902:, p. 941.
2853:Final Act
2710:cite book
2702:827256847
2645:181424188
2612:876136552
2427:Influence
2417:Australia
2351:Venezuela
2113:Nicaragua
1865:Guatemala
1514:René Boël
1473:Australia
565:Norwegian
3013:(1994).
2987:(2006).
2776:Archived
2756:Archived
2450:See also
2171:Paraguay
1905:Honduras
1806:Ethiopia
1653:Colombia
646:ratified
507:and the
357:imposed
263:See also
194:Currency
3591:Related
3480:(1943)
2886:bis.org
2868:p. 566.
2663:Econlib
2333:Uruguay
2015:Liberia
1923:Iceland
1749:Ecuador
1529:Bolivia
1501:Belgium
648:by the
399:of the
391:of the
160:Markets
3552:(1990)
3546:(1955)
3540:(1951)
3534:(1947)
3528:(1945)
3522:(1945)
3516:(1945)
3510:(1945)
3504:(1944)
3498:(1943)
3474:(1943)
3468:(1943)
3462:(1942)
3456:(1942)
3450:(1942)
3444:(1941)
3438:(1941)
3432:(1941)
3426:(1941)
3420:(1941)
3414:(1941)
3408:(1940)
3402:(1940)
3396:(1940)
3390:(1940)
3384:(1940)
3378:(1939)
3372:(1939)
3366:(1938)
3347:(1945)
3339:(1945)
3333:(1945)
3325:(1945)
3319:(1944)
3313:(1944)
3307:(1944)
3301:(1944)
3295:(1944)
3289:(1943)
3283:(1943)
3275:(1943)
3269:(1943)
3263:(1943)
3257:(1943)
3251:(1943)
3245:(1943)
3239:(1943)
3233:(1942)
3227:(1942)
3221:(1942)
3209:(1941)
3203:(1941)
3197:(1941)
3191:(1941)
3185:(1941)
3123:FRASER
3078:
3044:
3025:
2999:
2962:
2838:
2700:
2690:
2643:
2633:
2610:
2600:
2532:, 1971
2367:
2348:
2330:
2298:
2278:
2260:
2228:Poland
2225:
2186:
2168:
2153:Panama
2150:
2133:Norway
2130:
2110:
2089:
2069:
2051:Mexico
2048:
2030:
2012:
1993:
1971:
1938:
1920:
1902:
1881:
1862:
1846:Greece
1843:
1825:France
1822:
1803:
1784:
1765:
1746:
1728:
1706:
1671:
1650:
1616:
1568:Canada
1565:
1547:Brazil
1544:
1526:
1498:
1470:
687:bancor
642:Havana
609:. The
409:Allies
372:Nazism
365:, and
186:Assets
3121:, on
2882:(PDF)
1884:Haiti
1768:Egypt
1599:Chile
1455:State
52:, in
3117:and
3076:ISBN
3042:ISBN
3023:ISBN
2997:ISBN
2960:ISBN
2836:ISBN
2716:link
2698:OCLC
2688:ISBN
2641:OCLC
2631:ISBN
2608:OCLC
2598:ISBN
2419:and
2409:USSR
2189:Peru
1996:Iraq
1974:Iran
1691:Cuba
1583:and
1355:USSR
695:half
559:The
437:IBRD
395:and
374:and
330:the
40:The
433:IMF
3620::
3074:.
2995:.
2884:.
2732:.
2712:}}
2708:{{
2696:.
2661:.
2639:.
2606:.
2571:.
2471:UN
2316:,
2312:,
2308:,
1956:,
1952:,
1948:,
1717:)
1715:cs
1636:,
1632:,
1628:,
1579:,
1575:,
1512:,
1508:,
1484:,
1480:,
1435:YU
1419:VE
1403:UY
1387:US
1371:GB
1339:ZA
1323:PL
1307:PH
1291:PE
1275:PY
1259:PA
1243:NO
1227:NI
1211:NZ
1195:NL
1179:MX
1163:LU
1147:LR
1131:IQ
1115:IR
1099:IN
1083:IS
1067:HO
1051:HT
1035:GT
1019:GR
1003:FR
987:ET
971:SV
955:EG
939:EC
923:DO
907:CZ
891:CU
875:CR
859:CO
843:CN
827:CL
811:CA
795:BR
779:BO
763:BE
747:AU
571:.
338:,
64:.
3159:e
3152:t
3145:v
3084:.
3050:.
3031:.
3005:.
2968:.
2915:.
2888:.
2842:.
2742:.
2718:)
2704:.
2671:.
2647:.
2614:.
2581:.
2558:.
2473:)
318:e
311:t
304:v
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
