6774:. Leakage is equivalent to a resistor in parallel with the capacitor. Constant exposure to factors such as heat, mechanical stress, or humidity can cause the dielectric to deteriorate resulting in excessive leakage, a problem often seen in older vacuum tube circuits, particularly where oiled paper and foil capacitors were used. In many vacuum tube circuits, interstage coupling capacitors are used to conduct a varying signal from the plate of one tube to the grid circuit of the next stage. A leaky capacitor can cause the grid circuit voltage to be raised from its normal bias setting, causing excessive current or signal distortion in the downstream tube. In power amplifiers this can cause the plates to glow red, or current limiting resistors to overheat, even fail. Similar considerations apply to component fabricated solid-state (transistor) amplifiers, but, owing to lower heat production and the use of modern polyester dielectric-barriers, this once-common problem has become relatively rare.
11172:
5710:
11070:. Factors such as voltage and chassis material are of secondary consideration, which are more related to how easily a shock can be initiated rather than how much damage can occur. Under certain conditions, including conductivity of the surfaces, preexisting medical conditions, the humidity of the air, or the pathways it takes through the body (i.e.: shocks that travel across the core of the body and, especially, the heart are more dangerous than those limited to the extremities), shocks as low as one joule have been reported to cause death, although in most instances they may not even leave a burn. Shocks over ten joules will generally damage skin, and are usually considered hazardous. Any capacitor that can store 50 joules or more should be considered potentially lethal.
6090:
2989:
10355:
11160:
312:
11188:
1723:. Changing the plate area and the separation between the plates while maintaining the same volume causes no change of the maximum amount of energy that the capacitor can store, so long as the distance between plates remains much smaller than both the length and width of the plates. In addition, these equations assume that the electric field is entirely concentrated in the dielectric between the plates. In reality there are fringing fields outside the dielectric, for example between the sides of the capacitor plates, which increase the effective capacitance of the capacitor. This is sometimes called
603:
7224:
8723:
10571:
564:) were invented in 1957 when H. Becker developed a "Low voltage electrolytic capacitor with porous carbon electrodes". He believed that the energy was stored as a charge in the carbon pores used in his capacitor as in the pores of the etched foils of electrolytic capacitors. Because the double layer mechanism was not known by him at the time, he wrote in the patent: "It is not known exactly what is taking place in the component if it is used for energy storage, but it leads to an extremely high capacity."
10783:
comes close to operating speed, a centrifugal switch (or current-sensitive relay in series with the main winding) disconnects the capacitor. The start capacitor is typically mounted to the side of the motor housing. These are called capacitor-start motors, that have relatively high starting torque. Typically they can have up-to four times as much starting torque as a split-phase motor and are used on applications such as compressors, pressure washers and any small device requiring high starting torques.
47:
927:
5010:
6016:
5693:
until it reaches the opposite plate, leaving carbon behind and causing a short (or relatively low resistance) circuit. The results can be explosive, as the short in the capacitor draws current from the surrounding circuitry and dissipates the energy. However, in capacitors with particular dielectrics and thin metal electrodes, shorts are not formed after breakdown. It happens because a metal melts or evaporates in a breakdown vicinity, isolating it from the rest of the capacitor.
10630:
4875:
4867:
5002:
611:
11031:
104:
943:
8694:
776:
11207:
7259:
applications. Electrolytic capacitors suffer from self-degradation if unused for a period (around a year), and when full power is applied may short circuit, permanently damaging the capacitor and usually blowing a fuse or causing failure of rectifier diodes. For example, in older equipment, this may cause arcing in rectifier tubes. They can be restored before use by gradually applying the operating voltage, often performed on antique
7232:
10406:, which can accept and deliver charge much faster than batteries, and tolerate many more charge and discharge cycles than rechargeable batteries. They are, however, 10 times larger than conventional batteries for a given charge. On the other hand, it has been shown that the amount of charge stored in the dielectric layer of the thin film capacitor can be equal to, or can even exceed, the amount of charge stored on its plates.
6762:, the dielectric absorption can recharge the capacitor to hazardous voltages after it has been shorted or discharged. Any capacitor containing over 10 joules of energy is generally considered hazardous, while 50 joules or higher is potentially lethal. A capacitor may regain anywhere from 0.01 to 20% of its original charge over a period of several minutes, allowing a seemingly safe capacitor to become surprisingly dangerous.
6585:) whose frequency may be constant or varying. Ripple current causes heat to be generated within the capacitor due to the dielectric losses caused by the changing field strength together with the current flow across the slightly resistive supply lines or the electrolyte in the capacitor. The equivalent series resistance (ESR) is the amount of internal series resistance one would add to a perfect capacitor to model this.
7123:
10962:; as the fuel covers more of a pair of plates, the circuit capacitance increases. Squeezing the dielectric can change a capacitor at a few tens of bar pressure sufficiently that it can be used as a pressure sensor. A selected, but otherwise standard, polymer dielectric capacitor, when immersed in a compatible gas or liquid, can work usefully as a very low cost pressure sensor up to many hundreds of bar.
3323:
10521:
5889:
422:
6668:. The resulting interference is especially problematic in audio applications, potentially causing feedback or unintended recording. In the reverse microphonic effect, the varying electric field between the capacitor plates exerts a physical force, moving them as a speaker. This can generate audible sound, but drains energy and stresses the dielectric and the electrolyte, if any.
8341:
488:. Decades later, these materials were also well-suited for use as the dielectric for the first capacitors. Paper capacitors, made by sandwiching a strip of impregnated paper between strips of metal and rolling the result into a cylinder, were commonly used in the late 19th century; their manufacture started in 1876, and they were used from the early 20th century as
5225:
series strings are connected in parallel, forming a matrix. The goal is to maximize the energy storage of the network without overloading any capacitor. For high-energy storage with capacitors in series, some safety considerations must be applied to ensure one capacitor failing and leaking current does not apply too much voltage to the other series capacitors.
5481:
6641:, this is caused by degradation of the dielectric. The type of dielectric, ambient operating and storage temperatures are the most significant aging factors, while the operating voltage usually has a smaller effect, i.e., usual capacitor design is to minimize voltage coefficient. The aging process may be reversed by heating the component above the
2977:
8589:
227:. However, there is a flow of charge through the source circuit. If the condition is maintained sufficiently long, the current through the source circuit ceases. If a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, the source experiences an ongoing current due to the charging and discharging cycles of the capacitor.
6824:
as a 20% decrease in capacitance. The capacitors contain electrolytes which will eventually diffuse through the seals and evaporate. An increase in temperature also increases internal pressure, and increases the reaction rate of the chemicals. Thus, the life of an electrolytic capacitor is generally defined by a modification of the
3867:
8128:
7827:
5220:
4334:
5716:
2202:
4138:
2693:
6717:
excess heating of both the dielectric and the conductors, and can dramatically shorten the life expectancy of the capacitor. Reversal ratings often affect the design considerations for the capacitor, from the choice of dielectric materials and voltage ratings to the types of internal connections used.
10718:
When an inductive circuit is opened, the current through the inductance collapses quickly, creating a large voltage across the open circuit of the switch or relay. If the inductance is large enough, the energy may generate a spark, causing the contact points to oxidize, deteriorate, or sometimes weld
8709:
The arrangement of plates and dielectric has many variations in different styles depending on the desired ratings of the capacitor. For small values of capacitance (microfarads and less), ceramic disks use metallic coatings, with wire leads bonded to the coating. Larger values can be made by multiple
2755:
is the capacitance. This potential energy will remain in the capacitor until the charge is removed. If charge is allowed to move back from the positive to the negative plate, for example by connecting a circuit with resistance between the plates, the charge moving under the influence of the electric
916:
In the short-time limit, if the capacitor starts with a certain voltage V, since the voltage drop on the capacitor is known at this instant, we can replace it with an ideal voltage source of voltage V. Specifically, if V=0 (capacitor is uncharged), the short-time equivalence of a capacitor is a short
11140:
when subjected to voltages or currents beyond their rating, or in case of polarized capacitors, applied in a reverse polarity. Failures may create arcing that heats and vaporizes the dielectric fluid, causing a build up of pressurized gas that may result in swelling, rupture, or an explosion. Larger
10671:
is a capacitor used to protect one part of a circuit from the effect of another, for instance to suppress noise or transients. Noise caused by other circuit elements is shunted through the capacitor, reducing the effect they have on the rest of the circuit. It is most commonly used between the power
8733:
Capacitors may have their connecting leads arranged in many configurations, for example axially or radially. "Axial" means that the leads are on a common axis, typically the axis of the capacitor's cylindrical body – the leads extend from opposite ends. Radial leads are rarely aligned
8684:
At optical frequencies, in semiconductors the dielectric constant exhibits structure related to the band structure of the solid. Sophisticated modulation spectroscopy measurement methods based upon modulating the crystal structure by pressure or by other stresses and observing the related changes in
7263:
equipment over a period of thirty minutes by using a variable transformer to supply AC power. The use of this technique may be less satisfactory for some solid state equipment, which may be damaged by operation below its normal power range, requiring that the power supply first be isolated from the
7113:
Above approximately 1 microfarad electrolytic capacitors are usually used because of their small size and low cost compared with other types, unless their relatively poor stability, life and polarised nature make them unsuitable. Very high capacity supercapacitors use a porous carbon-based electrode
6802:
All capacitors have varying lifespans, depending upon their construction, operational conditions, and environmental conditions. Solid-state ceramic capacitors generally have very long lives under normal use, which has little dependency on factors such as vibration or ambient temperature, but factors
6652:
Temperature dependence of capacitance is usually expressed in parts per million (ppm) per °C. It can usually be taken as a broadly linear function but can be noticeably non-linear at the temperature extremes. The temperature coefficient may be positive or negative, depending mostly on the dielectric
5672:
The maximum energy that can be stored safely in a capacitor is limited by the breakdown voltage. Exceeding this voltage can result in a short circuit between the plates, which can often cause permanent damage to the dielectric, plates, or both. Due to the scaling of capacitance and breakdown voltage
11057:
to produce light. If one of the conductive plates is made with a transparent material, the light is visible. Light-emitting capacitors are used in the construction of electroluminescent panels, for applications such as backlighting for laptop computers. In this case, the entire panel is a capacitor
10550:
Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic devices and larger systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal current fluctuations from the primary power source to provide a "clean" power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for example,
8718:
The assembly is encased to prevent moisture entering the dielectric – early radio equipment used a cardboard tube sealed with wax. Modern paper or film dielectric capacitors are dipped in a hard thermoplastic. Large capacitors for high-voltage use may have the roll form compressed to
6890:
Manufacturers often use this equation to supply an expected lifespan, in hours, for electrolytic capacitors when used at their designed operating temperature, which is affected by both ambient temperature, ESR, and ripple current. However, these ideal conditions may not exist in every use. The rule
6823:
Electrolytic capacitors generally have the shortest lifespans. Electrolytic capacitors are affected very little by vibration or humidity, but factors such as ambient and operational temperatures play a large role in their failure, which gradually occur as an increase in ESR (up to 300%) and as much
6676:
Current reversal occurs when the current changes direction. Voltage reversal is the change of polarity in a circuit. Reversal is generally described as the percentage of the maximum rated voltage that reverses polarity. In DC circuits, this is usually less than 100%, often in the range of 0 to 90%,
5696:
The usual breakdown route is that the field strength becomes large enough to pull electrons in the dielectric from their atoms thus causing conduction. Other scenarios are possible, such as impurities in the dielectric, and, if the dielectric is of a crystalline nature, imperfections in the crystal
5692:
The breakdown voltage is critically affected by factors such as the geometry of the capacitor conductive parts; sharp edges or points increase the electric field strength at that point and can lead to a local breakdown. Once this starts to happen, the breakdown quickly tracks through the dielectric
5605:
can then be applied. In other cases, such as with breakdown voltage, the effect is non-linear and ordinary (normal, e.g., linear) network analysis cannot be used, the effect must be considered separately. Yet another group of artifacts may exist, including temperature dependence, that may be linear
5304:
5224:
Capacitors are combined in series to achieve a higher working voltage, for example for smoothing a high voltage power supply. The voltage ratings, which are based on plate separation, add up, if capacitance and leakage currents for each capacitor are identical. In such an application, on occasion,
10782:
to introduce a lead in the sinusoidal current. When the secondary (start) winding is placed at an angle with respect to the primary (run) winding, a rotating electric field is created. The force of the rotational field is not constant, but is sufficient to start the rotor spinning. When the rotor
5018:
Connected in series, the schematic diagram reveals that the separation distance, not the plate area, adds up. The capacitors each store instantaneous charge build-up equal to that of every other capacitor in the series. The total voltage difference from end to end is apportioned to each capacitor
1057:
is constant, and directed perpendicularly to the plate surface, except for an area near the edges of the plates where the field decreases because the electric field lines "bulge" out of the sides of the capacitor. This "fringing field" area is approximately the same width as the plate separation,
1033:
is much smaller than the dimensions of the plates. This model applies well to many practical capacitors which are constructed of metal sheets separated by a thin layer of insulating dielectric, since manufacturers try to keep the dielectric very uniform in thickness to avoid thin spots which can
717:
across the device. Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on the conductors attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store more charge for a given voltage than when the conductors are separated, yielding a larger capacitance.
645:
within the other conductor, attracting opposite polarity charge and repelling like polarity charges, thus an opposite polarity charge will be induced on the surface of the other conductor. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an
8867:
for very small parts which leave no room to print the above-mentioned three-/four-character code onto them. The code consists of an uppercase letter denoting the two significant digits of the value followed by a digit indicating the multiplier. The EIA standard also defines a number of lowercase
11145:
or sustained high-current applications can overheat, especially in the center of the capacitor rolls. Capacitors used within high-energy capacitor banks can violently explode when a short in one capacitor causes sudden dumping of energy stored in the rest of the bank into the failing unit. High
8714:
or plastic – these are rolled up to save space. To reduce the series resistance and inductance for long plates, the plates and dielectric are staggered so that connection is made at the common edge of the rolled-up plates, not at the ends of the foil or metalized film strips that
6716:
For maximum life, capacitors usually need to be able to handle the maximum amount of reversal that a system may experience. An AC circuit experiences 100% voltage reversal, while underdamped DC circuits experience less than 100%. Reversal creates excess electric fields in the dielectric, causes
7859:
If a capacitor is driven with a time-varying voltage that changes rapidly enough, at some frequency the polarization of the dielectric cannot follow the voltage. As an example of the origin of this mechanism, the internal microscopic dipoles contributing to the dielectric constant cannot move
11038:
A capacitor can possess spring-like qualities in an oscillator circuit. In the image example, a capacitor acts to influence the biasing voltage at the npn transistor's base. The resistance values of the voltage-divider resistors and the capacitance value of the capacitor together control the
3016:
capacitor. Rather, one electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the charge on the
10448:
is used in many applications to increase the power intensity (watts) of a volume of energy (joules) by releasing that volume within a very short time. Pulses in the nanosecond range and powers in the gigawatts are achievable. Short pulses often require specially constructed, low-inductance,
10389:
There are tradeoffs between capacitors and batteries as storage devices. Without external resistors or inductors, capacitors can generally release their stored energy in a very short time compared to batteries. Conversely, batteries can hold a far greater charge per their size. Conventional
6819:
at the point of failure prevents arcing by vaporizing the metallic film in that spot, neutralizing any short circuit with minimal loss in capacitance. When enough pinholes accumulate in the film, a total failure occurs in a metal-film capacitor, generally happening suddenly without warning.
7258:
may leak electrolyte, which is harmful to printed circuit boards. The conductivity of the electrolyte drops at low temperatures, which increases equivalent series resistance. While widely used for power-supply conditioning, poor high-frequency characteristics make them unsuitable for many
8752:
Mechanically controlled variable capacitors allow the plate spacing to be adjusted, for example by rotating or sliding a set of movable plates into alignment with a set of stationary plates. Low cost variable capacitors squeeze together alternating layers of aluminum and plastic with a
10685:, between the various layers. These are often referred to as embedded capacitors. The layers in the board contributing to the capacitive properties also function as power and ground planes, and have a dielectric in between them, enabling them to operate as a parallel plate capacitor.
2816:
5684:
the breakdown is 100–300 MV/m; for oil, 15–25 MV/m; it can be much less when other materials are used for the dielectric. The dielectric is used in very thin layers and so absolute breakdown voltage of capacitors is limited. Typical ratings for capacitors used for general
1711:
791:, voltage is analogous to water pressure and electrical current through a wire is analogous to water flow through a pipe. A capacitor is like an elastic diaphragm within the pipe. Although water cannot pass through the diaphragm, it moves as the diaphragm stretches or un-stretches.
7193:
Ceramic capacitors are generally small, cheap and useful for high frequency applications, although their capacitance varies strongly with voltage and temperature and they age poorly. They can also suffer from the piezoelectric effect. Ceramic capacitors are broadly categorized as
6733:
circuits or timing circuits. The level of absorption depends on many factors, from design considerations to charging time, since the absorption is a time-dependent process. However, the primary factor is the type of dielectric material. Capacitors such as tantalum electrolytic or
8000:
4883:
Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same applied voltage. Their capacitances add up. Charge is apportioned among them by size. Using the schematic diagram to visualize parallel plates, it is apparent that each capacitor contributes to the total surface area.
3501:
10605:
to make the load appear to be mostly resistive. Individual motor or lamp loads may have capacitors for power-factor correction, or larger sets of capacitors (usually with automatic switching devices) may be installed at a load center within a building or in a large utility
3626:
303:
Natural capacitors have existed since prehistoric times. The most common example of natural capacitance are the static charges accumulated between clouds in the sky and the surface of the Earth, where the air between them serves as the dielectric. This results in bolts of
8423:
11089:
which may contain over 15 joules of energy and be charged to over 300 volts. This is easily capable of delivering a shock. Service procedures for electronic devices usually include instructions to discharge large or high-voltage capacitors, for instance using a
10752:
In schematic diagrams, a capacitor used primarily for DC charge storage is often drawn vertically in circuit diagrams with the lower, more negative, plate drawn as an arc. The straight plate indicates the positive terminal of the device, if it is polarized (see
5586:
5026:
4179:
5596:
In practice, capacitors deviate from the ideal capacitor equation in several aspects. Some of these, such as leakage current and parasitic effects are linear, or can be analyzed as nearly linear, and can be accounted for by adding virtual components to form
1355:
8100:
354:(although details of the mechanism were incorrectly identified at the time). Von Kleist found that touching the wire resulted in a powerful spark, much more painful than that obtained from an electrostatic machine. The following year, the Dutch physicist
11171:
3917:
2354:
As shown to the figure on the right, the interleaved plates can be seen as parallel plates connected to each other. Every pair of adjacent plates acts as a separate capacitor; the number of pairs is always one less than the number of plates, hence the
6562:
2527:
3169:
3279:
5606:
but invalidates the assumption in the analysis that capacitance is a constant. Finally, combined parasitic effects such as inherent inductance, resistance, or dielectric losses can exhibit non-uniform behavior at varying frequencies of operation.
7847:, where the voltage dependence stems not from a change in dielectric constant but in a voltage dependence of the spacing between the charges on the two sides of the capacitor. This effect is intentionally exploited in diode-like devices known as
5884:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}Z_{\Sigma }&{=}Z_{\text{ESL}}+R_{\text{lead}}+(Z_{\text{C}}\parallel G_{\text{dielectric}})\\&{=}j\omega \cdot {\text{ESL}}+R_{\text{lead}}+{\frac {1}{j\omega \cdot C+G_{\text{dielectric}}}}.\end{aligned}}}
7254:, connected to the circuit by another foil plate. Electrolytic capacitors offer very high capacitance but suffer from poor tolerances, high instability, gradual loss of capacitance especially when subjected to heat, and high leakage current.
6789:
when manufactured by applying a voltage sufficient to initiate the proper internal chemical state. This state is maintained by regular use of the equipment. If a system using electrolytic capacitors is unused for a long period of time it can
11763:
8663:
at certain frequencies corresponding to characteristic response frequencies (excitation energies) of contributors to the dielectric constant. These resonances are the basis for a number of experimental techniques for detecting defects. The
4633:
7102:
Practical capacitors are available commercially in many different forms. The type of internal dielectric, the structure of the plates and the device packaging all strongly affect the characteristics of the capacitor, and its applications.
8336:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}I(\omega )&=j\omega Q(\omega )=j\omega \oint _{\Sigma }{\boldsymbol {D}}({\boldsymbol {r}},\omega )\cdot d{\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}\\&=\leftV(\omega )={\frac {V(\omega )}{Z(\omega )}}\,,\end{aligned}}}
11159:
8734:
along radii of the body's circle, so the term is conventional. The leads (until bent) are usually in planes parallel to that of the flat body of the capacitor, and extend in the same direction; they are often parallel as manufactured.
6611:
Tantalum electrolytic capacitors with solid manganese dioxide electrolyte are limited by ripple current and generally have the highest ESR ratings in the capacitor family. Exceeding their ripple limits can lead to shorts and burning
4374:
Impedance decreases with increasing capacitance and increasing frequency. This implies that a higher-frequency signal or a larger capacitor results in a lower voltage amplitude per current amplitude – an AC "short circuit" or
6615:
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors, the most common type of electrolytic, suffer a shortening of life expectancy at higher ripple currents. If ripple current exceeds the rated value of the capacitor, it tends to result in explosive
5627:, the dielectric in a capacitor becomes conductive. The voltage at which this occurs is called the breakdown voltage of the device, and is given by the product of the dielectric strength and the separation between the conductors,
4492:
6361:
At even higher frequencies, the inductive impedance dominates, so the capacitor undesirably behaves instead like an inductor. High-frequency engineering involves accounting for the inductance of all connections and components.
6084:
1575:
912:
In the long-time limit, after the charging/discharging current has saturated the capacitor, no current would come into (or get out of) either side of the capacitor; Therefore, the long-time equivalence of capacitor is an open
8785:
Most capacitors have designations printed on their bodies to indicate their electrical characteristics. Larger capacitors, such as electrolytic types usually display the capacitance as value with explicit unit, for example,
7597:
10775:
motors, the primary winding within the motor housing is not capable of starting a rotational motion on the rotor, but is capable of sustaining one. To start the motor, a secondary "start" winding has a series non-polarized
6276:
4993:
2979:
The last formula above is equal to the energy density per unit volume in the electric field multiplied by the volume of field between the plates, confirming that the energy in the capacitor is stored in its electric field.
8835:= 47 nF (±10%) with a maximum working voltage of 330 V. The working voltage of a capacitor is nominally the highest voltage that may be applied across it without undue risk of breaking down the dielectric layer.
7181:
Most of the plastic films now used offer better stability and ageing performance than such older dielectrics such as oiled paper, which makes them useful in timer circuits, although they may be limited to relatively low
7147:
with their plates open to the atmosphere were commonly used in radio tuning circuits. Later designs use polymer foil dielectric between the moving and stationary plates, with no significant air space between the plates.
4762:
3361:
7311:
circuits and are often designed to handle large currents, so they tend to be physically large. They are usually ruggedly packaged, often in metal cases that can be easily grounded/earthed. They also are designed with
6700:
and capacitance. The current and voltage tends to oscillate and may reverse direction several times, with each peak being lower than the previous, until the system reaches an equilibrium. This is often referred to as
836:
In an AC circuit, a capacitor behaves like a diaphragm in a pipe, allowing the charge to move on both sides of the dielectric while no electrons actually pass through. For DC circuits, a capacitor is analogous to a
10316:
In texts prior to the 1960s and on some capacitor packages until more recently, obsolete capacitance units were utilized in electronic books, magazines, and electronics catalogs. The old units "mfd" and "mf" meant
7126:
An assortment of capacitor types. From left: multilayer ceramic, ceramic disc, multilayer polyester film, tubular ceramic, polystyrene, metalized polyester film, aluminum electrolytic. Major scale divisions are in
5476:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\text{(volts)}}A_{\mathrm {eq} }&=A\left(1-{\frac {1}{n+1}}\right)\\{\text{(volts)}}B_{\text{1..n}}&={\frac {A}{n}}\left(1-{\frac {1}{n+1}}\right)\\A-B&=0\end{aligned}}}
1727:. For some simple capacitor geometries this additional capacitance term can be calculated analytically. It becomes negligibly small when the ratios of plate width to separation and length to separation are large.
7131:
Most capacitors have a dielectric spacer, which increases their capacitance compared to air or a vacuum. In order to maximise the charge that a capacitor can hold, the dielectric material needs to have as high a
380:
and came to the conclusion that the charge was stored on the glass, not in the water as others had assumed. He also adopted the term "battery", (denoting the increase of power with a row of similar units as in a
7860:
instantly, and so as frequency of an applied alternating voltage increases, the dipole response is limited and the dielectric constant diminishes. A changing dielectric constant with frequency is referred to as
5894:
An ideal capacitor only stores and releases electrical energy, without dissipation. In practice, capacitors have imperfections within the capacitor's materials that result in the following parasitic components:
6729:" or "soakage". On discharging a capacitor and disconnecting it, after a short time it may develop a voltage due to hysteresis in the dielectric. This effect is objectionable in applications such as precision
3588:
7879:
10990:
capacitors etched on a chip to measure the magnitude and direction of the acceleration vector. They are used to detect changes in acceleration, in tilt sensors, or to detect free fall, as sensors triggering
6128:
As frequency increases, the capacitive impedance (a negative reactance) reduces, so the dielectric's conductance becomes less important and the series components become more significant. Thus, a simplified
453:, where the name referred to the device's ability to store a higher density of electric charge than was possible with an isolated conductor. The term became deprecated because of the ambiguous meaning of
5494:
7202:, which can operate at higher voltage. Modern multilayer ceramics are usually quite small, but some types have inherently wide value tolerances, microphonic issues, and are usually physically brittle.
8710:
stacks of plates and disks. Larger value capacitors usually use a metal foil or metal film layer deposited on the surface of a dielectric film to make the plates, and a dielectric film of impregnated
1253:
8024:
7106:
Values available range from very low (picofarad range; while arbitrarily low values are in principle possible, stray (parasitic) capacitance in any circuit is the limiting factor) to about 5 kF
5689:
applications range from a few volts to 1 kV. As the voltage increases, the dielectric must be thicker, making high-voltage capacitors larger per capacitance than those rated for lower voltages.
2972:{\displaystyle W={\frac {1}{2}}CV^{2}={\frac {1}{2}}{\frac {\varepsilon A}{d}}\left(Ed\right)^{2}={\frac {1}{2}}\varepsilon AdE^{2}={\frac {1}{2}}\varepsilon E^{2}({\text{volume of electric field}})}
766:
389:. In 1747, Leyden jars were made by coating the inside and outside of jars with metal foil, leaving a space at the mouth to prevent arcing between the foils. The earliest unit of capacitance was the
13455:
Alam, Mohammed; Azarian, Michael H.; Osterman, Michael; Pecht, Michael (2010). "Effectiveness of embedded capacitors in reducing the number of surface mount capacitors for decoupling applications".
8681:, where the slow generation of minority carriers means that at high frequencies the capacitance measures only the majority carrier response, while at low frequencies both types of carrier respond.
6966:
11869:
10742:
absorbs. Snubber capacitors are usually employed with a low-value resistor in series, to dissipate energy and minimize RFI. Such resistor-capacitor combinations are available in a single package.
6004:) that slowly discharges the capacitor over time. This conductance dominates the total resistance at very low frequencies. Its value varies greatly depending on the capacitor material and quality.
2285:
783:, a capacitor is analogous to an elastic diaphragm within a pipe. This animation shows a diaphragm being stretched and un-stretched, which is analogous to a capacitor being charged and discharged.
8133:
6467:
5721:
5309:
4184:
3922:
3631:
10941:
Most capacitors are designed to maintain a fixed physical structure. However, various factors can change the structure of the capacitor, and the resulting change in capacitance can be used to
3043:
10909:
3180:
416:. More compact construction methods began to be used, such as a flexible dielectric sheet (like oiled paper) sandwiched between sheets of metal foil, rolled or folded into a small package.
245:
The earliest forms of capacitors were created in the 1740s, when
European experimenters discovered that electric charge could be stored in water-filled glass jars that came to be known as
6886:
5668:
3862:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}I(t)&={\frac {V_{0}}{R}}e^{-t/\tau _{0}}\\V(t)&=V_{0}\left(1-e^{-t/\tau _{0}}\right)\\Q(t)&=CV_{0}\left(1-e^{-t/\tau _{0}}\right)\end{aligned}}}
1450:
721:
In practical devices, charge build-up sometimes affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:
8749:. Surface mount components avoid undesirable high-frequency effects due to the leads and simplify automated assembly, although manual handling is made difficult due to their small size.
13182:
11106:
may also have built-in discharge resistors to dissipate stored energy to a safe level within a few seconds after power is removed. High-voltage capacitors are stored with the terminals
8719:
fit into a rectangular metal case, with bolted terminals and bushings for connections. The dielectric in larger capacitors is often impregnated with a liquid to improve its properties.
5299:
10958:
can be used for sensing purposes. Capacitors with an exposed and porous dielectric can be used to measure humidity in air. Capacitors are used to accurately measure the fuel level in
4531:
1967:
7466:
6000:(or reciprocally, a large resistance) in parallel with the capacitance, to account for imperfect dielectric material. This causes a small leakage current across the dielectric (see
2399:
must be done by an external power source to move charge from the negative to the positive plate against the opposing force of the electric field. If the voltage on the capacitor is
1887:
1224:
8584:{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{r}(\omega )=\varepsilon '_{r}(\omega )-j\varepsilon ''_{r}(\omega )={\frac {1}{j\omega Z(\omega )C_{0}}}={\frac {C_{\text{cmplx}}(\omega )}{C_{0}}}\,,}
6211:
5994:
4371:
lags the AC current by 90°: the positive current phase corresponds to increasing voltage as the capacitor charges; zero current corresponds to instantaneous constant voltage, etc.
2329:
2016:
1835:
4831:
7590:
7186:
and frequencies, because of the limitations of the plastic film being used. Large plastic film capacitors are used extensively in suppression circuits, motor start circuits, and
12507:
8123:. The capacitance, being proportional to the dielectric constant, also exhibits this frequency behavior. Fourier transforming Gauss's law with this form for displacement field:
2190:
285:
systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow. The property of energy storage in capacitors was exploited as dynamic memory in early digital computers, and still is in modern
10551:
uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum before it gets into the signal circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power source, and
4379:. Conversely, for very low frequencies, the reactance is high, so that a capacitor is nearly an open circuit in AC analysis – those frequencies have been "filtered out".
703:
5961:
5215:{\displaystyle C_{\mathrm {eq} }=\left(\sum _{i=1}^{n}{\frac {1}{C_{i}}}\right)^{-1}=\left({1 \over C_{1}}+{1 \over C_{2}}+{1 \over C_{3}}+\dots +{1 \over C_{n}}\right)^{-1}}
1186:
7404:-shaped function of the electric field, which, in the case of a large area parallel plate device, translates into a capacitance that is a nonlinear function of the voltage.
5264:
4329:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}X&=-{\frac {1}{\omega C}}=-{\frac {1}{2\pi fC}}\\Z&={\frac {1}{j\omega C}}=-{\frac {j}{\omega C}}=-{\frac {j}{2\pi fC}}\end{aligned}}}
946:
A surface-mount capacitor. The plates, not visible, are layered horizontally between ceramic dielectric layers, and connect alternately to either end-cap, which are visible.
11410:
11146:
voltage vacuum capacitors can generate soft X-rays even during normal operation. Proper containment, fusing, and preventive maintenance can help to minimize these hazards.
7328:
materials, so the capacitance for these devices is more complex. For example, in charging such a capacitor the differential increase in voltage with charge is governed by:
4403:
1526:
11187:
6399:
6325:
6180:
6153:
5918:
1011:
10786:
Capacitor-run induction motors have a permanently connected phase-shifting capacitor in series with a second winding. The motor is much like a two-phase induction motor.
7371:
6303:
10555:
AC currents from the power supply. This is used in car audio applications, when a stiffening capacitor compensates for the inductance and resistance of the leads to the
10383:. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic devices to maintain power supply while batteries are being changed. (This prevents loss of information in volatile memory.)
7174:
Paper was used extensively in older capacitors and offers relatively high voltage performance. However, paper absorbs moisture, and has been largely replaced by plastic
6815:. For example, metal-film capacitors are more prone to damage from stress and humidity, but will self-heal when a breakdown in the dielectric occurs. The formation of a
6657:, have a somewhat negative coefficient at one temperature, positive at another, and zero in between. Such components may be specified for temperature-critical circuits.
11391:
7299:, carbon nanotubes, or highly porous electrode materials, offer extremely high capacitance (up to 5 kF as of 2010) and can be used in some applications instead of
12296:
12113:
8745:
packages for capacitors have been widely used. These packages are extremely small and lack connecting leads, allowing them to be soldered directly onto the surface of
6460:
4887:
4133:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}I(t)&={\frac {V_{Ci}}{R}}e^{-t/\tau _{0}}\\V(t)&=V_{Ci}\,e^{-t/\tau _{0}}\\Q(t)&=C\,V_{Ci}\,e^{-t/\tau _{0}}\end{aligned}}}
534:, even when the power was switched off. In 1896 he was granted U.S. Patent No. 672,913 for an "Electric liquid capacitor with aluminum electrodes". Solid electrolyte
12803:
Science and
Technology of Integrated Ferroelectrics: Selected Papers from Eleven Years of the Proceedings of the International Symposium on Integrated Ferroelectrics
2779:
is constant, as in the parallel plate model above, the electric field between the plates will be uniform (neglecting fringing fields) and will have a constant value
2498:
2130:
11153:
to limit in-rush currents at power-up of high voltage direct current (HVDC) circuits. This extends the life of the component and may mitigate high-voltage hazards.
10723:
capacitor across the newly opened circuit creates a path for this impulse to bypass the contact points, thereby preserving their life; these were commonly found in
10325:(pF); but they are rarely used any more. Also, "Micromicrofarad" or "micro-microfarad" are obsolete units that are found in some older texts that is equivalent to
7085:
7056:
7027:
6998:
6437:
2811:
2688:{\displaystyle W=\int _{0}^{Q}V(q)\,\mathrm {d} q=\int _{0}^{Q}{\frac {q}{C}}\,\mathrm {d} q={\frac {1}{2}}{\frac {Q^{2}}{C}}={\frac {1}{2}}VQ={\frac {1}{2}}CV^{2}}
2385:
2100:
2073:
2046:
1786:
1759:
1389:
884:
831:
400:
Leyden jars or more powerful devices employing flat glass plates alternating with foil conductors were used exclusively up until about 1900, when the invention of
12553:
6807:
play a primary role in their failure. Failure modes may differ. Some capacitors may experience a gradual loss of capacitance, increased leakage or an increase in
4663:
908:
In a circuit, a capacitor can behave differently at different time instants. However, it is usually easy to think about the short-time limit and long-time limit:
13216:
7205:
Glass and mica capacitors are extremely reliable, stable and tolerant to high temperatures and voltages, but are too expensive for most mainstream applications.
2463:
2440:
1142:
1119:
2777:
2753:
2733:
2713:
2518:
2417:
2349:
2227:
2150:
1907:
1500:
1480:
1409:
1244:
1096:
1076:
1055:
1031:
988:
968:
11129:. Capacitors containing PCBs were labelled as containing "Askarel" and several other trade names. PCB-filled paper capacitors are found in very old (pre-1975)
11066:
The hazards posed by a capacitor are usually determined, foremost, by the amount of energy stored, which is the cause of things like electrical burns or heart
10437:
applied the principle of energy storage in capacitors to construct dynamic digital memories for the first binary computers that used electron tubes for logic.
8859:
of preferred values, the former ANSI/EIA-198-D:1991, ANSI/EIA-198-1-E:1998 and ANSI/EIA-198-1-F:2002 as well as the amendment IEC 60062:2016/AMD1:2019 to
7264:
consuming circuits. Such remedies may not be applicable to modern high-frequency power supplies as these produce full output voltage even with reduced input.
15238:
519:. Mica capacitors were invented in 1909 by William Dubilier. Prior to World War II, mica was the most common dielectric for capacitors in the United States.
10789:
Motor-starting capacitors are typically non-polarized electrolytic types, while running capacitors are conventional paper or plastic film dielectric types.
6791:
11165:
Swollen electrolytic capacitors. The vent on the tops allows the release of pressurized gas build-up in the event of failure, preventing it from exploding.
6026:
11892:
4168:, describes the phase difference and the ratio of amplitudes between sinusoidally varying voltage and sinusoidally varying current at a given frequency.
3888:
of the system. As the capacitor reaches equilibrium with the source voltage, the voltages across the resistor and the current through the entire circuit
606:
Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.
7836:
The nonlinear capacitance of a microscope probe scanned along a ferroelectric surface is used to study the domain structure of ferroelectric materials.
3516:
11780:
13664:
10362:. The mylar-film capacitor has very low inductance and low resistance, producing a 3.5 microsecond pulse with 24 million watts of power, to operate a
6713:
systems usually do not experience a voltage reversal. Reversal is also encountered in AC circuits, where the peak current is equal in each direction.
6225:
7220:
occurs in circuits wherever the simple conductor-insulator-conductor structure is formed unintentionally by the configuration of the circuit layout.
13254:
11575:
6566:
The Q factor is a measure of its efficiency: the higher the Q factor of the capacitor, the closer it approaches the behavior of an ideal capacitor.
366:
where he worked. He also was impressed by the power of the shock he received, writing, "I would not take a second shock for the kingdom of France."
4176:
of frequencies, whence the circuit's reaction to the various frequencies may be found. The reactance and impedance of a capacitor are respectively
3300:
rather than an electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the capacitor equations and replacing
889:
Electrical current affects the charge differential across a capacitor just as the flow of water affects the volume differential across a diaphragm.
13738:
12532:
8649:. For practical purposes, when measurement errors are taken into account, often a measurement in terrestrial vacuum, or simply a calculation of
8420:
When a parallel-plate capacitor is filled with a dielectric, the measurement of dielectric properties of the medium is based upon the relation:
5713:
Real capacitor model that adds an inductance and resistance in series and a conductance in parallel to its capacitance. Its total impedance is:
4393:
A capacitor connected to an alternating voltage source has a displacement current to flowing through it. In the case that the voltage source is
8805:
Smaller capacitors, such as ceramic types, often use a shorthand-notation consisting of three digits and an optional letter, where the digits (
13173:
7143:
However, low value capacitors are available with a high vacuum between their plates to allow extremely high voltage operation and low losses.
724:
14788:
8013:, calculated in principle from an underlying microscopic analysis, for example, of the dipole behavior in the dielectric. See, for example,
7277:(OS-CON, OC-CON, KO, AO) use solid conductive polymer (or polymerized organic semiconductor) as electrolyte and offer longer life and lower
6894:
1706:{\displaystyle E={\frac {1}{2}}CV^{2}={\frac {1}{2}}{\frac {\varepsilon A}{d}}\left(U_{d}d\right)^{2}={\frac {1}{2}}\varepsilon AdU_{d}^{2}}
10645:(when charged up to the applied DC voltage), they are often used to separate the AC and DC components of a signal. This method is known as
2232:
11259:
Most real capacitors may have a small dielectric leakage current that passes through the resistive dielectric layer in between the plates.
7822:{\displaystyle W=\int _{0}^{V}dV\int _{0}^{V}dV'\,C(V')=\int _{0}^{V}dV'\int _{V'}^{V}dV\,C(V')=\int _{0}^{V}dV'\left(V-V'\right)C(V')\,,}
6770:
No material is a perfect insulator, thus all dielectrics allow some small level of current to leak through, which can be measured with a
6645:. Aging is fastest near the beginning of life of the component, and the device stabilizes over time. Electrolytic capacitors age as the
15020:
1144:
on the other plate (the situation for unevenly charged plates is discussed below), the charge on each plate will be spread evenly in a
12511:
10866:
8817: × 10, and the letter indicating the tolerance. Common tolerances are ±5%, ±10%, and ±20%, denotes as J, K, and M, respectively.
7384:, suggests that the capacitance is a function of the electric field strength, which in a large area parallel plate device is given by
14612:
13355:
Bezryadin, A.; Belkin, A.; et al. (2017). "Large energy storage efficiency of the dielectric layer of graphene nanocapacitors".
11073:
Capacitors may retain a charge long after power is removed from a circuit; this charge can cause dangerous or even potentially fatal
3496:{\displaystyle V_{0}=v_{\text{resistor}}(t)+v_{\text{capacitor}}(t)=i(t)R+{\frac {1}{C}}\int _{t_{0}}^{t}i(\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau }
6646:
15058:
11141:
capacitors may have vents or similar mechanism to allow the release of such pressures in the event of failure. Capacitors used in
7324:
The dielectric constant for a number of very useful dielectrics changes as a function of the applied electrical field, for example
7288:
is a component that, while not serving as its main use, has capacitance and is used to conduct signals through a conductive sheet.
4152:
11800:
6831:
5630:
14960:
14253:
11414:
6664:
effect. Vibration moves the plates, causing the capacitance to vary, in turn inducing AC current. Some dielectrics also generate
8668:
measures absorption as a function of frequency. Alternatively, the time response of the capacitance can be used directly, as in
1788:, and if both plates are separated from other materials in the environment, then the inner surface of the first plate will have
183:. The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics include
15063:
11607:
5602:
437:, a term that is still occasionally used today, particularly in high power applications, such as automotive systems. The term
350:
by a wire to a volume of water in a hand-held glass jar. Von Kleist's hand and the water acted as conductors and the jar as a
11003:
musical instrument by moving their hand since this changes the effective capacitance between the user's hand and the antenna.
7414:
6970:
This says that the capacitor's life decreases by half for every 10 degrees
Celsius that the temperature is increased, where:
6660:
Capacitors, especially ceramic capacitors, and older designs such as paper capacitors, can absorb sound waves resulting in a
6133:
model valid for a large frequency range simply treats the capacitor as being in series with an equivalent series inductance
5709:
14895:
14170:
13653:
13639:
13625:
13601:
13580:
13555:
13523:
13427:
13153:
13046:
12958:
12719:
12681:
12654:
12599:
12426:
12237:
12200:
12050:
12023:
11993:
11814:
11527:
11340:
10996:
12754:
11594:
After Volta's discovery of the electrochemical cell in 1800, the term was then applied to a group of electrochemical cells
7995:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {D(t)}}=\varepsilon _{0}\int _{-\infty }^{t}\varepsilon _{r}(t-t'){\boldsymbol {E}}(t')\,dt',}
4789:
507:'s wireless transmitting apparatus, porcelain capacitors were used for high voltage and high frequency application in the
13951:
13731:
7492:
10681:
Decoupling capacitors need not always be discrete components. Capacitors used in these applications may be built into a
6089:
542:
in the early 1950s as a miniaturized and more reliable low-voltage support capacitor to complement their newly invented
15008:
14907:
12564:
12163:
11446:
10649:
or "capacitive coupling". Here, a large value of capacitance, whose value need not be accurately controlled, but whose
10380:
4660:
The current of the capacitor may be expressed in the form of cosines to better compare with the voltage of the source:
13212:
10970:
Capacitors with a flexible plate can be used to measure strain or pressure. Industrial pressure transmitters used for
10375:
A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it can be used like a temporary
5581:{\displaystyle P={\frac {1}{R}}\cdot {\frac {1}{n+1}}A_{\text{volts}}\left(A_{\text{farads}}+B_{\text{farads}}\right)}
675:
461:
becoming the recommended term in the UK from 1926, while the change occurred considerably later in the United States.
14942:
14781:
13934:
13830:
13122:
13012:
12985:
12927:
12881:
12846:
12815:
11886:
11375:
10730:, for instance. Similarly, in smaller scale circuits, the spark may not be enough to damage the switch but may still
8670:
3510:
799:. In the same way that the ratio of charge differential to voltage would be greater for a larger capacitance value (
15248:
14074:
13801:
13481:
Downie, Neil A and
Mathilde Pradier, 'Method and apparatus for monitoring fluid pressure", US Patent 7526961 (2009)
10974:
use pressure-sensing diaphragms, which form a capacitor plate of an oscillator circuit. Capacitors are used as the
8637:
is the capacitance without the dielectric. (Measurement "without the dielectric" in principle means measurement in
223:
to collect on one plate and net negative charge to collect on the other plate. No current actually flows through a
8018:
7307:
capacitors are specifically designed to work on line (mains) voltage AC power circuits. They are commonly used in
6746:
allow very small levels of absorption. In some capacitors where dangerous voltages and energies exist, such as in
1417:
1350:{\displaystyle V=\int _{0}^{d}E(z)\,\mathrm {d} z=Ed={\frac {\sigma }{\varepsilon }}d={\frac {Qd}{\varepsilon A}}}
841:, storing the energy until pressure is released. Similarly, they can be used to smooth the flow of electricity in
14954:
14890:
14122:
13921:
11240:
8095:{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {D}}(\omega )=\varepsilon _{0}\varepsilon _{r}(\omega ){\boldsymbol {E}}(\omega )\,,}
7830:
7331:
7107:
6782:
215:) is applied across the terminals of a capacitor, for example when a capacitor is connected across a battery, an
11495:
A History of
Electricity: (The Intellectual Rise in Electricity) from Antiquity to the Days of Benjamin Franklin
10386:
A capacitor can facilitate conversion of kinetic energy of charged particles into electric energy and store it.
6410:
4521:
899:
Just as capacitors block DC while passing AC, diaphragms displace no water unless there is a change in pressure.
15223:
13724:
11653:
11392:"Molecular Expressions: Electricity and Magnetism - Interactive Java Tutorials: Lightning: A Natural Capacitor"
10936:
10489:
8856:
8852:
5269:
238:, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy, although real-life capacitors do dissipate a small amount (see
13030:
2005 IEEE Instrumentation and
Measurement Technology Conference (IMTC): Ottawa, Ontario Canada, 16–19 May 2005
6371:
1037:
Since the separation between the plates is uniform over the plate area, the electric field between the plates
15080:
14948:
8848:
8844:
6278:, the inductance perfectly cancels the capacitance, so total reactance is zero. Since the total impedance at
5701:
as seen in semi-conductor devices. Breakdown voltage is also affected by pressure, humidity and temperature.
5673:
with dielectric thickness, all capacitors made with a particular dielectric have approximately equal maximum
3289:
1912:
128:
on two closely spaced surfaces that are insulated from each other. The capacitor was originally known as the
11777:
11623:
11550:
6557:{\displaystyle Q(\omega )={\frac {|X_{C}(\omega )|}{\text{ESR}}}={\frac {1}{\omega C\cdot {\text{ESR}}}}\,.}
6216:
Inductive reactance increases with frequency. Because its sign is positive, it counteracts the capacitance.
1195:
14774:
14153:
13905:
10735:
10500:
and other specialty weapons. Experimental work is under way using banks of capacitors as power sources for
8820:
A capacitor may also be labeled with its working voltage, temperature, and other relevant characteristics.
7278:
6808:
6377:
6189:
6157:
5972:
5922:
4856:
2988:
2290:
1840:
11306:
7400:. This field polarizes the dielectric, which polarization, in the case of a ferroelectric, is a nonlinear
3164:{\displaystyle V(t)={\frac {Q(t)}{C}}=V(t_{0})+{\frac {1}{C}}\int _{t_{0}}^{t}I(\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau }
1972:
1791:
833:), the ratio of water displacement to pressure would be greater for a diaphragm that flexes more readily.
553:, the capacitor industry began to replace paper with thinner polymer films. One very early development in
15197:
15092:
13957:
13894:
13264:
11230:
10642:
8711:
7212:
are used to store small and larger amounts of energy, respectively, ceramic capacitors are often used in
5680:
For air dielectric capacitors the breakdown field strength is of the order 2–5 MV/m (or kV/mm); for
3274:{\displaystyle I(t)={\frac {\mathrm {d} Q(t)}{\mathrm {d} t}}=C{\frac {\mathrm {d} V(t)}{\mathrm {d} t}}}
282:
10354:
1098:
is small compared to the plate dimensions, it is small enough to be ignored. Therefore, if a charge of
15253:
15112:
15070:
14617:
14164:
13145:
12950:
12919:
12735:
Robinson's Manual of Radio
Telegraphy and Telephony by S.S. Robinson -- US Naval Institute 1924 Pg. 170
11985:
10587:
10349:
6582:
3355:
950:
The simplest model of a capacitor consists of two thin parallel conductive plates each with an area of
11758:
10290:
and replaces the decimal separator with the SI prefix symbol for the particular value (and the letter
4782:
in circuit analysis, the impedance of an ideal capacitor with no initial charge is represented in the
4649:
approaches 0, the capacitor resembles a short wire that strongly passes current at high frequencies. X
3012:) passing through it. Actual charges – electrons – cannot pass through the dielectric of an
2155:
2075:, and if the second plate is connected to ground, then the inner surface of the first plate will have
614:
A simple demonstration capacitor made of two parallel metal plates, using an air gap as the dielectric
15243:
15013:
14998:
14924:
14884:
14371:
14085:
13928:
13813:
13320:
Shinn, Eric; et al. (2012). "Nuclear energy conversion with stacks of graphene nanocapacitors".
11118:
8116:
7267:
Tantalum capacitors offer better frequency and temperature characteristics than aluminum, but higher
6124:, the total impedance and voltage drop is primarily resistive. Higher frequencies are more inductive.
5939:
1154:
13711:
11114:
or from transient voltages the capacitor may pick up from static charges or passing weather events.
10982:, where one plate is moved by air pressure, relative to the fixed position of the other plate. Some
10547:
circuits as the energy storage element in the generation of higher voltages than the input voltage.
5241:
15025:
14930:
14918:
14380:
14238:
14090:
13946:
13241:"Fundamentals of Electronics, Volume 1b: Basic Electricity, Alternating Current, NAVPERS 93400A-1b"
12779:
12294:
Reed, C. W.; Cichanowski, S. W. (1994). "The fundamentals of aging in HV polymer-film capacitors".
12229:
11048:
8698:
8678:
8014:
6355:
1505:
355:
160:, a capacitor is a component designed specifically to add capacitance to some part of the circuit.
87:
6382:
6308:
6163:
6136:
5901:
996:
15228:
15075:
14853:
14848:
14391:
14111:
13910:
10650:
10597:
in volt-amperes reactive (var). The purpose is to counteract inductive loading from devices like
10583:
10575:
10454:
10311:
7873:
7187:
6328:
6281:
4657:
approaches infinity, the capacitor resembles an open circuit that poorly passes low frequencies.
4628:{\displaystyle X_{C}={\frac {V_{0}}{I_{0}}}={\frac {V_{0}}{\omega CV_{0}}}={\frac {1}{\omega C}}}
4148:
3026:
2992:
Schematic showing polarity of voltage and direction of current for this current–voltage relation.
485:
347:
311:
139:
8120:
3347:. If the capacitor is initially uncharged while the switch is open, and the switch is closed at
2205:
The interleaved capacitor can be seen as a combination of several parallel connected capacitors.
421:
15169:
14966:
14560:
14127:
13992:
13968:
13705:
13240:
13028:
10754:
10501:
10434:
8746:
8727:
8705:
tantalum at top right; through-hole electrolytic at bottom right. Major scale divisions are cm.
7239:
7199:
7195:
6600:
5997:
5229:
530:, found out that the oxide layer on an aluminum anode remained stable in a neutral or alkaline
527:
335:
146:
113:
82:
13566:
13532:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society LXXII, Appendix 8, 1782 (Volta coins the word
13304:
13112:
13095:
12913:
12863:
12801:
12705:
12416:
12223:
12186:
12013:
11979:
11669:
11517:
11493:
10749:
to equally distribute the voltage between these units. These are called "grading capacitors".
2524:) is equal to the total work done in establishing the electric field from an uncharged state.
886:). Likewise, the greater the displaced water volume, the greater the elastic potential energy.
15181:
15135:
15003:
14901:
14838:
14629:
14581:
14402:
14218:
14133:
14064:
13900:
13417:
13139:
13002:
12832:
12671:
12640:
12153:
12040:
11469:
11436:
10810:
10806:
10731:
10682:
10607:
10556:
10470:
10376:
8754:
7865:
7861:
7840:
7268:
7217:
7183:
6726:
6649:. In contrast with ceramic capacitors, this occurs towards the end of life of the component.
6445:
4165:
2500:. The energy is stored in the increased electric field between the plates. The total energy
2396:
1724:
838:
572:
512:
386:
12975:
12944:
12323:
Klein, N.; Gafni, H. (1966). "The maximum dielectric strength of thin silicon oxide films".
12259:
Inuishi, Y.; Powers, D. A. (1957). "Electric breakdown and conduction through Mylar films".
6628:
have very low ESR ratings but exceeding rated ripple current may cause degradation failures.
6182:, which varies little with frequency. Unlike the previous model, this model is not valid at
4770:
with the voltage by +π/2 radians or +90 degrees, i.e. the current leads the voltage by 90°.
2468:
2105:
16:
Passive two-terminal electronic component that stores electrical energy in an electric field
15107:
15102:
15085:
14805:
14703:
14447:
14342:
14116:
14009:
13863:
13824:
13755:
13747:
13374:
13329:
12646:
12461:
12371:
12332:
12268:
12192:
11836:
11806:
11137:
11086:
10979:
10668:
10662:
10482:
8119:, with an imaginary part related to absorption of energy from the field by the medium. See
7300:
7063:
7034:
7005:
6976:
6812:
6415:
4161:
4157:
2782:
2358:
2078:
2051:
2024:
1764:
1737:
1532:
1360:
893:
855:
802:
796:
619:
489:
372:
was the first to combine several jars in parallel to increase the charge storage capacity.
168:
142:
134:
57:
13675:
12158:. Advanced Series in Electrical and Computer Engineering. Vol. 10. World Scientific.
11077:
or damage connected equipment. For example, even a seemingly innocuous device such as the
6104:
3004:) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a charge
1145:
8:
15233:
15154:
15097:
14936:
14858:
14833:
14797:
14423:
14331:
14223:
14059:
14036:
12127:"(PDF) Universality of the emergent scaling in finite random binary percolation networks"
11235:
11078:
10772:
10678:
as it is used to bypass the power supply or other high impedance component of a circuit.
10624:
10532:
8765:
7304:
7140:
as possible. The dielectric also needs to have as low a loss with frequency as possible.
6693:
6578:
6117:
would depend on the particular capacitor.) Lower frequencies are more capacitive. Around
6093:
5698:
1720:
1536:
401:
258:
13686:
13378:
13333:
12465:
12375:
12336:
12272:
11111:
6130:
6020:
2445:
2422:
1124:
1101:
156:. While some capacitance exists between any two electrical conductors in proximity in a
15174:
15159:
15040:
14878:
14843:
14728:
14588:
14296:
14263:
14079:
13963:
13941:
13398:
13364:
13259:
13052:
12392:
12359:
12090:
11740:
11499:
11212:
11025:
10932:
10849:
10841:
rely on variable capacitors to tune the station frequency. Speakers use passive analog
10778:
7407:
Corresponding to the voltage-dependent capacitance, to charge the capacitor to voltage
7223:
7144:
6825:
6804:
6589:
6567:
5964:
3021:
of the current as well as proportional to the voltage, as discussed above. As with any
2762:
2738:
2718:
2698:
2503:
2402:
2334:
2212:
2135:
1892:
1485:
1465:
1394:
1229:
1081:
1061:
1040:
1016:
973:
953:
535:
250:
231:
224:
208:
31:
11181:
has a resistor connected between the terminals for safety, to dissipate stored energy.
4487:{\displaystyle I=C{\frac {{\text{d}}V}{{\text{d}}t}}=-\omega {C}{V_{0}}\sin(\omega t)}
602:
15130:
14723:
14644:
14535:
14487:
14316:
14243:
14205:
13649:
13635:
13621:
13597:
13576:
13551:
13519:
13423:
13390:
13149:
13118:
13042:
13008:
12981:
12954:
12923:
12877:
12842:
12811:
12715:
12677:
12650:
12595:
12477:
12422:
12397:
12233:
12196:
12159:
12126:
12046:
12019:
11989:
11882:
11878:
11810:
11677:
11649:
11523:
11442:
11371:
11367:
11336:
11220:
11082:
10818:
10602:
10493:
10453:) to supply huge pulses of current for many pulsed power applications. These include
10287:
8769:
8738:
7274:
7137:
6891:
of thumb for predicting lifespan under different conditions of use is determined by:
6706:
6680:
In DC circuits and pulsed circuits, current and voltage reversal are affected by the
6638:
6619:
6440:
6220:
5615:
4779:
4351:
3889:
2813:. In this case the stored energy can be calculated from the electric field strength
1502:
increases linearly, the capacitance scales with the linear dimension of a capacitor (
788:
780:
539:
500:
382:
373:
363:
121:
95:
13402:
13056:
11761:, Becker, H. I., "Low voltage electrolytic capacitor", issued 1957-07-23
11744:
6622:
generally have no ripple current limitation and have some of the lowest ESR ratings.
6079:{\displaystyle j\omega \cdot {\text{ESL}}+{\text{ESR}}-{\frac {j}{\omega \cdot C}}.}
1482:
of the plates increases with the square of the linear dimensions and the separation
583:
invented modern DRAM architecture, combining a single MOS transistor per capacitor.
14863:
14439:
14386:
14213:
13852:
13464:
13382:
13337:
13034:
12469:
12387:
12379:
12340:
12305:
12276:
11957:
11732:
11225:
11130:
10739:
10709:
10694:
10674:
10552:
10399:
10332:
Summary of obsolete capacitance units: (upper/lower case variations are not shown)
10286:
is a notation to state a capacitor's value in a circuit diagram. It avoids using a
8741:
have existed from the 1930s onward, and remain in widespread use. After the 1980s,
7869:
7255:
6702:
6665:
5019:
according to the inverse of its capacitance. The entire series acts as a capacitor
4169:
849:
638:
634:
630:. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, plastic, ceramic, and even a
550:
442:
320:
157:
30:"Capacitive" redirects here. For the term used when referring to touchscreens, see
14248:
10593:. Usually, the values of these capacitors are not given in farads but rather as a
8685:
absorption or reflection of light have advanced our knowledge of these materials.
5927:
due to the leads. This is usually significant only at relatively high frequencies.
3599:, the voltage across the capacitor is zero and the voltage across the resistor is
15053:
15048:
15030:
14993:
14988:
14913:
14873:
14716:
14649:
14502:
14233:
14143:
13987:
13591:
13541:
13513:
12746:
Gupta, Anunay; Yadav, Om
Prakash; DeVoto, Douglas; Major, Joshua (October 2018).
12589:
11784:
11513:
11330:
11142:
11054:
10971:
10842:
10766:
10746:
10727:
10724:
10713:
10698:
10598:
10590:
10395:
7097:
6730:
1250:
of the electric field over a line (in the z-direction) from one plate to another
454:
426:
343:
220:
164:
125:
24:
19:
This article is about the electronic component. For the physical phenomenon, see
13874:
11193:
An exploded electrolytic capacitor, showing fragments of paper and metallic foil
10570:
8722:
6271:{\displaystyle \omega _{0}{=}{\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {{\text{ESL}}\cdot {\text{C}}}}}}
4988:{\displaystyle C_{\mathrm {eq} }=\sum _{i=1}^{n}C_{i}=C_{1}+C_{2}+\cdots +C_{n}}
1459:
dielectric material, large plate area, and small separation between the plates.
845:
DC circuits in the same way an accumulator dampens surges from a hydraulic pump.
622:
separated by a non-conductive region. The non-conductive region can either be a
163:
The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and many
14983:
14691:
14472:
14462:
14228:
14031:
13673:; 1st Ed; G. W. A. Dummer and Harold Nordenberg; Maple Press; 288 pages; 1960.
13386:
12747:
12383:
11948:
Pillai, K. P. P. (1970). "Fringing field of finite parallel-plate capacitors".
11095:
11091:
11074:
10838:
10814:
10745:
Capacitors are also used in parallel with interrupting units of a high-voltage
10634:
10594:
10497:
10458:
10403:
8762:
8350:
7313:
7308:
7292:
7209:
7175:
6816:
6755:
6751:
6625:
6604:
5674:
4382:
Capacitors are different from resistors and inductors in that the impedance is
4343:
3297:
3022:
1189:
1149:
930:
Parallel plate capacitor model consists of two conducting plates, each of area
642:
580:
561:
554:
369:
254:
216:
13468:
13038:
12449:
8017:. The integral extends over the entire past history up to the present time. A
7872:. Under transient conditions, the displacement field can be expressed as (see
6376:
For a simplified model of a capacitor as an ideal capacitor in series with an
6096:
of voltages in an RLC circuit. Frequency is relative to the natural frequency
903:
15217:
15164:
15147:
15142:
14753:
14576:
14492:
14311:
14138:
14106:
13699:
13618:
Tantalum and
Niobium-Based Capacitors – Science, Technology, and Applications
13547:
13141:
Hands-On Electronics: A Practical Introduction to Analog and Digital Circuits
12481:
11736:
11681:
11551:"Experiments & Observations on Electricity: Letter IV to Peter Collinson"
11178:
11107:
11103:
10983:
8742:
7325:
6759:
6681:
5620:
Above a particular electric field strength, known as the dielectric strength
4767:
3884:
1247:
852:. The more a capacitor is charged, the higher the voltage across the plates (
631:
446:
262:
12800:
de Araujo, Carlos Paz; Ramesh, Ramamoorthy; Taylor, George W., eds. (2001).
12344:
7291:
Several other types of capacitor are available for specialist applications.
4757:{\displaystyle I=-I_{0}\sin({\omega t})=I_{0}\cos({\omega t}+{90^{\circ }})}
14634:
14622:
14510:
14477:
14306:
14291:
13858:
13394:
12873:
12401:
11961:
11438:
The Story of Electrical and Magnetic Measurements: From 500 BC to the 1940s
11067:
11012:
10916:
10629:
10536:
10478:
10445:
10422:
8768:
whose depletion region width varies with applied voltage. They are used in
8702:
8642:
7133:
6685:
6183:
1716:
1531:
A parallel plate capacitor can only store a finite amount of energy before
1456:
991:
926:
576:
523:
266:
192:
8800:
6637:
The capacitance of certain capacitors decreases as the component ages. In
6015:
5009:
1455:
Therefore, in a capacitor the highest capacitance is achieved with a high
896:
when subjected to high voltages, diaphragms burst under extreme pressures.
408:) created a demand for standard capacitors, and the steady move to higher
46:
14676:
14418:
14367:
14273:
14258:
14041:
14003:
13285:
11122:
10834:
10798:
10559:
10544:
7285:
7260:
7251:
6771:
6739:
6735:
6725:
Capacitors made with any type of dielectric material show some level of "
6689:
6661:
6642:
5931:
5686:
4874:
4866:
4387:
4376:
3326:
A simple resistor–capacitor circuit demonstrates charging of a capacitor.
664:
system of units, defined as the ratio of the positive or negative charge
650:
592:
568:
549:
With the development of plastic materials by organic chemists during the
531:
508:
465:
328:
180:
153:
72:
20:
13716:
13004:
Fractals, diffusion and relaxation in disordered complex systems. Part A
12876:, U. Böttger & S. Tiedke, editors ed.). Wiley-VCH. Chapter 16.
12450:"The role of instrumentation in the process of modeling real capacitors"
12447:
10845:, and analog equalizers use capacitors to select different audio bands.
2201:
610:
394:
15202:
14868:
14813:
14748:
14738:
14671:
14545:
14515:
14482:
14457:
14452:
14429:
14301:
14281:
14159:
14021:
13998:
13884:
13786:
13781:
13776:
13341:
11150:
10525:
10418:
8638:
7250:
plate with an oxide dielectric layer. The second electrode is a liquid
7213:
6710:
6697:
5001:
3317:
627:
543:
516:
413:
390:
377:
359:
351:
316:
298:
270:
246:
172:
14766:
13491:
12626:
12473:
12309:
12280:
11311:(4th ed.). Philadelphia: P. Blakiston's Son & Co. p. 361
11282:
are not used as their glyphs look similar to other letters and digits.
10821:
loop stabilization. Signal processing circuits also use capacitors to
8693:
7489:
By the same token, the energy stored in the capacitor now is given by
7198:, which have predictable variation of capacitance with temperature or
5238:
To model the distribution of voltages from a single charged capacitor
1188:
coulombs per square meter, on the inside surface of each plate. From
942:
775:
14555:
14550:
14540:
14467:
14347:
14181:
14176:
14101:
14026:
12838:
12807:
12711:
11865:
11796:
10540:
10488:
Large capacitor banks (reservoir) are used as energy sources for the
10466:
10414:
10410:
10363:
10359:
10279:
8860:
8810:
8660:
8659:
Using this measurement method, the dielectric constant may exhibit a
8646:
6747:
842:
567:
The MOS capacitor was later widely adopted as a storage capacitor in
493:
473:
409:
339:
305:
278:
103:
11720:
11411:"A History of Science Volume II, Part VI: The Leyden Jar Discovered"
11117:
Some old, large oil-filled paper or plastic film capacitors contain
11030:
14823:
14818:
14733:
14681:
14661:
14639:
14525:
14520:
14408:
14397:
14326:
14096:
13369:
11609:
A history of science, technology and philosophy in the 18th century
11576:"Franklin and Electrostatics – Ben Franklin as my Lab Partner"
11206:
11126:
11000:
10959:
10822:
10275:
8758:
7247:
7243:
7231:
6597:
6593:
6402:
4173:
4153:
electrical impedance § Deriving the device-specific impedances
3331:
3293:
3018:
2192:. Note that the outer surface of both plates will have zero charge.
235:
176:
13684:; 1st Ed; Alexander Georgiev; Murray Hill Books; 191 pages; 1945.
10837:
to select information in particular frequency bands. For example,
8838:
7316:
breakdown voltages of at least five times the maximum AC voltage.
3583:{\displaystyle RC{\frac {\mathrm {d} i(t)}{\mathrm {d} t}}+i(t)=0}
171:, often in the form of metallic plates or surfaces separated by a
14593:
14530:
14352:
14337:
14191:
14148:
13796:
13648:; 1st Ed; Cletus Kaiser; Van Nostrand Reinhold; 124 pages; 1993;
12448:
Bisquert, J.; Garcia-Belmonte, G.; Fabregat-Santiago, F. (2000).
12360:"Recovery of alumina nanocapacitors after high voltage breakdown"
10720:
10509:
10505:
10321:(μF); and the old units "mmfd", "mmf", "uuf", "μμf", "pfd" meant
10294:
for weight 1). The code is also used for part markings. Example:
10283:
7848:
7296:
7168:
7156:
3623:. With this assumption, solving the differential equation yields
2018:, but those charges do not affect the voltage between the plates.
710:
504:
449:, he developed to measure electricity, and translated in 1782 as
212:
188:
10586:. Such capacitors often come as three capacitors connected as a
7295:
store large amounts of energy. Supercapacitors made from carbon
2229:
number of plates in a capacitor, the total capacitance would be
132:, a term still encountered in a few compound names, such as the
14666:
14357:
14321:
14286:
13846:
13818:
13791:
13766:
11053:
A light-emitting capacitor is made from a dielectric that uses
10999:
use capacitors. Additionally, a user can adjust the pitch of a
10992:
10975:
10942:
10402:
has a density of 590 kJ/kg. There is an intermediate solution:
8677:
Another example of frequency dependent capacitance occurs with
7122:
6794:. Sometimes they fail with a short circuit when next operated.
6743:
1572:. The maximum energy that the capacitor can store is therefore
623:
324:
11612:(2nd ed.). London: George Allen & Unwin. p. 224.
14743:
14654:
14413:
14186:
13979:
13841:
13836:
13172:"Annex B: Special two-character code system for capacitors".
12748:"A Review of Degradation Behavior and Modeling of Capacitors"
10474:
10462:
10449:
high-voltage capacitors that are often used in large groups (
10391:
7844:
7160:
7152:
2521:
706:
657:
477:
469:
405:
274:
204:
196:
184:
11696:
British Standard Glossary of Terms in Electrical Engineering
10817:
as components of integrators or more complex filters and in
10520:
5677:, to the extent that the dielectric dominates their volume.
5228:
Series connection is also sometimes used to adapt polarized
3334:, a capacitor, a switch and a constant DC source of voltage
3322:
14686:
14069:
14015:
13916:
13869:
13807:
13662:; 1st Ed; William Mullin; Sams Publishing; 96 pages; 1964.
11648:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 112–126.
11110:, as protection from potentially dangerous voltages due to
11099:
10987:
10802:
7839:
Another example of voltage dependent capacitance occurs in
7164:
5681:
904:
Circuit equivalence at short-time limit and long-time limit
714:
481:
429:
for Dubilier condensers, for use in wireless receiving sets
286:
200:
13117:(3rd ed.). Springer. §6.6 "Modulation Spectroscopy".
12297:
IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation
12071:
12059:
11719:
Ho, Janet; Jow, T. Richard; Boggs, Steven (January 2010).
10797:
The energy stored in a capacitor can be used to represent
10703:
7227:
Three aluminum electrolytic capacitors of varying capacity
6607:
have a specified rating value for maximum ripple current.
6581:
current is the AC component of an applied source (often a
1192:
the magnitude of the electric field between the plates is
13634:; 1st Ed; R. P. Deshpande; McGraw-Hill; 342 pages; 2014;
11844:
11799:; Lee, Ming-Kwei (May 2012). "MOS Capacitor and MOSFET".
11274:
In order to reduce the risk for read errors, the letters
8004:
indicating the lag in response by the time dependence of
7000:
is the rated life under rated conditions, e.g. 2000 hours
5488:
This is only correct if all capacitance values are equal.
5266:
connected in parallel to a chain of capacitors in series
4878:
Illustration of the parallel connection of two capacitors
13620:; 1st Ed; Yuri Freeman; Springer; 120 pages; 2018;
13454:
11034:
Example of a simple oscillator incorporating a capacitor
10582:
In electric power distribution, capacitors are used for
8868:
letters to specify a number of values not found in E24.
4504:, the capacitor has a maximum (or peak) current whereby
3040:). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation:
761:{\displaystyle C={\frac {\mathrm {d} Q}{\mathrm {d} V}}}
167:
are in common use. Most capacitors contain at least two
13167:
13165:
13075:
13063:
12895:
12893:
11907:
11905:
8801:
Three-/four-character marking code for small capacitors
8757:. Electrical control of capacitance is achievable with
6692:. The current and voltage reverse direction, forming a
5013:
Illustration of the serial connection of two capacitors
4400:
cos(ωt), the displacement current can be expressed as:
2102:, and the inner surface of the second plated will have
1969:. Note that the outer surface of both plates will have
1837:, and the inner surface of the second plated will have
1715:
The maximum energy is a function of dielectric volume,
848:
Charged capacitors and stretched diaphragms both store
661:
219:
develops across the dielectric, causing a net positive
13097:
Springer Handbook of Electronic and Photonic Materials
12974:
Czichos, Horst; Saito, Tetsuya; Smith, Leslie (2006).
12042:
Electromagnetism for Engineers: An Introductory Course
11950:
Proceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers
11646:
Volta: Science and culture in the Age of Enlightenment
8610:
is the complex impedance with the dielectric present,
7281:
at higher cost than standard electrolytic capacitors.
6961:{\displaystyle L_{a}=L_{0}2^{\frac {T_{0}-T_{a}}{10}}}
6828:, which is used to determine chemical-reaction rates:
6245:
5934:
component to the total impedance, which wastes power:
4773:
4520:. The ratio of peak voltage to peak current is due to
2158:
1975:
1915:
1843:
1794:
13546:(2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA:
12799:
12745:
12563:. Sorrento Electronics. November 2003. Archived from
11366:(7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA:
10869:
8426:
8131:
8027:
7882:
7600:
7495:
7417:
7334:
7066:
7037:
7008:
6979:
6897:
6834:
6470:
6448:
6418:
6385:
6311:
6284:
6228:
6192:
6166:
6139:
6029:
5975:
5942:
5904:
5719:
5633:
5497:
5307:
5272:
5244:
5029:
4890:
4792:
4666:
4534:
4406:
4182:
3920:
3629:
3519:
3364:
3183:
3046:
2819:
2785:
2765:
2741:
2721:
2701:
2530:
2506:
2471:
2448:
2425:
2405:
2361:
2337:
2293:
2280:{\displaystyle C=\varepsilon _{o}{\frac {A}{d}}(n-1)}
2235:
2215:
2138:
2108:
2081:
2054:
2027:
1895:
1767:
1740:
1578:
1508:
1488:
1468:
1420:
1397:
1363:
1256:
1232:
1198:
1157:
1127:
1104:
1084:
1064:
1043:
1019:
999:
976:
956:
858:
805:
727:
678:
13162:
12890:
12488:
12133:
12114:
Current percolation through resistors and capacitors
11917:
11902:
11676:. New York: Bonnier Corporation: 118–119. May 1892.
11624:"eFunda: Glossary: Units: Electric Capacitance: Jar"
11202:
10855:
of a tuned circuit is a function of the inductance (
10539:
where they smooth the output of a full or half wave
10358:
A capacitor discharging its stored energy through a
8793:
For typographical reasons, some manufacturers print
6023:
capacitor model. Its total equivalent impedance is:
5235:
Voltage distribution in parallel-to-series networks.
713:
of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one
641:
a charge on one conductor will exert a force on the
12642:
Exploring Quantum Physics through Hands-on Projects
11929:
11332:
Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology
11268:
8645:is predicted to exhibit nonideal behavior, such as
7151:Several solid dielectrics are available, including
6777:
6372:
Dielectric loss § Discrete circuit perspective
4386:proportional to the defining characteristic; i.e.,
2395:To increase the charge and voltage on a capacitor,
308:when the breakdown voltage of the air is exceeded.
13568:Semiconductor Material and Device Characterization
12977:Springer Handbook of Materials Measurement Methods
12510:. Johanson Dielectrics. 2012-05-21. Archived from
11121:(PCBs). It is known that waste PCBs can leak into
11015:are now used on many consumer electronic products.
10954:The effects of varying the characteristics of the
10903:
8701:ceramic at top left; SMD tantalum at bottom left;
8583:
8335:
8094:
7994:
7821:
7584:
7460:
7365:
7079:
7050:
7021:
6992:
6960:
6880:
6684:of the system. Voltage reversal is encountered in
6556:
6454:
6431:
6393:
6319:
6297:
6270:
6205:
6174:
6147:
6078:
5988:
5955:
5912:
5883:
5662:
5580:
5475:
5293:
5258:
5214:
4987:
4825:
4756:
4627:
4486:
4328:
4132:
3861:
3582:
3495:
3285:independent of time, voltage and electric charge.
3273:
3163:
2971:
2805:
2771:
2747:
2727:
2707:
2687:
2512:
2492:
2457:
2434:
2411:
2379:
2343:
2323:
2279:
2221:
2184:
2144:
2124:
2094:
2067:
2040:
2010:
1961:
1901:
1881:
1829:
1780:
1753:
1705:
1535:occurs. The capacitor's dielectric material has a
1520:
1494:
1474:
1444:
1403:
1383:
1349:
1238:
1218:
1180:
1136:
1113:
1090:
1070:
1049:
1025:
1005:
982:
962:
878:
825:
760:
697:
649:An ideal capacitor is characterized by a constant
358:invented a similar capacitor, which was named the
13518:(5th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
13306:Illustrated Guide to the National Electrical Code
13138:Kaplan, Daniel M.; White, Christopher G. (2003).
12973:
11721:"Historical Introduction to Capacitor Technology"
10995:deployment, and in many other applications. Some
10833:Capacitors and inductors are applied together in
10688:
8865:special two-character marking code for capacitors
8780:
7893:
7887:
7854:
3173:Taking the derivative of this and multiplying by
557:was described in British Patent 587,953 in 1944.
15215:
13445:by Gennady A. Mesyats -- Springer 2005 Page 1--5
10904:{\displaystyle f={\frac {1}{2\pi {\sqrt {LC}}}}}
10719:together, or destroying a solid-state switch. A
10312:Farad § Informal and deprecated terminology
13354:
13131:
12911:
12293:
12188:Wiley Survey of Instrumentation and Measurement
12083:
11776:A brief history of supercapacitors AUTUMN 2007
10653:is small at the signal frequency, is employed.
10413:systems, large capacitors store energy for the
8839:Two-character marking code for small capacitors
7319:
7087:is the expected lifespan under given conditions
6738:film exhibit relatively high absorption, while
6671:
6653:material. Some, designated C0G/NP0, but called
5967:. Becomes more relevant as frequency increases.
2390:
626:or an electrical insulator material known as a
13206:
13204:
13202:
13000:
12946:Quantum Field Theory of Non-equilibrium States
12912:Giuliani, Gabriele; Vignale, Giovanni (2005).
12834:What Every Engineer Should Know about Ceramics
12663:
8823:Example: A capacitor labeled or designated as
8364:is the voltage component at angular frequency
6811:(ESR), while others may fail suddenly or even
6677:whereas AC circuits experience 100% reversal.
6010:
5491:The power transferred in this arrangement is:
4653:approaches infinity as ω approaches zero. If X
175:medium. A conductor may be a foil, thin film,
14782:
13732:
13175:SLOVENSKI STANDARD SIST EN 60062:2016/A1:2019
12699:
12697:
12695:
12693:
12258:
11871:Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology
11802:Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology
11757:
8628:capacitance with the dielectric present, and
7373:where the voltage dependence of capacitance,
2442:required to move a small increment of charge
637:chemically identical to the conductors. From
445:in 1780 to refer to a device, similar to his
346:could be stored by connecting a high-voltage
15239:Science and technology in the Dutch Republic
13512:Dorf, Richard C.; Svoboda, James A. (2001).
13110:
12011:
8797:on capacitors to indicate microfarads (μF).
8641:, an unattainable goal inasmuch as even the
7029:is the rated max/min operational temperature
6881:{\displaystyle L=Be^{\frac {e_{A}}{kT_{o}}}}
5663:{\displaystyle V_{\text{bd}}=E_{\text{ds}}d}
3896:capacitor, the capacitor's initial voltage (
2756:field will do work on the external circuit.
1445:{\displaystyle C={\frac {\varepsilon A}{d}}}
425:Advert from the 28 December 1923 edition of
234:in many common electrical devices. Unlike a
13511:
13235:
13233:
13199:
13137:
13093:
12632:
12155:Introduction to High Power Pulse Technology
12077:
12065:
12032:
11694:British Engineering Standards Association,
11485:
11149:High-voltage capacitors may benefit from a
11094:. Larger capacitors, such as those used in
10637:are frequently used as coupling capacitors.
10613:
10440:
4172:allows any signal to be constructed from a
2983:
2465:from the negative to the positive plate is
921:
14789:
14775:
13739:
13725:
13492:"Some Xenon Strobe and Flash Safety Hints"
13243:. 1965-04-12 – via Internet Archive.
13001:Coffey, William; Kalmykov, Yu. P. (2006).
12690:
12669:
12581:
12554:"The Effect of Reversal on Capacitor Life"
12322:
12012:Serway, Raymond A.; Vuille, Chris (2014).
11973:
11971:
11941:
11718:
11058:used for the purpose of generating light.
10672:supply and ground. An alternative name is
10565:
6632:
3029:is added to represent the initial voltage
2331:is the capacitance for a single plate and
152:The utility of a capacitor depends on its
13746:
13409:
13368:
12861:
12594:. Springer Science & Business Media.
12391:
12007:
12005:
11778:Batteries & Energy Storage Technology
11605:
11006:Changing the effective area of the plates
8577:
8325:
8088:
7977:
7815:
7727:
7654:
7578:
7549:
7508:
7451:
7356:
7136:as possible, while also having as high a
6550:
5294:{\displaystyle \left(B_{\text{n}}\right)}
4766:In this situation, the current is out of
4097:
4083:
4028:
3505:Taking the derivative and multiplying by
3484:
3152:
2735:is the voltage across the capacitor, and
2601:
2564:
1290:
571:, and as the basic building block of the
13564:
13543:Fundamentals of Applied Electromagnetics
13255:"1930 Catalog – Capacitors (Condensers)"
13230:
13081:
13069:
12967:
12905:
12865:Scanning Nonlinear Dielectric Microscope
12830:
12824:
12753:. National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
12418:Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology
12151:
11714:
11712:
11710:
11708:
11706:
11704:
11643:
11548:
11512:
11491:
11434:
11029:
10965:Changing the distance between the plates
10641:Because capacitors pass AC but block DC
10628:
10569:
10519:
10353:
8721:
8692:
7230:
7222:
7121:
6720:
6088:
6014:
5708:
5008:
5000:
4873:
4865:
3321:
2987:
2759:If the gap between the capacitor plates
2200:
2196:
1962:{\textstyle V={\frac {Q_{1}-Q_{2}}{2C}}}
970:separated by a uniform gap of thickness
941:
925:
774:
609:
601:
420:
310:
14961:Application-specific integrated circuit
14796:
13660:Understanding Capacitors and their Uses
13104:
12703:
12676:. Laxmi Publications, Ltd. p. 63.
12638:
12038:
11977:
11968:
11467:
10704:Noise suppression, spikes, and snubbers
10574:A high-voltage capacitor bank used for
8201:
8193:
8075:
8029:
7959:
7890:
7884:
7461:{\displaystyle Q=\int _{0}^{V}C(V)\,dV}
7117:
6409:) is the ratio of the magnitude of its
5598:
2715:is the charge stored in the capacitor,
249:. Today, capacitors are widely used in
239:
230:Capacitors are widely used as parts of
15216:
13302:
13286:"Capacitor MF - MMFD Conversion Chart"
13210:
13094:Kasap, Safa O.; Capper, Peter (2006).
12994:
12942:
12936:
12793:
12707:Practical Laser Safety, Second Edition
12587:
12357:
12221:
12002:
11947:
11829:
11795:
11300:
11298:
10528:capacitor in an amplifier power supply
7058:is the average operational temperature
6803:like humidity, mechanical stress, and
1882:{\textstyle -{\frac {Q_{1}-Q_{2}}{2}}}
1546:
1528:), or as the cube root of the volume.
1219:{\displaystyle E=\sigma /\varepsilon }
795:Capacitance is analogous to diaphragm
586:
560:Electric double-layer capacitors (now
14770:
13720:
13589:
13539:
13415:
13319:
13181:(preview). 2019-12-01. pp. 3–4.
13087:
12915:Quantum Theory of the Electron Liquid
12899:
12508:"Ceramic Capacitor Aging Made Simple"
12494:
12325:IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices
12139:
11935:
11923:
11911:
11701:
11573:
11474:. P. F. Collier & Son. p. 71
11441:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 23.
11361:
11061:
10515:
8775:
6206:{\displaystyle G_{\text{dielectric}}}
5989:{\displaystyle G_{\text{dielectric}}}
5704:
5591:
2351:is the number of interleaved plates.
2324:{\displaystyle C=\varepsilon _{o}A/d}
2011:{\textstyle {\frac {Q_{1}+Q_{2}}{2}}}
1830:{\textstyle {\frac {Q_{1}-Q_{2}}{2}}}
1246:between the plates is defined as the
14896:Three-dimensional integrated circuit
14171:Three-dimensional integrated circuit
12780:"Ask The Applications Engineer – 21"
12414:
12184:
12091:"Capacitor charging and discharging"
12045:. Elsevier Science. pp. 44–45.
11408:
11355:
11328:
11304:
10792:
10339:pF (picofarad) = mmf, mmfd, pfd, μμF
5609:
4826:{\displaystyle Z(s)={\frac {1}{sC}}}
4361:phase indicates that the AC voltage
2520:stored in a capacitor (expressed in
770:
464:Since the beginning of the study of
265:networks, they smooth the output of
13952:Programmable unijunction transistor
13590:Sze, Simon M.; Ng, Kwok K. (2006).
13571:(3rd ed.). Wiley. p. 270
12855:
12627:Xenon Strobe and Flash Safety Hints
12225:Practical Electronics for Inventors
11864:
11725:IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
11583:Wright Center for Science Education
11574:Morse, Robert A. (September 2004).
11522:. Simon and Schuster. p. 136.
11519:Benjamin Franklin: An American Life
11295:
8595:denotes the real part and a double
7585:{\displaystyle dW=Q\,dV=\leftdV\,.}
6331:dissipation reaches its maximum of
5963:, a small series resistance in the
4850:
4774:Laplace circuit analysis (s-domain)
3330:A series circuit containing only a
13:
14908:Erasable programmable logic device
13853:Multi-gate field-effect transistor
13700:The First Condenser – A Beer Glass
13611:
13033:. IEEE. 2005. pp. 1350–1353.
12777:
12670:Dixit, J. B.; Yadav, Amit (2010).
12533:"Concise Guide to Capacitor Types"
11177:This high-energy capacitor from a
11133:ballasts, and other applications.
11042:
10618:
10421:, a capacitor is used to hold the
10381:rechargeable energy storage system
8187:
7918:
7091:
5729:
5326:
5323:
5039:
5036:
4900:
4897:
3549:
3530:
3486:
3261:
3242:
3222:
3203:
3154:
2603:
2566:
1292:
934:, separated by a gap of thickness
748:
738:
14:
15265:
14943:Complex programmable logic device
13831:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
13693:
13515:Introduction to Electric Circuits
13100:. Springer. Figure 20.22, p. 425.
12018:. Cengage Learning. p. 582.
11981:Electricity and Magnetism, 2nd Ed
11549:Franklin, Benjamin (1749-04-29).
10828:
10760:
10428:
10390:capacitors provide less than 360
10370:
8671:deep-level transient spectroscopy
6573:
3511:first-order differential equation
2185:{\textstyle V={\frac {Q_{1}}{C}}}
668:on each conductor to the voltage
387:clusters of electrochemical cells
14075:Heterostructure barrier varactor
13802:Chemical field-effect transistor
13593:Physics of Semiconductor Devices
13309:. Cengage Learning. p. 445.
12588:Kaiser, Cletus J. (2012-12-06).
12358:Belkin, A.; et al. (2017).
11205:
11186:
11170:
11158:
8383:part of the current, called the
8221:
6783:Aluminum electrolytic capacitors
6778:Electrolytic failure from disuse
2048:while the other is charged with
1761:while the other is charged with
1034:cause failure of the capacitor.
698:{\displaystyle C={\frac {Q}{V}}}
511:. On the receiver side, smaller
499:Porcelain was used in the first
468:, non-conductive materials like
102:
45:
23:. For an overview of types, see
14955:Field-programmable object array
14891:Mixed-signal integrated circuit
14123:Mixed-signal integrated circuit
13505:
13484:
13475:
13448:
13436:
13348:
13313:
13296:
13278:
13247:
13219:from the original on 2022-06-17
13188:from the original on 2022-06-17
13111:PY Yu; Cardona, Manuel (2001).
13021:
12771:
12760:from the original on 2020-06-05
12739:
12728:
12620:
12608:
12546:
12525:
12500:
12441:
12408:
12351:
12316:
12287:
12252:
12215:
12178:
12145:
12119:
12107:
11858:
11789:
11770:
11751:
11688:
11662:
11637:
11616:
11599:
11567:
11542:
11253:
11241:List of capacitor manufacturers
10801:, either in binary form, as in
10490:exploding-bridgewire detonators
10343:
8843:For capacitances following the
8402:part of the current and is the
7411:an integral relation is found:
6186:and very low frequencies where
5956:{\displaystyle R_{\text{lead}}}
1889:charge. Therefore, the voltage
1181:{\displaystyle \sigma =\pm Q/A}
433:Early capacitors were known as
412:required capacitors with lower
13540:Ulaby, Fawwaz Tayssir (1999).
13114:Fundamentals of Semiconductors
12629:. donklipstein.com. 2006-05-29
12454:IEEE Transactions on Education
12152:Pai, S. T.; Zhang, Qi (1995).
11585:. Tufts University. p. 23
11506:
11461:
11428:
11402:
11384:
11322:
11019:
10937:Capacitive displacement sensor
10863:) in series, and is given by:
10689:High-pass and low-pass filters
10578:on a power transmission system
10417:to use on demand. Also, for a
8781:Marking codes for larger parts
8772:, amongst other applications.
8561:
8555:
8523:
8517:
8496:
8490:
8468:
8462:
8443:
8437:
8319:
8313:
8305:
8299:
8287:
8281:
8270:
8264:
8249:
8243:
8211:
8197:
8170:
8164:
8145:
8139:
8085:
8079:
8071:
8065:
8039:
8033:
7974:
7963:
7955:
7938:
7855:Frequency-dependent capacitors
7812:
7801:
7742:
7731:
7669:
7658:
7564:
7553:
7448:
7442:
7353:
7347:
6514:
6510:
6504:
6490:
6480:
6474:
6356:root mean square (RMS) voltage
5795:
5769:
5259:{\displaystyle \left(A\right)}
4870:Several capacitors in parallel
4802:
4796:
4751:
4725:
4703:
4692:
4481:
4472:
4354:of the sinusoidal signal. The
4142:
4070:
4064:
4005:
3999:
3934:
3928:
3788:
3782:
3711:
3705:
3643:
3637:
3606:. The initial current is then
3571:
3565:
3543:
3537:
3481:
3475:
3431:
3425:
3416:
3410:
3394:
3388:
3311:
3255:
3249:
3216:
3210:
3193:
3187:
3149:
3143:
3102:
3089:
3074:
3068:
3056:
3050:
2966:
2958:
2561:
2555:
2374:
2362:
2274:
2262:
1357:The capacitance is defined as
1287:
1281:
892:Just as capacitors experience
1:
15081:Hardware description language
14949:Field-programmable gate array
13671:Fixed and Variable Capacitors
13263:. p. 139. Archived from
13213:"EIA-198-D capacitance codes"
11698:, C. Lockwood & Son, 1926
11471:Electricity in Every-day Life
11335:. Routledge. pp. 63–76.
11289:
10805:, or in analogue form, as in
10656:
10305:
8656:, is sufficiently accurate.)
6439:to its resistance at a given
2021:If one plate is charged with
1734:If one plate is charged with
1730:For unevenly charged plates:
1547:capacitor's breakdown voltage
1521:{\displaystyle C\varpropto L}
526:), the inventor of the first
14154:Silicon controlled rectifier
14016:Organic light-emitting diode
13906:Diffused junction transistor
13565:Schroder, Dieter K. (2006).
13211:Zabkar, Franc (2011-09-15).
11670:"Sketch of Alessandro Volta"
11435:Keithley, Joseph F. (1999).
10813:. Capacitors can be used in
10736:radio frequency interference
8809:) denote the capacitance in
7320:Voltage-dependent capacitors
7208:Electrolytic capacitors and
6809:equivalent series resistance
6672:Current and voltage reversal
6394:{\displaystyle {\text{ESR}}}
6378:equivalent series resistance
6320:{\displaystyle {\text{ESR}}}
6175:{\displaystyle {\text{ESR}}}
6158:equivalent series resistance
6148:{\displaystyle {\text{ESL}}}
6001:
5923:equivalent series inductance
5913:{\displaystyle {\text{ESL}}}
5023:than any of its components.
5005:Several capacitors in series
4857:Series and parallel circuits
3177:yields the derivative form:
2391:Energy stored in a capacitor
1006:{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
990:filled with a dielectric of
618:A capacitor consists of two
7:
15093:Formal equivalence checking
13958:Static induction transistor
13895:Bipolar junction transistor
13847:MOS field-effect transistor
13819:Fin field-effect transistor
12561:Engineering Bulletin 96-004
11674:The Popular Science Monthly
11606:Wolf, A; McKie, D. (1962).
11231:Electric displacement field
11198:
10543:. They can also be used in
10269:
7482:does not depend on voltage
7366:{\displaystyle dQ=C(V)\,dV}
6797:
6365:
6298:{\displaystyle \omega _{0}}
6011:Simplified RLC series model
5930:Two resistances that add a
5697:structure can result in an
3296:, which stores energy in a
3017:electrodes is equal to the
1226:. The voltage(difference)
1121:is placed on one plate and
597:
393:, equivalent to about 1.11
385:), subsequently applied to
283:electric power transmission
10:
15270:
15113:Hierarchical state machine
15071:Transaction-level modeling
14165:Static induction thyristor
13682:The Electrolytic Capacitor
13146:Cambridge University Press
12951:Cambridge University Press
12920:Cambridge University Press
12831:Musikant, Solomon (1991).
12421:. Routledge. p. 501.
12384:10.1038/s41598-017-01007-9
12261:Journal of Applied Physics
11986:Cambridge University Press
11468:Houston, Edwin J. (1905).
11046:
11023:
10930:
10926:
10764:
10707:
10692:
10660:
10622:
10350:Applications of capacitors
10347:
10309:
9844:
8879:
8417:is the complex impedance.
7095:
6765:
6583:switched-mode power supply
6369:
6305:is just the real-value of
6155:and a frequency-dependent
5613:
4862:For capacitors in parallel
4854:
4146:
3315:
590:
296:
292:
29:
18:
15190:
15123:
15039:
15014:Digital signal processing
14999:Logic in computer science
14976:
14925:Programmable logic device
14885:Hybrid integrated circuit
14804:
14702:
14602:
14569:
14501:
14438:
14366:
14334:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
14272:
14204:
14086:Hybrid integrated circuit
14050:
13978:
13929:Light-emitting transistor
13883:
13765:
13754:
13469:10.1108/03056121011015068
13416:Floyd, Thomas L. (2017).
13039:10.1109/IMTC.2005.1604368
12980:. Springer. p. 475.
12185:Dyer, Stephen A. (2004).
11119:polychlorinated biphenyls
10398:, whereas a conventional
10379:, or like other types of
10336:μF (microfarad) = mf, mfd
8761:(or varicaps), which are
8688:
8021:in time then results in:
7829:where interchange of the
4846:is the complex frequency.
4645:approaches infinity. If X
3304:with the inductance
2132:. Therefore, the voltage
1411:above into this equation
1013:. It is assumed the gap
579:technology. In 1966, Dr.
101:
94:
78:
63:
53:
44:
15026:Switching circuit theory
14931:Programmable Array Logic
14919:Programmable logic array
14381:Backward-wave oscillator
14091:Light emitting capacitor
13947:Point-contact transistor
13917:Junction Gate FET (JFET)
13387:10.1088/1361-6528/aa935c
13303:Miller, Charles (2011).
12673:Electrical Power Quality
12617:. McGraw-Hill 1960 p. 90
12230:McGraw Hill Professional
12015:College Physics, 10th Ed
11978:Purcell, Edward (2011).
11737:10.1109/mei.2010.5383924
11246:
11049:light emitting capacitor
10614:Suppression and coupling
10441:Pulsed power and weapons
8015:linear response function
4997:For capacitors in series
3292:of the capacitor is the
2984:Current–voltage relation
2963:volume of electric field
938:containing a dielectric.
922:Parallel-plate capacitor
503:. In the early years of
356:Pieter van Musschenbroek
120:is a device that stores
88:Pieter van Musschenbroek
15249:18th-century inventions
15076:Register-transfer level
14392:Crossed-field amplifier
13911:Field-effect transistor
13596:(3rd ed.). Wiley.
13422:. Pearson. p. 10.
12943:Rammer, Jørgen (2007).
12639:Prutchi, David (2012).
12345:10.1109/T-ED.1966.15681
12078:Dorf & Svoboda 2001
12066:Dorf & Svoboda 2001
11492:Benjamin, Park (1895).
11409:Williams, Henry Smith.
11362:Floyd, Thomas (2005) .
11039:oscillatory frequency.
10949:Changing the dielectric
10584:power-factor correction
10576:power-factor correction
10566:Power-factor correction
10455:electromagnetic forming
8737:Small, cheap discoidal
8728:electrolytic capacitors
7874:electric susceptibility
7256:Poor quality capacitors
7240:Electrolytic capacitors
7188:power-factor correction
6633:Capacitance instability
6601:electrolytic capacitors
6455:{\displaystyle \omega }
5601:. The usual methods of
5230:electrolytic capacitors
4840:is the capacitance, and
4149:reactance (electronics)
3914:. The equations become
3356:Kirchhoff's voltage law
3027:constant of integration
528:electrolytic capacitors
348:electrostatic generator
14967:Tensor Processing Unit
14561:Voltage-regulator tube
14128:MOS integrated circuit
13993:Constant-current diode
13969:Unijunction transistor
13646:The Capacitor Handbook
12591:The Capacitor Handbook
11962:10.1049/piee.1970.0232
11308:A Text-Book of Physics
11305:Duff, Wilmer (1916) .
11035:
10905:
10807:analog sampled filters
10755:electrolytic capacitor
10638:
10579:
10529:
10502:electromagnetic armour
10471:pulse forming networks
10367:
8747:printed circuit boards
8730:
8706:
8585:
8337:
8096:
7996:
7843:such as semiconductor
7823:
7586:
7462:
7367:
7301:rechargeable batteries
7236:
7228:
7184:operating temperatures
7128:
7081:
7052:
7023:
6994:
6962:
6882:
6647:electrolyte evaporates
6558:
6456:
6433:
6395:
6358:across the capacitor.
6321:
6299:
6272:
6207:
6176:
6149:
6125:
6086:
6080:
5990:
5957:
5914:
5891:
5885:
5664:
5582:
5477:
5295:
5260:
5216:
5074:
5014:
5006:
4989:
4929:
4879:
4871:
4827:
4758:
4629:
4488:
4330:
4134:
3863:
3584:
3497:
3327:
3275:
3165:
2993:
2973:
2807:
2773:
2749:
2729:
2709:
2689:
2514:
2494:
2493:{\displaystyle dW=Vdq}
2459:
2436:
2413:
2381:
2345:
2325:
2281:
2223:
2206:
2186:
2152:between the plates is
2146:
2126:
2125:{\displaystyle -Q_{1}}
2096:
2069:
2042:
2012:
1963:
1909:between the plates is
1903:
1883:
1831:
1782:
1755:
1707:
1522:
1496:
1476:
1446:
1405:
1385:
1351:
1240:
1220:
1182:
1138:
1115:
1092:
1072:
1051:
1027:
1007:
984:
964:
947:
939:
880:
827:
784:
762:
699:
615:
607:
430:
342:, Germany, found that
336:Ewald Georg von Kleist
331:
114:electrical engineering
83:Ewald Georg von Kleist
15224:Electrical components
15182:Electronic literature
15136:Hardware acceleration
15004:Computer architecture
14902:Emitter-coupled logic
14839:Printed circuit board
14630:Electrolytic detector
14403:Inductive output tube
14219:Low-dropout regulator
14134:Organic semiconductor
14065:Printed circuit board
13901:Darlington transistor
13748:Electronic components
13007:. Wiley. p. 17.
12841:. Figure 3.9, p. 43.
12647:John Wiley & Sons
12222:Scherz, Paul (2006).
12193:John Wiley & Sons
11807:John Wiley & Sons
11644:Pancaldi, G. (2003).
11138:catastrophically fail
11112:dielectric absorption
11033:
11024:Further information:
10980:condenser microphones
10906:
10708:Further information:
10693:Further information:
10683:printed circuit board
10632:
10573:
10523:
10483:particle accelerators
10357:
8827:has a capacitance of
8725:
8715:comprise the plates.
8696:
8586:
8338:
8097:
7997:
7866:dielectric relaxation
7864:, and is governed by
7862:dielectric dispersion
7841:semiconductor devices
7824:
7587:
7463:
7368:
7286:feedthrough capacitor
7269:dielectric absorption
7235:3D model of capacitor
7234:
7226:
7218:parasitic capacitance
7125:
7082:
7080:{\displaystyle L_{a}}
7053:
7051:{\displaystyle T_{a}}
7024:
7022:{\displaystyle T_{0}}
6995:
6993:{\displaystyle L_{0}}
6963:
6883:
6792:lose its conditioning
6727:dielectric absorption
6721:Dielectric absorption
6559:
6457:
6434:
6432:{\displaystyle X_{C}}
6396:
6322:
6300:
6273:
6219:At the RLC circuit's
6208:
6177:
6150:
6092:
6081:
6018:
5991:
5958:
5915:
5886:
5712:
5665:
5599:an equivalent circuit
5583:
5478:
5296:
5261:
5217:
5054:
5012:
5004:
4990:
4909:
4877:
4869:
4828:
4759:
4630:
4489:
4331:
4135:
3864:
3585:
3498:
3325:
3276:
3166:
2991:
2974:
2808:
2806:{\displaystyle E=V/d}
2774:
2750:
2730:
2710:
2690:
2515:
2495:
2460:
2437:
2414:
2382:
2380:{\displaystyle (n-1)}
2346:
2326:
2282:
2224:
2204:
2197:Interleaved capacitor
2187:
2147:
2127:
2097:
2095:{\displaystyle Q_{1}}
2070:
2068:{\displaystyle Q_{2}}
2043:
2041:{\displaystyle Q_{1}}
2013:
1964:
1904:
1884:
1832:
1783:
1781:{\displaystyle Q_{2}}
1756:
1754:{\displaystyle Q_{1}}
1725:parasitic capacitance
1708:
1523:
1497:
1477:
1447:
1406:
1386:
1384:{\displaystyle C=Q/V}
1352:
1241:
1221:
1183:
1139:
1116:
1093:
1073:
1052:
1028:
1008:
985:
965:
945:
929:
881:
879:{\displaystyle V=Q/C}
839:hydraulic accumulator
828:
826:{\displaystyle C=Q/V}
778:
763:
705:A capacitance of one
700:
613:
605:
573:charge-coupled device
522:Charles Pollak (born
490:decoupling capacitors
424:
314:
179:bead of metal, or an
169:electrical conductors
15108:Finite-state machine
15086:High-level synthesis
15021:Circuit minimization
14448:Beam deflection tube
14117:Metal-oxide varistor
14010:Light-emitting diode
13864:Thin-film transistor
13825:Floating-gate MOSFET
12810:. Figure 2, p. 504.
12039:Hammond, P. (2013).
11988:. pp. 110–111.
11396:micro.magnet.fsu.edu
11087:photoflash capacitor
10867:
10669:decoupling capacitor
10663:decoupling capacitor
10533:Reservoir capacitors
10504:and electromagnetic
8813:(pF), calculated as
8766:semiconductor diodes
8697:Capacitor packages:
8599:the imaginary part,
8424:
8129:
8025:
7880:
7831:order of integration
7598:
7493:
7415:
7332:
7118:Dielectric materials
7064:
7035:
7006:
6977:
6895:
6832:
6468:
6446:
6416:
6411:capacitive reactance
6383:
6309:
6282:
6226:
6190:
6164:
6137:
6027:
5973:
5940:
5902:
5717:
5631:
5495:
5305:
5270:
5242:
5232:for bipolar AC use.
5027:
4888:
4790:
4664:
4532:
4522:capacitive reactance
4404:
4180:
4160:, the vector sum of
3918:
3627:
3517:
3362:
3181:
3044:
2817:
2783:
2763:
2739:
2719:
2699:
2528:
2504:
2469:
2446:
2423:
2403:
2359:
2335:
2291:
2233:
2213:
2156:
2136:
2106:
2079:
2052:
2025:
1973:
1913:
1893:
1841:
1792:
1765:
1738:
1576:
1533:dielectric breakdown
1506:
1486:
1466:
1418:
1395:
1361:
1254:
1230:
1196:
1155:
1125:
1102:
1082:
1062:
1041:
1017:
997:
974:
954:
894:dielectric breakdown
856:
803:
725:
676:
364:University of Leiden
143:electronic component
135:condenser microphone
58:Electronic component
15155:Digital photography
14937:Generic Array Logic
14859:Combinational logic
14834:Printed electronics
14798:Digital electronics
14424:Traveling-wave tube
14224:Switching regulator
14060:Printed electronics
14037:Step recovery diode
13814:Depletion-load NMOS
13706:How Capacitors Work
13379:2017Nanot..28W5401B
13334:2013Cmplx..18c..24S
12466:2000ITEdu..43..439F
12415:Bird, John (2007).
12376:2017NatSR...7..932B
12337:1966ITED...13..281K
12273:1957JAP....28.1017I
11502:. pp. 522–524.
11500:J. Wiley & Sons
11329:Bird, John (2010).
11236:Electroluminescence
10997:fingerprint sensors
10859:) and capacitance (
10625:capacitive coupling
10298:for 4.7 nF or
8726:Several axial-lead
8489:
8461:
7927:
7868:processes, such as
7762:
7720:
7689:
7642:
7621:
7537:
7438:
7305:Alternating current
7200:class 2 dielectrics
7196:class 1 dielectrics
7145:Variable capacitors
6694:harmonic oscillator
6590:types of capacitors
6570:is its reciprocal.
6094:Bode magnitude plot
5699:avalanche breakdown
4641:approaches zero as
3892:. In the case of a
3890:decay exponentially
3471:
3139:
2590:
2551:
1721:dielectric strength
1702:
1537:dielectric strength
1277:
709:(F) means that one
587:Theory of operation
536:tantalum capacitors
259:alternating current
251:electronic circuits
232:electrical circuits
41:
15103:Asynchronous logic
14879:Integrated circuit
14844:Electronic circuit
14729:Crystal oscillator
14589:Variable capacitor
14264:Switched capacitor
14206:Voltage regulators
14080:Integrated circuit
13964:Tetrode transistor
13942:Pentode transistor
13935:Organic LET (OLET)
13922:Organic FET (OFET)
13712:Capacitor Tutorial
13419:Electronic Devices
13342:10.1002/cplx.21427
13290:www.justradios.com
12862:Yasuo Cho (2005).
12535:. EETech Media LLC
12364:Scientific Reports
12095:All About Circuits
11783:2014-01-06 at the
11364:Electronic Devices
11213:Electronics portal
11102:units and medical
11062:Hazards and safety
11036:
11026:Hartley oscillator
10933:capacitive sensing
10901:
10850:resonant frequency
10825:a current signal.
10779:starting capacitor
10639:
10603:transmission lines
10580:
10530:
10516:Power conditioning
10494:slapper detonators
10368:
8776:Capacitor markings
8770:phase-locked loops
8739:ceramic capacitors
8731:
8707:
8666:conductance method
8581:
8477:
8449:
8333:
8331:
8092:
7992:
7910:
7819:
7748:
7701:
7675:
7628:
7607:
7582:
7523:
7468:which agrees with
7458:
7424:
7363:
7275:Polymer capacitors
7237:
7229:
7129:
7077:
7048:
7019:
6990:
6958:
6878:
6826:Arrhenius equation
6639:ceramic capacitors
6620:Ceramic capacitors
6603:, as well as some
6568:Dissipation factor
6554:
6452:
6429:
6401:, the capacitor's
6391:
6317:
6295:
6268:
6266:
6203:
6172:
6145:
6126:
6087:
6076:
5986:
5953:
5910:
5892:
5881:
5879:
5705:Equivalent circuit
5660:
5592:Non-ideal behavior
5578:
5473:
5471:
5291:
5256:
5212:
5015:
5007:
4985:
4880:
4872:
4823:
4754:
4625:
4484:
4326:
4324:
4130:
4128:
3859:
3857:
3580:
3493:
3450:
3354:, it follows from
3328:
3271:
3161:
3118:
2994:
2969:
2803:
2769:
2745:
2725:
2705:
2685:
2576:
2537:
2510:
2490:
2458:{\displaystyle dq}
2455:
2435:{\displaystyle dW}
2432:
2409:
2377:
2341:
2321:
2277:
2219:
2207:
2182:
2142:
2122:
2092:
2065:
2038:
2008:
1959:
1899:
1879:
1827:
1778:
1751:
1703:
1688:
1518:
1492:
1472:
1442:
1401:
1381:
1347:
1263:
1236:
1216:
1178:
1148:layer of constant
1137:{\displaystyle -Q}
1134:
1114:{\displaystyle +Q}
1111:
1088:
1068:
1047:
1023:
1003:
980:
960:
948:
940:
876:
823:
785:
758:
695:
616:
608:
501:ceramic capacitors
484:have been used as
431:
332:
240:Non-ideal behavior
225:perfect dielectric
209:electric potential
165:types of capacitor
39:
32:Capacitive sensing
15254:German inventions
15211:
15210:
15160:Digital telephone
15131:Computer hardware
15098:Synchronous logic
14764:
14763:
14724:Ceramic resonator
14536:Mercury-arc valve
14488:Video camera tube
14440:Cathode-ray tubes
14200:
14199:
13808:Complementary MOS
13689:
13678:
13667:
12900:Sze & Ng 2006
12474:10.1109/13.883355
12310:10.1109/94.326658
12281:10.1063/1.1722899
11368:Pearson Education
11221:Capacitance meter
11083:disposable camera
10899:
10896:
10819:negative feedback
10793:Signal processing
10288:decimal separator
10267:
10266:
9834:
9833:
8624:is the so-called
8575:
8552:
8537:
8323:
8019:Fourier transform
7138:breakdown voltage
6955:
6875:
6707:critically damped
6705:. In comparison,
6548:
6545:
6522:
6521:
6389:
6315:
6265:
6264:
6262:
6254:
6221:natural frequency
6200:
6170:
6143:
6071:
6050:
6042:
5983:
5950:
5908:
5872:
5868:
5834:
5822:
5792:
5779:
5763:
5750:
5654:
5641:
5616:Breakdown voltage
5610:Breakdown voltage
5570:
5557:
5542:
5533:
5512:
5439:
5410:
5392:
5383:
5369:
5315:
5284:
5196:
5170:
5150:
5130:
5090:
4821:
4780:Laplace transform
4623:
4605:
4570:
4438:
4432:
4422:
4352:angular frequency
4320:
4293:
4272:
4240:
4213:
3962:
3668:
3557:
3448:
3407:
3385:
3269:
3230:
3116:
3081:
2964:
2943:
2911:
2875:
2860:
2834:
2772:{\displaystyle d}
2748:{\displaystyle C}
2728:{\displaystyle V}
2708:{\displaystyle Q}
2670:
2651:
2638:
2621:
2599:
2513:{\displaystyle W}
2412:{\displaystyle V}
2344:{\displaystyle n}
2260:
2222:{\displaystyle n}
2180:
2145:{\displaystyle V}
2006:
1957:
1902:{\displaystyle V}
1877:
1825:
1677:
1634:
1619:
1593:
1495:{\displaystyle d}
1475:{\displaystyle A}
1440:
1404:{\displaystyle V}
1345:
1319:
1239:{\displaystyle V}
1091:{\displaystyle d}
1071:{\displaystyle d}
1050:{\displaystyle E}
1026:{\displaystyle d}
983:{\displaystyle d}
963:{\displaystyle A}
789:hydraulic analogy
781:hydraulic analogy
771:Hydraulic analogy
756:
693:
540:Bell Laboratories
538:were invented by
517:resonant circuits
383:battery of cannon
376:investigated the
374:Benjamin Franklin
334:In October 1745,
271:resonant circuits
122:electrical energy
110:
109:
96:Electronic symbol
65:Working principle
15261:
15244:Dutch inventions
14864:Sequential logic
14791:
14784:
14777:
14768:
14767:
14618:electrical power
14503:Gas-filled tubes
14387:Cavity magnetron
14214:Linear regulator
13763:
13762:
13741:
13734:
13727:
13718:
13717:
13685:
13674:
13663:
13654:978-9-40118092-4
13640:978-0-07184856-5
13626:978-3-31967869-6
13607:
13603:978-0-47006830-4
13586:
13582:978-0-47173906-7
13561:
13557:978-0-13011554-6
13529:
13525:978-0-47138689-6
13500:
13499:
13496:donklipstein.com
13488:
13482:
13479:
13473:
13472:
13452:
13446:
13440:
13434:
13433:
13429:978-0-13441444-7
13413:
13407:
13406:
13372:
13352:
13346:
13345:
13317:
13311:
13310:
13300:
13294:
13293:
13282:
13276:
13275:
13273:
13272:
13251:
13245:
13244:
13237:
13228:
13227:
13225:
13224:
13208:
13197:
13196:
13194:
13193:
13187:
13180:
13169:
13160:
13159:
13155:978-0-52189351-0
13135:
13129:
13128:
13108:
13102:
13101:
13091:
13085:
13079:
13073:
13067:
13061:
13060:
13048:978-0-78038879-6
13025:
13019:
13018:
12998:
12992:
12991:
12971:
12965:
12964:
12960:978-0-52187499-1
12940:
12934:
12933:
12909:
12903:
12897:
12888:
12887:
12859:
12853:
12852:
12828:
12822:
12821:
12797:
12791:
12790:
12788:
12787:
12782:. Analog Devices
12775:
12769:
12768:
12766:
12765:
12759:
12752:
12743:
12737:
12732:
12726:
12725:
12721:978-0-82478240-5
12704:Winburn (1989).
12701:
12688:
12687:
12683:978-9-38038674-4
12667:
12661:
12660:
12656:978-1-11817070-0
12636:
12630:
12624:
12618:
12612:
12606:
12605:
12601:978-9-40118090-0
12585:
12579:
12578:
12576:
12575:
12569:
12558:
12550:
12544:
12543:
12541:
12540:
12529:
12523:
12522:
12520:
12519:
12504:
12498:
12492:
12486:
12485:
12445:
12439:
12438:
12436:
12435:
12428:978-0-75068139-1
12412:
12406:
12405:
12395:
12355:
12349:
12348:
12320:
12314:
12313:
12291:
12285:
12284:
12267:(9): 1017–1022.
12256:
12250:
12249:
12247:
12246:
12239:978-0-07177644-8
12228:(2nd ed.).
12219:
12213:
12212:
12210:
12209:
12202:978-0-47122165-4
12182:
12176:
12175:
12173:
12172:
12149:
12143:
12137:
12131:
12130:
12123:
12117:
12111:
12105:
12104:
12102:
12101:
12087:
12081:
12075:
12069:
12063:
12057:
12056:
12052:978-1-48314978-3
12036:
12030:
12029:
12025:978-1-30514282-4
12009:
12000:
11999:
11995:978-1-13950355-6
11975:
11966:
11965:
11956:(6): 1201–1204.
11945:
11939:
11933:
11927:
11921:
11915:
11909:
11900:
11899:
11897:
11891:. Archived from
11877:(2nd ed.).
11876:
11862:
11856:
11855:
11853:
11852:
11833:
11827:
11826:
11824:
11823:
11816:978-0-47053794-7
11793:
11787:
11774:
11768:
11767:
11766:
11762:
11755:
11749:
11748:
11716:
11699:
11692:
11686:
11685:
11666:
11660:
11659:
11641:
11635:
11634:
11632:
11631:
11620:
11614:
11613:
11603:
11597:
11596:
11591:
11590:
11580:
11571:
11565:
11564:
11562:
11561:
11555:
11546:
11540:
11539:
11537:
11536:
11529:978-0-74326084-8
11514:Isaacson, Walter
11510:
11504:
11503:
11489:
11483:
11482:
11480:
11479:
11465:
11459:
11458:
11456:
11455:
11432:
11426:
11425:
11423:
11422:
11413:. Archived from
11406:
11400:
11399:
11388:
11382:
11381:
11359:
11353:
11352:
11350:
11349:
11342:978-0-08089056-2
11326:
11320:
11319:
11317:
11316:
11302:
11283:
11281:
11277:
11272:
11260:
11257:
11226:Capacitor plague
11215:
11210:
11209:
11190:
11174:
11162:
11131:fluorescent lamp
10922:
10914:
10910:
10908:
10907:
10902:
10900:
10898:
10897:
10889:
10877:
10771:In single phase
10740:filter capacitor
10728:ignition systems
10710:High-pass filter
10695:High-pass filter
10675:bypass capacitor
10400:alkaline battery
10394:per kilogram of
10302:for 2.2 F.
10301:
10297:
10293:
9836:
9835:
8871:
8870:
8834:
8832:
8636:
8623:
8609:
8590:
8588:
8587:
8582:
8576:
8574:
8573:
8564:
8554:
8553:
8550:
8543:
8538:
8536:
8535:
8534:
8503:
8485:
8457:
8436:
8435:
8416:
8397:
8378:
8367:
8363:
8348:
8342:
8340:
8339:
8334:
8332:
8324:
8322:
8308:
8294:
8277:
8273:
8228:
8224:
8204:
8196:
8191:
8190:
8117:complex function
8101:
8099:
8098:
8093:
8078:
8064:
8063:
8054:
8053:
8032:
8012:
8001:
7999:
7998:
7993:
7988:
7973:
7962:
7954:
7937:
7936:
7926:
7921:
7909:
7908:
7896:
7870:Debye relaxation
7828:
7826:
7825:
7820:
7811:
7797:
7793:
7792:
7773:
7761:
7756:
7741:
7719:
7714:
7713:
7700:
7688:
7683:
7668:
7653:
7641:
7636:
7620:
7615:
7591:
7589:
7588:
7583:
7571:
7567:
7563:
7548:
7536:
7531:
7485:
7481:
7477:
7467:
7465:
7464:
7459:
7437:
7432:
7410:
7399:
7383:
7372:
7370:
7369:
7364:
7086:
7084:
7083:
7078:
7076:
7075:
7057:
7055:
7054:
7049:
7047:
7046:
7028:
7026:
7025:
7020:
7018:
7017:
6999:
6997:
6996:
6991:
6989:
6988:
6967:
6965:
6964:
6959:
6957:
6956:
6951:
6950:
6949:
6937:
6936:
6926:
6920:
6919:
6907:
6906:
6887:
6885:
6884:
6879:
6877:
6876:
6874:
6873:
6872:
6859:
6858:
6849:
6813:catastrophically
6666:piezoelectricity
6563:
6561:
6560:
6555:
6549:
6547:
6546:
6543:
6528:
6523:
6519:
6518:
6517:
6503:
6502:
6493:
6487:
6461:
6459:
6458:
6453:
6438:
6436:
6435:
6430:
6428:
6427:
6400:
6398:
6397:
6392:
6390:
6387:
6349:
6347:
6346:
6343:
6340:
6326:
6324:
6323:
6318:
6316:
6313:
6304:
6302:
6301:
6296:
6294:
6293:
6277:
6275:
6274:
6269:
6267:
6263:
6260:
6255:
6252:
6250:
6246:
6243:
6238:
6237:
6212:
6210:
6209:
6204:
6202:
6201:
6198:
6181:
6179:
6178:
6173:
6171:
6168:
6154:
6152:
6151:
6146:
6144:
6141:
6085:
6083:
6082:
6077:
6072:
6070:
6056:
6051:
6048:
6043:
6040:
5995:
5993:
5992:
5987:
5985:
5984:
5981:
5962:
5960:
5959:
5954:
5952:
5951:
5948:
5919:
5917:
5916:
5911:
5909:
5906:
5890:
5888:
5887:
5882:
5880:
5873:
5871:
5870:
5869:
5866:
5841:
5836:
5835:
5832:
5823:
5820:
5809:
5801:
5794:
5793:
5790:
5781:
5780:
5777:
5765:
5764:
5761:
5752:
5751:
5748:
5742:
5733:
5732:
5669:
5667:
5666:
5661:
5656:
5655:
5652:
5643:
5642:
5639:
5603:network analysis
5587:
5585:
5584:
5579:
5577:
5573:
5572:
5571:
5568:
5559:
5558:
5555:
5544:
5543:
5540:
5534:
5532:
5518:
5513:
5505:
5482:
5480:
5479:
5474:
5472:
5445:
5441:
5440:
5438:
5424:
5411:
5403:
5394:
5393:
5390:
5384:
5381:
5375:
5371:
5370:
5368:
5354:
5331:
5330:
5329:
5316:
5313:
5300:
5298:
5297:
5292:
5290:
5286:
5285:
5282:
5265:
5263:
5262:
5257:
5255:
5221:
5219:
5218:
5213:
5211:
5210:
5202:
5198:
5197:
5195:
5194:
5182:
5171:
5169:
5168:
5156:
5151:
5149:
5148:
5136:
5131:
5129:
5128:
5116:
5105:
5104:
5096:
5092:
5091:
5089:
5088:
5076:
5073:
5068:
5044:
5043:
5042:
4994:
4992:
4991:
4986:
4984:
4983:
4965:
4964:
4952:
4951:
4939:
4938:
4928:
4923:
4905:
4904:
4903:
4851:Circuit analysis
4845:
4839:
4832:
4830:
4829:
4824:
4822:
4820:
4809:
4785:
4763:
4761:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4749:
4748:
4735:
4718:
4717:
4702:
4685:
4684:
4644:
4634:
4632:
4631:
4626:
4624:
4622:
4611:
4606:
4604:
4603:
4602:
4586:
4585:
4576:
4571:
4569:
4568:
4559:
4558:
4549:
4544:
4543:
4519:
4503:
4493:
4491:
4490:
4485:
4465:
4464:
4463:
4453:
4439:
4437:
4433:
4430:
4427:
4423:
4420:
4417:
4370:
4360:
4349:
4341:
4335:
4333:
4332:
4327:
4325:
4321:
4319:
4302:
4294:
4292:
4281:
4273:
4271:
4257:
4241:
4239:
4222:
4214:
4212:
4201:
4170:Fourier analysis
4139:
4137:
4136:
4131:
4129:
4125:
4124:
4123:
4122:
4113:
4096:
4095:
4056:
4055:
4054:
4053:
4044:
4027:
4026:
3991:
3990:
3989:
3988:
3979:
3963:
3958:
3957:
3945:
3913:
3904:
3881:
3868:
3866:
3865:
3860:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3849:
3848:
3847:
3846:
3837:
3810:
3809:
3774:
3770:
3769:
3768:
3767:
3766:
3757:
3730:
3729:
3697:
3696:
3695:
3694:
3685:
3669:
3664:
3663:
3654:
3622:
3598:
3589:
3587:
3586:
3581:
3558:
3556:
3552:
3546:
3533:
3527:
3502:
3500:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3470:
3465:
3464:
3463:
3449:
3441:
3409:
3408:
3405:
3387:
3386:
3383:
3374:
3373:
3353:
3345:charging circuit
3342:
3307:
3303:
3284:
3280:
3278:
3277:
3272:
3270:
3268:
3264:
3258:
3245:
3239:
3231:
3229:
3225:
3219:
3206:
3200:
3170:
3168:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3138:
3133:
3132:
3131:
3117:
3109:
3101:
3100:
3082:
3077:
3063:
2978:
2976:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2962:
2957:
2956:
2944:
2936:
2931:
2930:
2912:
2904:
2899:
2898:
2893:
2889:
2876:
2871:
2863:
2861:
2853:
2848:
2847:
2835:
2827:
2812:
2810:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2778:
2776:
2775:
2770:
2754:
2752:
2751:
2746:
2734:
2732:
2731:
2726:
2714:
2712:
2711:
2706:
2694:
2692:
2691:
2686:
2684:
2683:
2671:
2663:
2652:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2633:
2624:
2622:
2614:
2606:
2600:
2592:
2589:
2584:
2569:
2550:
2545:
2519:
2517:
2516:
2511:
2499:
2497:
2496:
2491:
2464:
2462:
2461:
2456:
2441:
2439:
2438:
2433:
2418:
2416:
2415:
2410:
2386:
2384:
2383:
2378:
2350:
2348:
2347:
2342:
2330:
2328:
2327:
2322:
2317:
2309:
2308:
2286:
2284:
2283:
2278:
2261:
2253:
2251:
2250:
2228:
2226:
2225:
2220:
2191:
2189:
2188:
2183:
2181:
2176:
2175:
2166:
2151:
2149:
2148:
2143:
2131:
2129:
2128:
2123:
2121:
2120:
2101:
2099:
2098:
2093:
2091:
2090:
2074:
2072:
2071:
2066:
2064:
2063:
2047:
2045:
2044:
2039:
2037:
2036:
2017:
2015:
2014:
2009:
2007:
2002:
2001:
2000:
1988:
1987:
1977:
1968:
1966:
1965:
1960:
1958:
1956:
1948:
1947:
1946:
1934:
1933:
1923:
1908:
1906:
1905:
1900:
1888:
1886:
1885:
1880:
1878:
1873:
1872:
1871:
1859:
1858:
1848:
1836:
1834:
1833:
1828:
1826:
1821:
1820:
1819:
1807:
1806:
1796:
1787:
1785:
1784:
1779:
1777:
1776:
1760:
1758:
1757:
1752:
1750:
1749:
1712:
1710:
1709:
1704:
1701:
1696:
1678:
1670:
1665:
1664:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1650:
1635:
1630:
1622:
1620:
1612:
1607:
1606:
1594:
1586:
1571:
1527:
1525:
1524:
1519:
1501:
1499:
1498:
1493:
1481:
1479:
1478:
1473:
1451:
1449:
1448:
1443:
1441:
1436:
1428:
1410:
1408:
1407:
1402:
1391:. Substituting
1390:
1388:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1356:
1354:
1353:
1348:
1346:
1344:
1336:
1328:
1320:
1312:
1295:
1276:
1271:
1245:
1243:
1242:
1237:
1225:
1223:
1222:
1217:
1212:
1187:
1185:
1184:
1179:
1174:
1143:
1141:
1140:
1135:
1120:
1118:
1117:
1112:
1097:
1095:
1094:
1089:
1077:
1075:
1074:
1069:
1056:
1054:
1053:
1048:
1032:
1030:
1029:
1024:
1012:
1010:
1009:
1004:
989:
987:
986:
981:
969:
967:
966:
961:
885:
883:
882:
877:
872:
850:potential energy
832:
830:
829:
824:
819:
767:
765:
764:
759:
757:
755:
751:
745:
741:
735:
704:
702:
701:
696:
694:
686:
646:electric field.
635:depletion region
551:Second World War
443:Alessandro Volta
321:Museum Boerhaave
315:Battery of four
126:electric charges
124:by accumulating
106:
69:
68:
49:
42:
38:
15269:
15268:
15264:
15263:
15262:
15260:
15259:
15258:
15214:
15213:
15212:
15207:
15186:
15119:
15054:Place and route
15049:Logic synthesis
15035:
15031:Gate equivalent
14994:Logic synthesis
14989:Boolean algebra
14972:
14914:Macrocell array
14874:Boolean circuit
14800:
14795:
14765:
14760:
14698:
14613:audio and video
14598:
14565:
14497:
14434:
14362:
14343:Photomultiplier
14268:
14196:
14144:Quantum circuit
14052:
14046:
13988:Avalanche diode
13974:
13886:
13879:
13768:
13757:
13750:
13745:
13708:– Howstuffworks
13696:
13614:
13612:Further reading
13604:
13583:
13558:
13526:
13508:
13503:
13490:
13489:
13485:
13480:
13476:
13453:
13449:
13441:
13437:
13430:
13414:
13410:
13353:
13349:
13318:
13314:
13301:
13297:
13284:
13283:
13279:
13270:
13268:
13253:
13252:
13248:
13239:
13238:
13231:
13222:
13220:
13209:
13200:
13191:
13189:
13185:
13178:
13171:
13170:
13163:
13156:
13136:
13132:
13125:
13109:
13105:
13092:
13088:
13080:
13076:
13068:
13064:
13049:
13027:
13026:
13022:
13015:
12999:
12995:
12988:
12972:
12968:
12961:
12953:. p. 158.
12941:
12937:
12930:
12922:. p. 111.
12910:
12906:
12898:
12891:
12884:
12860:
12856:
12849:
12829:
12825:
12818:
12798:
12794:
12785:
12783:
12778:Guinta, Steve.
12776:
12772:
12763:
12761:
12757:
12750:
12744:
12740:
12733:
12729:
12722:
12714:. p. 189.
12702:
12691:
12684:
12668:
12664:
12657:
12637:
12633:
12625:
12621:
12613:
12609:
12602:
12586:
12582:
12573:
12571:
12567:
12556:
12552:
12551:
12547:
12538:
12536:
12531:
12530:
12526:
12517:
12515:
12506:
12505:
12501:
12493:
12489:
12446:
12442:
12433:
12431:
12429:
12413:
12409:
12356:
12352:
12321:
12317:
12292:
12288:
12257:
12253:
12244:
12242:
12240:
12232:. p. 100.
12220:
12216:
12207:
12205:
12203:
12195:. p. 397.
12183:
12179:
12170:
12168:
12166:
12150:
12146:
12138:
12134:
12125:
12124:
12120:
12112:
12108:
12099:
12097:
12089:
12088:
12084:
12076:
12072:
12064:
12060:
12053:
12037:
12033:
12026:
12010:
12003:
11996:
11976:
11969:
11946:
11942:
11934:
11930:
11922:
11918:
11910:
11903:
11895:
11889:
11881:. p. 214.
11874:
11863:
11859:
11850:
11848:
11835:
11834:
11830:
11821:
11819:
11817:
11794:
11790:
11785:Wayback Machine
11775:
11771:
11764:
11756:
11752:
11717:
11702:
11693:
11689:
11668:
11667:
11663:
11656:
11642:
11638:
11629:
11627:
11622:
11621:
11617:
11604:
11600:
11588:
11586:
11578:
11572:
11568:
11559:
11557:
11553:
11547:
11543:
11534:
11532:
11530:
11511:
11507:
11490:
11486:
11477:
11475:
11466:
11462:
11453:
11451:
11449:
11433:
11429:
11420:
11418:
11407:
11403:
11390:
11389:
11385:
11378:
11360:
11356:
11347:
11345:
11343:
11327:
11323:
11314:
11312:
11303:
11296:
11292:
11287:
11286:
11279:
11275:
11273:
11269:
11264:
11263:
11258:
11254:
11249:
11211:
11204:
11201:
11194:
11191:
11182:
11175:
11166:
11163:
11136:Capacitors may
11096:microwave ovens
11064:
11055:phosphorescence
11051:
11045:
11043:Producing light
11028:
11022:
10972:process control
10945:those factors.
10939:
10931:Main articles:
10929:
10920:
10912:
10888:
10881:
10876:
10868:
10865:
10864:
10839:radio receivers
10831:
10815:analog circuits
10795:
10769:
10767:Motor capacitor
10763:
10747:circuit breaker
10738:(RFI), which a
10725:contact breaker
10716:
10714:Low-pass filter
10706:
10701:
10699:Low-pass filter
10691:
10665:
10659:
10635:film capacitors
10627:
10621:
10619:Signal coupling
10616:
10599:electric motors
10568:
10518:
10498:nuclear weapons
10459:Marx generators
10451:capacitor banks
10443:
10431:
10404:supercapacitors
10396:specific energy
10373:
10352:
10346:
10314:
10308:
10299:
10295:
10291:
10272:
8841:
8830:
8828:
8803:
8783:
8778:
8691:
8655:
8635:
8629:
8617:
8611:
8600:
8591:where a single
8569:
8565:
8549:
8545:
8544:
8542:
8530:
8526:
8507:
8502:
8481:
8453:
8431:
8427:
8425:
8422:
8421:
8407:
8398:determines the
8388:
8369:
8365:
8354:
8344:
8330:
8329:
8309:
8295:
8293:
8239:
8235:
8226:
8225:
8220:
8200:
8192:
8186:
8182:
8148:
8132:
8130:
8127:
8126:
8110:
8074:
8059:
8055:
8049:
8045:
8028:
8026:
8023:
8022:
8010:
8005:
7981:
7966:
7958:
7947:
7932:
7928:
7922:
7914:
7904:
7900:
7883:
7881:
7878:
7877:
7857:
7804:
7785:
7778:
7774:
7766:
7757:
7752:
7734:
7715:
7706:
7705:
7693:
7684:
7679:
7661:
7646:
7637:
7632:
7616:
7611:
7599:
7596:
7595:
7556:
7541:
7532:
7527:
7522:
7518:
7494:
7491:
7490:
7483:
7479:
7469:
7433:
7428:
7416:
7413:
7412:
7408:
7389:
7385:
7374:
7333:
7330:
7329:
7322:
7293:Supercapacitors
7210:supercapacitors
7176:film capacitors
7120:
7108:supercapacitors
7100:
7098:Capacitor types
7094:
7092:Capacitor types
7071:
7067:
7065:
7062:
7061:
7042:
7038:
7036:
7033:
7032:
7013:
7009:
7007:
7004:
7003:
6984:
6980:
6978:
6975:
6974:
6945:
6941:
6932:
6928:
6927:
6925:
6921:
6915:
6911:
6902:
6898:
6896:
6893:
6892:
6868:
6864:
6860:
6854:
6850:
6848:
6844:
6833:
6830:
6829:
6800:
6780:
6768:
6756:microwave ovens
6752:television sets
6731:sample and hold
6723:
6674:
6635:
6626:Film capacitors
6605:film capacitors
6576:
6542:
6532:
6527:
6513:
6498:
6494:
6489:
6488:
6486:
6469:
6466:
6465:
6447:
6444:
6443:
6423:
6419:
6417:
6414:
6413:
6386:
6384:
6381:
6380:
6374:
6368:
6353:
6344:
6341:
6339:
6335:
6334:
6332:
6312:
6310:
6307:
6306:
6289:
6285:
6283:
6280:
6279:
6259:
6251:
6244:
6239:
6233:
6229:
6227:
6224:
6223:
6197:
6193:
6191:
6188:
6187:
6167:
6165:
6162:
6161:
6140:
6138:
6135:
6134:
6123:
6116:
6102:
6060:
6055:
6047:
6039:
6028:
6025:
6024:
6013:
5980:
5976:
5974:
5971:
5970:
5947:
5943:
5941:
5938:
5937:
5905:
5903:
5900:
5899:
5878:
5877:
5865:
5861:
5845:
5840:
5831:
5827:
5819:
5805:
5799:
5798:
5789:
5785:
5776:
5772:
5760:
5756:
5747:
5743:
5738:
5734:
5728:
5724:
5720:
5718:
5715:
5714:
5707:
5651:
5647:
5638:
5634:
5632:
5629:
5628:
5625:
5618:
5612:
5594:
5567:
5563:
5554:
5550:
5549:
5545:
5539:
5535:
5522:
5517:
5504:
5496:
5493:
5492:
5470:
5469:
5459:
5447:
5446:
5428:
5423:
5416:
5412:
5402:
5395:
5389:
5385:
5380:
5377:
5376:
5358:
5353:
5346:
5342:
5332:
5322:
5321:
5317:
5312:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5302:
5281:
5277:
5273:
5271:
5268:
5267:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5239:
5203:
5190:
5186:
5181:
5164:
5160:
5155:
5144:
5140:
5135:
5124:
5120:
5115:
5114:
5110:
5109:
5097:
5084:
5080:
5075:
5069:
5058:
5053:
5049:
5048:
5035:
5034:
5030:
5028:
5025:
5024:
4979:
4975:
4960:
4956:
4947:
4943:
4934:
4930:
4924:
4913:
4896:
4895:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4885:
4859:
4853:
4843:
4837:
4813:
4808:
4791:
4788:
4787:
4783:
4778:When using the
4776:
4744:
4740:
4739:
4728:
4713:
4709:
4695:
4680:
4676:
4665:
4662:
4661:
4656:
4652:
4648:
4642:
4640:
4615:
4610:
4598:
4594:
4587:
4581:
4577:
4575:
4564:
4560:
4554:
4550:
4548:
4539:
4535:
4533:
4530:
4529:
4527:
4518:
4511:
4505:
4497:
4459:
4455:
4454:
4449:
4429:
4428:
4419:
4418:
4416:
4405:
4402:
4401:
4399:
4362:
4355:
4347:
4337:
4323:
4322:
4306:
4301:
4285:
4280:
4261:
4256:
4249:
4243:
4242:
4226:
4221:
4205:
4200:
4190:
4183:
4181:
4178:
4177:
4155:
4145:
4127:
4126:
4118:
4114:
4109:
4102:
4098:
4088:
4084:
4073:
4058:
4057:
4049:
4045:
4040:
4033:
4029:
4019:
4015:
4008:
3993:
3992:
3984:
3980:
3975:
3968:
3964:
3950:
3946:
3944:
3937:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3915:
3912:
3906:
3903:
3897:
3876:
3870:
3856:
3855:
3842:
3838:
3833:
3826:
3822:
3815:
3811:
3805:
3801:
3791:
3776:
3775:
3762:
3758:
3753:
3746:
3742:
3735:
3731:
3725:
3721:
3714:
3699:
3698:
3690:
3686:
3681:
3674:
3670:
3659:
3655:
3653:
3646:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3624:
3617:
3607:
3605:
3593:
3548:
3547:
3529:
3528:
3526:
3518:
3515:
3514:
3485:
3466:
3459:
3455:
3454:
3440:
3404:
3400:
3382:
3378:
3369:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3359:
3348:
3341:
3335:
3320:
3314:
3305:
3301:
3282:
3260:
3259:
3241:
3240:
3238:
3221:
3220:
3202:
3201:
3199:
3182:
3179:
3178:
3153:
3134:
3127:
3123:
3122:
3108:
3096:
3092:
3064:
3062:
3045:
3042:
3041:
3039:
2986:
2961:
2952:
2948:
2935:
2926:
2922:
2903:
2894:
2882:
2878:
2877:
2864:
2862:
2852:
2843:
2839:
2826:
2818:
2815:
2814:
2795:
2784:
2781:
2780:
2764:
2761:
2760:
2740:
2737:
2736:
2720:
2717:
2716:
2700:
2697:
2696:
2679:
2675:
2662:
2643:
2629:
2625:
2623:
2613:
2602:
2591:
2585:
2580:
2565:
2546:
2541:
2529:
2526:
2525:
2505:
2502:
2501:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2447:
2444:
2443:
2424:
2421:
2420:
2404:
2401:
2400:
2393:
2360:
2357:
2356:
2336:
2333:
2332:
2313:
2304:
2300:
2292:
2289:
2288:
2252:
2246:
2242:
2234:
2231:
2230:
2214:
2211:
2210:
2199:
2171:
2167:
2165:
2157:
2154:
2153:
2137:
2134:
2133:
2116:
2112:
2107:
2104:
2103:
2086:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2059:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2049:
2032:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2022:
1996:
1992:
1983:
1979:
1978:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1970:
1949:
1942:
1938:
1929:
1925:
1924:
1922:
1914:
1911:
1910:
1894:
1891:
1890:
1867:
1863:
1854:
1850:
1849:
1847:
1842:
1839:
1838:
1815:
1811:
1802:
1798:
1797:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1789:
1772:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1745:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1735:
1697:
1692:
1669:
1660:
1646:
1642:
1641:
1637:
1636:
1623:
1621:
1611:
1602:
1598:
1585:
1577:
1574:
1573:
1567:
1560:
1550:
1545:which sets the
1544:
1507:
1504:
1503:
1487:
1484:
1483:
1467:
1464:
1463:
1462:Since the area
1453:
1429:
1427:
1419:
1416:
1415:
1396:
1393:
1392:
1373:
1362:
1359:
1358:
1337:
1329:
1327:
1311:
1291:
1272:
1267:
1255:
1252:
1251:
1231:
1228:
1227:
1208:
1197:
1194:
1193:
1170:
1156:
1153:
1152:
1126:
1123:
1122:
1103:
1100:
1099:
1083:
1080:
1079:
1078:, and assuming
1063:
1060:
1059:
1042:
1039:
1038:
1018:
1015:
1014:
998:
995:
994:
975:
972:
971:
955:
952:
951:
924:
906:
868:
857:
854:
853:
815:
804:
801:
800:
773:
747:
746:
737:
736:
734:
726:
723:
722:
685:
677:
674:
673:
643:charge carriers
600:
595:
589:
562:supercapacitors
555:film capacitors
513:mica capacitors
455:steam condenser
427:The Radio Times
301:
295:
257:while allowing
86:
66:
64:
35:
28:
25:Capacitor types
17:
12:
11:
5:
15267:
15257:
15256:
15251:
15246:
15241:
15236:
15231:
15229:Energy storage
15226:
15209:
15208:
15206:
15205:
15200:
15194:
15192:
15188:
15187:
15185:
15184:
15179:
15178:
15177:
15172:
15170:cinematography
15162:
15157:
15152:
15151:
15150:
15140:
15139:
15138:
15127:
15125:
15121:
15120:
15118:
15117:
15116:
15115:
15105:
15100:
15095:
15090:
15089:
15088:
15083:
15073:
15068:
15067:
15066:
15061:
15051:
15045:
15043:
15037:
15036:
15034:
15033:
15028:
15023:
15018:
15017:
15016:
15009:Digital signal
15006:
15001:
14996:
14991:
14986:
14984:Digital signal
14980:
14978:
14974:
14973:
14971:
14970:
14964:
14958:
14952:
14946:
14940:
14934:
14928:
14922:
14916:
14911:
14905:
14899:
14893:
14888:
14882:
14876:
14871:
14866:
14861:
14856:
14851:
14846:
14841:
14836:
14831:
14826:
14821:
14816:
14810:
14808:
14802:
14801:
14794:
14793:
14786:
14779:
14771:
14762:
14761:
14759:
14758:
14757:
14756:
14751:
14741:
14736:
14731:
14726:
14721:
14720:
14719:
14708:
14706:
14700:
14699:
14697:
14696:
14695:
14694:
14692:Wollaston wire
14684:
14679:
14674:
14669:
14664:
14659:
14658:
14657:
14652:
14642:
14637:
14632:
14627:
14626:
14625:
14620:
14615:
14606:
14604:
14600:
14599:
14597:
14596:
14591:
14586:
14585:
14584:
14573:
14571:
14567:
14566:
14564:
14563:
14558:
14553:
14548:
14543:
14538:
14533:
14528:
14523:
14518:
14513:
14507:
14505:
14499:
14498:
14496:
14495:
14490:
14485:
14480:
14475:
14473:Selectron tube
14470:
14465:
14463:Magic eye tube
14460:
14455:
14450:
14444:
14442:
14436:
14435:
14433:
14432:
14427:
14421:
14416:
14411:
14406:
14400:
14395:
14389:
14384:
14377:
14375:
14364:
14363:
14361:
14360:
14355:
14350:
14345:
14340:
14335:
14329:
14324:
14319:
14314:
14309:
14304:
14299:
14294:
14289:
14284:
14278:
14276:
14270:
14269:
14267:
14266:
14261:
14256:
14251:
14246:
14241:
14236:
14231:
14226:
14221:
14216:
14210:
14208:
14202:
14201:
14198:
14197:
14195:
14194:
14189:
14184:
14179:
14174:
14168:
14162:
14157:
14151:
14146:
14141:
14136:
14131:
14125:
14120:
14114:
14109:
14104:
14099:
14094:
14088:
14083:
14077:
14072:
14067:
14062:
14056:
14054:
14048:
14047:
14045:
14044:
14039:
14034:
14032:Schottky diode
14029:
14024:
14019:
14013:
14007:
14001:
13996:
13990:
13984:
13982:
13976:
13975:
13973:
13972:
13966:
13961:
13955:
13949:
13944:
13939:
13938:
13937:
13926:
13925:
13924:
13919:
13908:
13903:
13898:
13891:
13889:
13881:
13880:
13878:
13877:
13872:
13867:
13861:
13856:
13850:
13844:
13839:
13834:
13828:
13822:
13816:
13811:
13805:
13799:
13794:
13789:
13784:
13779:
13773:
13771:
13760:
13752:
13751:
13744:
13743:
13736:
13729:
13721:
13715:
13714:
13709:
13703:
13695:
13694:External links
13692:
13691:
13690:
13679:
13668:
13657:
13643:
13629:
13613:
13610:
13609:
13608:
13602:
13587:
13581:
13562:
13556:
13537:
13530:
13524:
13507:
13504:
13502:
13501:
13483:
13474:
13447:
13435:
13428:
13408:
13363:(49): 495401.
13357:Nanotechnology
13347:
13312:
13295:
13277:
13246:
13229:
13198:
13161:
13154:
13148:. p. 19.
13130:
13123:
13103:
13086:
13084:, p. 305.
13074:
13072:, p. 347.
13062:
13047:
13020:
13013:
12993:
12986:
12966:
12959:
12935:
12928:
12904:
12902:, p. 217.
12889:
12882:
12854:
12847:
12823:
12816:
12792:
12770:
12738:
12727:
12720:
12689:
12682:
12662:
12655:
12649:. p. 10.
12631:
12619:
12607:
12600:
12580:
12545:
12524:
12499:
12497:, p. 169.
12487:
12460:(4): 439–442.
12440:
12427:
12407:
12350:
12331:(2): 281–289.
12315:
12304:(5): 904–922.
12286:
12251:
12238:
12214:
12201:
12177:
12165:978-9810217143
12164:
12144:
12142:, p. 170.
12132:
12118:
12106:
12082:
12080:, p. 260.
12070:
12068:, p. 263.
12058:
12051:
12031:
12024:
12001:
11994:
11967:
11940:
11928:
11926:, p. 157.
11916:
11914:, p. 168.
11901:
11898:on 2023-01-23.
11887:
11857:
11828:
11815:
11797:Sze, Simon Min
11788:
11769:
11750:
11700:
11687:
11661:
11654:
11636:
11615:
11598:
11566:
11541:
11528:
11505:
11484:
11460:
11448:978-0780311930
11447:
11427:
11401:
11383:
11376:
11370:. p. 10.
11354:
11341:
11321:
11293:
11291:
11288:
11285:
11284:
11266:
11265:
11262:
11261:
11251:
11250:
11248:
11245:
11244:
11243:
11238:
11233:
11228:
11223:
11217:
11216:
11200:
11197:
11196:
11195:
11192:
11185:
11183:
11176:
11169:
11167:
11164:
11157:
11104:defibrillators
11092:Brinkley stick
11063:
11060:
11047:Main article:
11044:
11041:
11021:
11018:
11017:
11016:
11013:touch switches
11009:
11007:
11004:
10984:accelerometers
10968:
10966:
10963:
10952:
10950:
10928:
10925:
10923:is in farads.
10895:
10892:
10887:
10884:
10880:
10875:
10872:
10835:tuned circuits
10830:
10829:Tuned circuits
10827:
10794:
10791:
10765:Main article:
10762:
10761:Motor starters
10759:
10705:
10702:
10690:
10687:
10661:Main article:
10658:
10655:
10623:Main article:
10620:
10617:
10615:
10612:
10595:reactive power
10567:
10564:
10537:power supplies
10524:A 10,000
10517:
10514:
10481:research, and
10442:
10439:
10435:John Atanasoff
10433:In the 1930s,
10430:
10429:Digital memory
10427:
10372:
10371:Energy storage
10369:
10348:Main article:
10345:
10342:
10341:
10340:
10337:
10307:
10304:
10271:
10268:
10265:
10264:
10261:
10258:
10255:
10252:
10249:
10246:
10243:
10240:
10237:
10234:
10231:
10227:
10226:
10223:
10220:
10217:
10214:
10211:
10208:
10205:
10202:
10199:
10196:
10193:
10189:
10188:
10185:
10182:
10179:
10176:
10173:
10170:
10167:
10164:
10161:
10158:
10155:
10151:
10150:
10147:
10144:
10141:
10138:
10135:
10132:
10129:
10126:
10123:
10120:
10117:
10113:
10112:
10109:
10106:
10103:
10100:
10097:
10094:
10091:
10088:
10085:
10082:
10079:
10075:
10074:
10071:
10068:
10065:
10062:
10059:
10056:
10053:
10050:
10047:
10044:
10041:
10037:
10036:
10033:
10030:
10027:
10024:
10021:
10018:
10015:
10012:
10009:
10006:
10003:
9999:
9998:
9995:
9992:
9989:
9986:
9983:
9980:
9977:
9974:
9971:
9968:
9965:
9961:
9960:
9957:
9954:
9951:
9948:
9945:
9942:
9939:
9936:
9933:
9930:
9927:
9923:
9922:
9919:
9916:
9913:
9910:
9907:
9904:
9901:
9898:
9895:
9892:
9889:
9885:
9884:
9881:
9878:
9875:
9872:
9869:
9866:
9863:
9860:
9857:
9854:
9851:
9847:
9846:
9843:
9840:
9832:
9831:
9828:
9825:
9822:
9819:
9816:
9813:
9810:
9807:
9804:
9801:
9798:
9794:
9793:
9790:
9787:
9784:
9781:
9778:
9775:
9772:
9769:
9766:
9763:
9760:
9756:
9755:
9752:
9749:
9746:
9743:
9740:
9737:
9734:
9731:
9728:
9725:
9722:
9718:
9717:
9714:
9711:
9708:
9705:
9702:
9699:
9696:
9693:
9690:
9687:
9684:
9680:
9679:
9676:
9673:
9670:
9667:
9664:
9661:
9658:
9655:
9652:
9649:
9646:
9642:
9641:
9638:
9635:
9632:
9629:
9626:
9623:
9620:
9617:
9614:
9611:
9608:
9604:
9603:
9600:
9597:
9594:
9591:
9588:
9585:
9582:
9579:
9576:
9573:
9570:
9566:
9565:
9562:
9559:
9556:
9553:
9550:
9547:
9544:
9541:
9538:
9535:
9532:
9528:
9527:
9524:
9521:
9518:
9515:
9512:
9509:
9506:
9503:
9500:
9497:
9494:
9490:
9489:
9486:
9483:
9480:
9477:
9474:
9471:
9468:
9465:
9462:
9459:
9456:
9452:
9451:
9448:
9445:
9442:
9439:
9436:
9433:
9430:
9427:
9424:
9421:
9418:
9414:
9413:
9410:
9407:
9404:
9401:
9398:
9395:
9392:
9389:
9386:
9383:
9380:
9376:
9375:
9372:
9369:
9366:
9363:
9360:
9357:
9354:
9351:
9348:
9345:
9342:
9338:
9337:
9334:
9331:
9328:
9325:
9322:
9319:
9316:
9313:
9310:
9307:
9304:
9300:
9299:
9296:
9293:
9290:
9287:
9284:
9281:
9278:
9275:
9272:
9269:
9266:
9262:
9261:
9258:
9255:
9252:
9249:
9246:
9243:
9240:
9237:
9234:
9231:
9228:
9224:
9223:
9220:
9217:
9214:
9211:
9208:
9205:
9202:
9199:
9196:
9193:
9190:
9186:
9185:
9182:
9179:
9176:
9173:
9170:
9167:
9164:
9161:
9158:
9155:
9152:
9148:
9147:
9144:
9141:
9138:
9135:
9132:
9129:
9126:
9123:
9120:
9117:
9114:
9110:
9109:
9106:
9103:
9100:
9097:
9094:
9091:
9088:
9085:
9082:
9079:
9076:
9072:
9071:
9068:
9065:
9062:
9059:
9056:
9053:
9050:
9047:
9044:
9041:
9038:
9034:
9033:
9030:
9027:
9024:
9021:
9018:
9015:
9012:
9009:
9006:
9003:
9000:
8996:
8995:
8992:
8989:
8986:
8983:
8980:
8977:
8974:
8971:
8968:
8965:
8962:
8958:
8957:
8954:
8951:
8948:
8945:
8942:
8939:
8936:
8933:
8930:
8927:
8924:
8920:
8919:
8916:
8913:
8910:
8907:
8904:
8901:
8898:
8895:
8892:
8889:
8886:
8882:
8881:
8878:
8875:
8861:IEC 60062
8840:
8837:
8802:
8799:
8782:
8779:
8777:
8774:
8763:reverse-biased
8690:
8687:
8679:MOS capacitors
8653:
8643:quantum vacuum
8633:
8615:
8580:
8572:
8568:
8563:
8560:
8557:
8548:
8541:
8533:
8529:
8525:
8522:
8519:
8516:
8513:
8510:
8506:
8501:
8498:
8495:
8492:
8488:
8484:
8480:
8476:
8473:
8470:
8467:
8464:
8460:
8456:
8452:
8448:
8445:
8442:
8439:
8434:
8430:
8351:imaginary unit
8328:
8321:
8318:
8315:
8312:
8307:
8304:
8301:
8298:
8292:
8289:
8286:
8283:
8280:
8276:
8272:
8269:
8266:
8263:
8260:
8257:
8254:
8251:
8248:
8245:
8242:
8238:
8234:
8231:
8229:
8227:
8223:
8219:
8216:
8213:
8210:
8207:
8203:
8199:
8195:
8189:
8185:
8181:
8178:
8175:
8172:
8169:
8166:
8163:
8160:
8157:
8154:
8151:
8149:
8147:
8144:
8141:
8138:
8135:
8134:
8108:
8091:
8087:
8084:
8081:
8077:
8073:
8070:
8067:
8062:
8058:
8052:
8048:
8044:
8041:
8038:
8035:
8031:
8008:
7991:
7987:
7984:
7980:
7976:
7972:
7969:
7965:
7961:
7957:
7953:
7950:
7946:
7943:
7940:
7935:
7931:
7925:
7920:
7917:
7913:
7907:
7903:
7899:
7895:
7892:
7889:
7886:
7856:
7853:
7818:
7814:
7810:
7807:
7803:
7800:
7796:
7791:
7788:
7784:
7781:
7777:
7772:
7769:
7765:
7760:
7755:
7751:
7747:
7744:
7740:
7737:
7733:
7730:
7726:
7723:
7718:
7712:
7709:
7704:
7699:
7696:
7692:
7687:
7682:
7678:
7674:
7671:
7667:
7664:
7660:
7657:
7652:
7649:
7645:
7640:
7635:
7631:
7627:
7624:
7619:
7614:
7610:
7606:
7603:
7581:
7577:
7574:
7570:
7566:
7562:
7559:
7555:
7552:
7547:
7544:
7540:
7535:
7530:
7526:
7521:
7517:
7514:
7511:
7507:
7504:
7501:
7498:
7457:
7454:
7450:
7447:
7444:
7441:
7436:
7431:
7427:
7423:
7420:
7387:
7362:
7359:
7355:
7352:
7349:
7346:
7343:
7340:
7337:
7321:
7318:
7314:direct current
7309:electric motor
7119:
7116:
7096:Main article:
7093:
7090:
7089:
7088:
7074:
7070:
7059:
7045:
7041:
7030:
7016:
7012:
7001:
6987:
6983:
6954:
6948:
6944:
6940:
6935:
6931:
6924:
6918:
6914:
6910:
6905:
6901:
6871:
6867:
6863:
6857:
6853:
6847:
6843:
6840:
6837:
6817:glow discharge
6799:
6796:
6779:
6776:
6767:
6764:
6760:defibrillators
6722:
6719:
6673:
6670:
6634:
6631:
6630:
6629:
6623:
6617:
6613:
6575:
6574:Ripple current
6572:
6553:
6541:
6538:
6535:
6531:
6526:
6516:
6512:
6509:
6506:
6501:
6497:
6492:
6485:
6482:
6479:
6476:
6473:
6451:
6426:
6422:
6403:quality factor
6367:
6364:
6351:
6337:
6292:
6288:
6258:
6249:
6242:
6236:
6232:
6196:
6121:
6114:
6100:
6075:
6069:
6066:
6063:
6059:
6054:
6046:
6038:
6035:
6032:
6012:
6009:
6008:
6007:
6006:
6005:
6002:§ Leakage
5979:
5968:
5946:
5928:
5876:
5864:
5860:
5857:
5854:
5851:
5848:
5844:
5839:
5830:
5826:
5818:
5815:
5812:
5808:
5804:
5802:
5800:
5797:
5788:
5784:
5775:
5771:
5768:
5759:
5755:
5746:
5741:
5737:
5735:
5731:
5727:
5723:
5722:
5706:
5703:
5675:energy density
5659:
5650:
5646:
5637:
5623:
5614:Main article:
5611:
5608:
5593:
5590:
5589:
5588:
5576:
5566:
5562:
5553:
5548:
5538:
5531:
5528:
5525:
5521:
5516:
5511:
5508:
5503:
5500:
5489:
5483:
5468:
5465:
5462:
5460:
5458:
5455:
5452:
5449:
5448:
5444:
5437:
5434:
5431:
5427:
5422:
5419:
5415:
5409:
5406:
5401:
5398:
5396:
5388:
5379:
5378:
5374:
5367:
5364:
5361:
5357:
5352:
5349:
5345:
5341:
5338:
5335:
5333:
5328:
5325:
5320:
5311:
5310:
5289:
5280:
5276:
5254:
5251:
5248:
5236:
5233:
5226:
5222:
5209:
5206:
5201:
5193:
5189:
5185:
5180:
5177:
5174:
5167:
5163:
5159:
5154:
5147:
5143:
5139:
5134:
5127:
5123:
5119:
5113:
5108:
5103:
5100:
5095:
5087:
5083:
5079:
5072:
5067:
5064:
5061:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5041:
5038:
5033:
4999:
4998:
4995:
4982:
4978:
4974:
4971:
4968:
4963:
4959:
4955:
4950:
4946:
4942:
4937:
4933:
4927:
4922:
4919:
4916:
4912:
4908:
4902:
4899:
4894:
4864:
4863:
4852:
4849:
4848:
4847:
4841:
4819:
4816:
4812:
4807:
4804:
4801:
4798:
4795:
4775:
4772:
4753:
4747:
4743:
4738:
4734:
4731:
4727:
4724:
4721:
4716:
4712:
4708:
4705:
4701:
4698:
4694:
4691:
4688:
4683:
4679:
4675:
4672:
4669:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4638:
4621:
4618:
4614:
4609:
4601:
4597:
4593:
4590:
4584:
4580:
4574:
4567:
4563:
4557:
4553:
4547:
4542:
4538:
4525:
4516:
4509:
4483:
4480:
4477:
4474:
4471:
4468:
4462:
4458:
4452:
4448:
4445:
4442:
4436:
4426:
4415:
4412:
4409:
4397:
4344:imaginary unit
4318:
4315:
4312:
4309:
4305:
4300:
4297:
4291:
4288:
4284:
4279:
4276:
4270:
4267:
4264:
4260:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4244:
4238:
4235:
4232:
4229:
4225:
4220:
4217:
4211:
4208:
4204:
4199:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4185:
4144:
4141:
4121:
4117:
4112:
4108:
4105:
4101:
4094:
4091:
4087:
4082:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4066:
4063:
4060:
4059:
4052:
4048:
4043:
4039:
4036:
4032:
4025:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4001:
3998:
3995:
3994:
3987:
3983:
3978:
3974:
3971:
3967:
3961:
3956:
3953:
3949:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3930:
3927:
3924:
3923:
3910:
3901:
3874:
3853:
3845:
3841:
3836:
3832:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3818:
3814:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3784:
3781:
3778:
3777:
3773:
3765:
3761:
3756:
3752:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3738:
3734:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3707:
3704:
3701:
3700:
3693:
3689:
3684:
3680:
3677:
3673:
3667:
3662:
3658:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3639:
3636:
3633:
3632:
3615:
3603:
3579:
3576:
3573:
3570:
3567:
3564:
3561:
3555:
3551:
3545:
3542:
3539:
3536:
3532:
3525:
3522:
3492:
3488:
3483:
3480:
3477:
3474:
3469:
3462:
3458:
3453:
3447:
3444:
3439:
3436:
3433:
3430:
3427:
3424:
3421:
3418:
3415:
3412:
3403:
3399:
3396:
3393:
3390:
3381:
3377:
3372:
3368:
3343:is known as a
3339:
3313:
3310:
3298:magnetic field
3267:
3263:
3257:
3254:
3251:
3248:
3244:
3237:
3234:
3228:
3224:
3218:
3215:
3212:
3209:
3205:
3198:
3195:
3192:
3189:
3186:
3160:
3156:
3151:
3148:
3145:
3142:
3137:
3130:
3126:
3121:
3115:
3112:
3107:
3104:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3088:
3085:
3080:
3076:
3073:
3070:
3067:
3061:
3058:
3055:
3052:
3049:
3037:
3023:antiderivative
2985:
2982:
2968:
2960:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2942:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2918:
2915:
2910:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2888:
2885:
2881:
2874:
2870:
2867:
2859:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2833:
2830:
2825:
2822:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2791:
2788:
2768:
2744:
2724:
2704:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2669:
2666:
2661:
2658:
2655:
2650:
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2628:
2620:
2617:
2612:
2609:
2605:
2598:
2595:
2588:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2572:
2568:
2563:
2560:
2557:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2533:
2509:
2489:
2486:
2483:
2480:
2477:
2474:
2454:
2451:
2431:
2428:
2408:
2392:
2389:
2376:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2340:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2296:
2276:
2273:
2270:
2267:
2264:
2259:
2256:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2238:
2218:
2198:
2195:
2194:
2193:
2179:
2174:
2170:
2164:
2161:
2141:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2089:
2085:
2062:
2058:
2035:
2031:
2019:
2005:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1986:
1982:
1955:
1952:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1932:
1928:
1921:
1918:
1898:
1876:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1857:
1853:
1846:
1824:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1805:
1801:
1775:
1771:
1748:
1744:
1700:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1684:
1681:
1676:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1654:
1649:
1645:
1640:
1633:
1629:
1626:
1618:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1592:
1589:
1584:
1581:
1565:
1558:
1542:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1491:
1471:
1439:
1435:
1432:
1426:
1423:
1413:
1400:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1369:
1366:
1343:
1340:
1335:
1332:
1326:
1323:
1318:
1315:
1310:
1307:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1294:
1289:
1286:
1283:
1280:
1275:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1259:
1235:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1150:charge density
1146:surface charge
1133:
1130:
1110:
1107:
1087:
1067:
1046:
1022:
1002:
979:
959:
923:
920:
919:
918:
914:
905:
902:
901:
900:
897:
890:
887:
875:
871:
867:
864:
861:
846:
834:
822:
818:
814:
811:
808:
772:
769:
754:
750:
744:
740:
733:
730:
692:
689:
684:
681:
672:between them:
599:
596:
591:Main article:
588:
585:
581:Robert Dennard
515:were used for
370:Daniel Gralath
294:
291:
277:to particular
267:power supplies
255:direct current
217:electric field
211:difference (a
108:
107:
99:
98:
92:
91:
80:
76:
75:
70:
61:
60:
55:
51:
50:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
15266:
15255:
15252:
15250:
15247:
15245:
15242:
15240:
15237:
15235:
15232:
15230:
15227:
15225:
15222:
15221:
15219:
15204:
15201:
15199:
15198:Metastability
15196:
15195:
15193:
15191:Design issues
15189:
15183:
15180:
15176:
15173:
15171:
15168:
15167:
15166:
15165:Digital video
15163:
15161:
15158:
15156:
15153:
15149:
15146:
15145:
15144:
15143:Digital audio
15141:
15137:
15134:
15133:
15132:
15129:
15128:
15126:
15122:
15114:
15111:
15110:
15109:
15106:
15104:
15101:
15099:
15096:
15094:
15091:
15087:
15084:
15082:
15079:
15078:
15077:
15074:
15072:
15069:
15065:
15062:
15060:
15057:
15056:
15055:
15052:
15050:
15047:
15046:
15044:
15042:
15038:
15032:
15029:
15027:
15024:
15022:
15019:
15015:
15012:
15011:
15010:
15007:
15005:
15002:
15000:
14997:
14995:
14992:
14990:
14987:
14985:
14982:
14981:
14979:
14975:
14968:
14965:
14962:
14959:
14956:
14953:
14950:
14947:
14944:
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14938:
14935:
14932:
14929:
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14915:
14912:
14909:
14906:
14903:
14900:
14897:
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14815:
14812:
14811:
14809:
14807:
14803:
14799:
14792:
14787:
14785:
14780:
14778:
14773:
14772:
14769:
14755:
14754:mercury relay
14752:
14750:
14747:
14746:
14745:
14742:
14740:
14737:
14735:
14732:
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14727:
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14587:
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14580:
14579:
14578:
14577:Potentiometer
14575:
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14568:
14562:
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14549:
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14514:
14512:
14509:
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14500:
14494:
14493:Williams tube
14491:
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14339:
14336:
14333:
14330:
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14325:
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14313:
14312:Fleming valve
14310:
14308:
14305:
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14280:
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14139:Photodetector
14137:
14135:
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14107:Memtransistor
14105:
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13764:
13761:
13759:
13756:Semiconductor
13753:
13749:
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13707:
13704:
13702:– SparkMuseum
13701:
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13549:
13548:Prentice Hall
13545:
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13516:
13510:
13509:
13497:
13493:
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13462:
13458:
13457:Circuit World
13451:
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13339:
13335:
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13327:
13323:
13316:
13308:
13307:
13299:
13291:
13287:
13281:
13267:on 2017-07-11
13266:
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13134:
13126:
13124:3-540-25470-6
13120:
13116:
13115:
13107:
13099:
13098:
13090:
13083:
13082:Schroder 2006
13078:
13071:
13070:Schroder 2006
13066:
13058:
13054:
13050:
13044:
13040:
13036:
13032:
13031:
13024:
13016:
13014:0-470-04607-4
13010:
13006:
13005:
12997:
12989:
12987:3-540-20785-6
12983:
12979:
12978:
12970:
12962:
12956:
12952:
12948:
12947:
12939:
12931:
12929:0-521-82112-6
12925:
12921:
12917:
12916:
12908:
12901:
12896:
12894:
12885:
12883:3-527-40532-1
12879:
12875:
12871:
12867:
12866:
12858:
12850:
12848:0-8247-8498-7
12844:
12840:
12836:
12835:
12827:
12819:
12817:90-5699-704-1
12813:
12809:
12805:
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12644:
12643:
12635:
12628:
12623:
12616:
12611:
12603:
12597:
12593:
12592:
12584:
12570:on 2014-07-14
12566:
12562:
12555:
12549:
12534:
12528:
12514:on 2012-12-26
12513:
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12122:
12116:PLoS one 2017
12115:
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11997:
11991:
11987:
11983:
11982:
11974:
11972:
11963:
11959:
11955:
11951:
11944:
11938:, p. 69.
11937:
11932:
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11920:
11913:
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11906:
11894:
11890:
11888:0-471-33372-7
11884:
11880:
11873:
11872:
11867:
11866:Sze, Simon M.
11861:
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11501:
11497:
11496:
11488:
11473:
11472:
11464:
11450:
11444:
11440:
11439:
11431:
11417:on 2007-10-24
11416:
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11405:
11397:
11393:
11387:
11379:
11377:0-13-127827-4
11373:
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11179:defibrillator
11173:
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10781:
10780:
10774:
10773:squirrel cage
10768:
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8872:
8869:
8866:
8862:
8858:
8854:
8850:
8846:
8836:
8826:
8821:
8818:
8816:
8812:
8808:
8798:
8796:
8791:
8789:
8773:
8771:
8767:
8764:
8760:
8756:
8750:
8748:
8744:
8743:surface mount
8740:
8735:
8729:
8724:
8720:
8716:
8713:
8704:
8700:
8695:
8686:
8682:
8680:
8675:
8673:
8672:
8667:
8662:
8657:
8652:
8648:
8644:
8640:
8632:
8627:
8621:
8614:
8607:
8603:
8598:
8594:
8578:
8570:
8566:
8558:
8546:
8539:
8531:
8527:
8520:
8514:
8511:
8508:
8504:
8499:
8493:
8486:
8482:
8478:
8474:
8471:
8465:
8458:
8454:
8450:
8446:
8440:
8432:
8428:
8418:
8414:
8410:
8405:
8401:
8395:
8391:
8386:
8382:
8376:
8372:
8361:
8357:
8352:
8347:
8326:
8316:
8310:
8302:
8296:
8290:
8284:
8278:
8274:
8267:
8261:
8258:
8255:
8252:
8246:
8240:
8236:
8232:
8230:
8217:
8214:
8208:
8205:
8183:
8179:
8176:
8173:
8167:
8161:
8158:
8155:
8152:
8150:
8142:
8136:
8124:
8122:
8118:
8114:
8107:
8102:
8089:
8082:
8068:
8060:
8056:
8050:
8046:
8042:
8036:
8020:
8016:
8011:
8002:
7989:
7985:
7982:
7978:
7970:
7967:
7951:
7948:
7944:
7941:
7933:
7929:
7923:
7915:
7911:
7905:
7901:
7897:
7875:
7871:
7867:
7863:
7852:
7850:
7846:
7842:
7837:
7834:
7832:
7816:
7808:
7805:
7798:
7794:
7789:
7786:
7782:
7779:
7775:
7770:
7767:
7763:
7758:
7753:
7749:
7745:
7738:
7735:
7728:
7724:
7721:
7716:
7710:
7707:
7702:
7697:
7694:
7690:
7685:
7680:
7676:
7672:
7665:
7662:
7655:
7650:
7647:
7643:
7638:
7633:
7629:
7625:
7622:
7617:
7612:
7608:
7604:
7601:
7594:Integrating:
7592:
7579:
7575:
7572:
7568:
7560:
7557:
7550:
7545:
7542:
7538:
7533:
7528:
7524:
7519:
7515:
7512:
7509:
7505:
7502:
7499:
7496:
7487:
7476:
7472:
7455:
7452:
7445:
7439:
7434:
7429:
7425:
7421:
7418:
7405:
7403:
7398:
7394:
7390:
7381:
7377:
7360:
7357:
7350:
7344:
7341:
7338:
7335:
7327:
7326:ferroelectric
7317:
7315:
7310:
7306:
7302:
7298:
7294:
7289:
7287:
7282:
7280:
7276:
7272:
7271:and leakage.
7270:
7265:
7262:
7257:
7253:
7249:
7245:
7241:
7233:
7225:
7221:
7219:
7215:
7211:
7206:
7203:
7201:
7197:
7191:
7189:
7185:
7179:
7177:
7172:
7170:
7166:
7162:
7158:
7154:
7149:
7146:
7141:
7139:
7135:
7124:
7115:
7111:
7109:
7104:
7099:
7072:
7068:
7060:
7043:
7039:
7031:
7014:
7010:
7002:
6985:
6981:
6973:
6972:
6971:
6968:
6952:
6946:
6942:
6938:
6933:
6929:
6922:
6916:
6912:
6908:
6903:
6899:
6888:
6869:
6865:
6861:
6855:
6851:
6845:
6841:
6838:
6835:
6827:
6821:
6818:
6814:
6810:
6806:
6795:
6793:
6788:
6784:
6775:
6773:
6763:
6761:
6757:
6753:
6749:
6745:
6741:
6737:
6732:
6728:
6718:
6714:
6712:
6708:
6704:
6699:
6695:
6691:
6687:
6683:
6678:
6669:
6667:
6663:
6658:
6656:
6650:
6648:
6644:
6640:
6627:
6624:
6621:
6618:
6614:
6610:
6609:
6608:
6606:
6602:
6599:
6595:
6591:
6586:
6584:
6580:
6571:
6569:
6564:
6551:
6539:
6536:
6533:
6529:
6524:
6507:
6499:
6495:
6483:
6477:
6471:
6463:
6449:
6442:
6424:
6420:
6412:
6408:
6404:
6379:
6373:
6363:
6359:
6357:
6330:
6329:average power
6290:
6286:
6256:
6247:
6240:
6234:
6230:
6222:
6217:
6214:
6213:is relevant.
6194:
6185:
6160:
6159:
6132:
6120:
6113:
6109:
6106:
6105:damping ratio
6099:
6095:
6091:
6073:
6067:
6064:
6061:
6057:
6052:
6044:
6036:
6033:
6030:
6022:
6017:
6003:
5999:
5977:
5969:
5966:
5944:
5936:
5935:
5933:
5929:
5926:
5924:
5898:
5897:
5896:
5874:
5862:
5858:
5855:
5852:
5849:
5846:
5842:
5837:
5828:
5824:
5816:
5813:
5810:
5806:
5803:
5786:
5782:
5773:
5766:
5757:
5753:
5744:
5739:
5736:
5725:
5711:
5702:
5700:
5694:
5690:
5688:
5683:
5678:
5676:
5670:
5657:
5648:
5644:
5635:
5626:
5617:
5607:
5604:
5600:
5574:
5564:
5560:
5551:
5546:
5536:
5529:
5526:
5523:
5519:
5514:
5509:
5506:
5501:
5498:
5490:
5487:
5484:
5466:
5463:
5461:
5456:
5453:
5450:
5442:
5435:
5432:
5429:
5425:
5420:
5417:
5413:
5407:
5404:
5399:
5397:
5386:
5372:
5365:
5362:
5359:
5355:
5350:
5347:
5343:
5339:
5336:
5334:
5318:
5287:
5278:
5274:
5252:
5249:
5246:
5237:
5234:
5231:
5227:
5223:
5207:
5204:
5199:
5191:
5187:
5183:
5178:
5175:
5172:
5165:
5161:
5157:
5152:
5145:
5141:
5137:
5132:
5125:
5121:
5117:
5111:
5106:
5101:
5098:
5093:
5085:
5081:
5077:
5070:
5065:
5062:
5059:
5055:
5050:
5045:
5031:
5022:
5017:
5016:
5011:
5003:
4996:
4980:
4976:
4972:
4969:
4966:
4961:
4957:
4953:
4948:
4944:
4940:
4935:
4931:
4925:
4920:
4917:
4914:
4910:
4906:
4892:
4882:
4881:
4876:
4868:
4861:
4860:
4858:
4842:
4836:
4835:
4834:
4817:
4814:
4810:
4805:
4799:
4793:
4781:
4771:
4769:
4764:
4745:
4741:
4736:
4732:
4729:
4722:
4719:
4714:
4710:
4706:
4699:
4696:
4689:
4686:
4681:
4677:
4673:
4670:
4667:
4658:
4635:
4619:
4616:
4612:
4607:
4599:
4595:
4591:
4588:
4582:
4578:
4572:
4565:
4561:
4555:
4551:
4545:
4540:
4536:
4523:
4515:
4508:
4501:
4494:
4478:
4475:
4469:
4466:
4460:
4456:
4450:
4446:
4443:
4440:
4434:
4424:
4413:
4410:
4407:
4396:
4391:
4389:
4385:
4380:
4378:
4372:
4369:
4365:
4359:
4353:
4345:
4340:
4316:
4313:
4310:
4307:
4303:
4298:
4295:
4289:
4286:
4282:
4277:
4274:
4268:
4265:
4262:
4258:
4253:
4251:
4246:
4236:
4233:
4230:
4227:
4223:
4218:
4215:
4209:
4206:
4202:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4187:
4175:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4159:
4154:
4150:
4140:
4119:
4115:
4110:
4106:
4103:
4099:
4092:
4089:
4085:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4067:
4061:
4050:
4046:
4041:
4037:
4034:
4030:
4023:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4010:
4002:
3996:
3985:
3981:
3976:
3972:
3969:
3965:
3959:
3954:
3951:
3947:
3941:
3939:
3931:
3925:
3909:
3900:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3886:
3885:time constant
3880:
3873:
3851:
3843:
3839:
3834:
3830:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3816:
3812:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3785:
3779:
3771:
3763:
3759:
3754:
3750:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3736:
3732:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3716:
3708:
3702:
3691:
3687:
3682:
3678:
3675:
3671:
3665:
3660:
3656:
3650:
3648:
3640:
3634:
3621:
3614:
3610:
3602:
3596:
3590:
3577:
3574:
3568:
3562:
3559:
3553:
3540:
3534:
3523:
3520:
3512:
3508:
3503:
3490:
3478:
3472:
3467:
3460:
3456:
3451:
3445:
3442:
3437:
3434:
3428:
3422:
3419:
3413:
3401:
3397:
3391:
3379:
3375:
3370:
3366:
3357:
3351:
3346:
3338:
3333:
3324:
3319:
3309:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3286:
3265:
3252:
3246:
3235:
3232:
3226:
3213:
3207:
3196:
3190:
3184:
3176:
3171:
3158:
3146:
3140:
3135:
3128:
3124:
3119:
3113:
3110:
3105:
3097:
3093:
3086:
3083:
3078:
3071:
3065:
3059:
3053:
3047:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2990:
2981:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2940:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2916:
2913:
2908:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2886:
2883:
2879:
2872:
2868:
2865:
2857:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2831:
2828:
2823:
2820:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2789:
2786:
2766:
2757:
2742:
2722:
2702:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2667:
2664:
2659:
2656:
2653:
2648:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2626:
2618:
2615:
2610:
2607:
2596:
2593:
2586:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2570:
2558:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2531:
2523:
2507:
2487:
2484:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2452:
2449:
2429:
2426:
2406:
2398:
2388:
2371:
2368:
2365:
2352:
2338:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2294:
2271:
2268:
2265:
2257:
2254:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2236:
2216:
2203:
2177:
2172:
2168:
2162:
2159:
2139:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2087:
2083:
2060:
2056:
2033:
2029:
2020:
2003:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1984:
1980:
1953:
1950:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1930:
1926:
1919:
1916:
1896:
1874:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1855:
1851:
1844:
1822:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1803:
1799:
1773:
1769:
1746:
1742:
1733:
1732:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1713:
1698:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1682:
1679:
1674:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1652:
1647:
1643:
1638:
1631:
1627:
1624:
1616:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1590:
1587:
1582:
1579:
1570:
1564:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1541:
1538:
1534:
1529:
1515:
1512:
1509:
1489:
1469:
1460:
1458:
1452:
1437:
1433:
1430:
1424:
1421:
1412:
1398:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1367:
1364:
1341:
1338:
1333:
1330:
1324:
1321:
1316:
1313:
1308:
1305:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1284:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1257:
1249:
1248:line integral
1233:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1202:
1199:
1191:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1164:
1161:
1158:
1151:
1147:
1131:
1128:
1108:
1105:
1085:
1065:
1044:
1035:
1020:
1000:
993:
977:
957:
944:
937:
933:
928:
915:
911:
910:
909:
898:
895:
891:
888:
873:
869:
865:
862:
859:
851:
847:
844:
840:
835:
820:
816:
812:
809:
806:
798:
794:
793:
792:
790:
782:
777:
768:
752:
742:
731:
728:
719:
716:
712:
708:
690:
687:
682:
679:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
652:
647:
644:
640:
639:Coulomb's law
636:
633:
632:semiconductor
629:
625:
621:
612:
604:
594:
584:
582:
578:
574:
570:
565:
563:
558:
556:
552:
547:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
520:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
497:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
462:
460:
456:
452:
448:
447:electrophorus
444:
440:
436:
428:
423:
419:
417:
415:
411:
407:
403:
398:
396:
392:
388:
384:
379:
375:
371:
367:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
330:
326:
322:
318:
313:
309:
307:
300:
290:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
263:analog filter
260:
256:
253:for blocking
252:
248:
243:
241:
237:
233:
228:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
161:
159:
155:
150:
148:
144:
141:
137:
136:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
105:
100:
97:
93:
89:
84:
81:
77:
74:
71:
62:
59:
56:
52:
48:
43:
37:
33:
26:
22:
15124:Applications
14828:
14711:
14511:Cold cathode
14478:Storage tube
14368:Vacuum tubes
14317:Neutron tube
14292:Beam tetrode
14274:Vacuum tubes
13859:Power MOSFET
13681:
13670:
13659:
13645:
13631:
13617:
13592:
13572:
13567:
13542:
13533:
13514:
13506:Bibliography
13495:
13486:
13477:
13460:
13456:
13450:
13443:Pulsed Power
13442:
13438:
13418:
13411:
13360:
13356:
13350:
13328:(3): 24–27.
13325:
13321:
13315:
13305:
13298:
13289:
13280:
13269:. Retrieved
13265:the original
13260:Allied Radio
13258:
13249:
13221:. Retrieved
13190:. Retrieved
13174:
13140:
13133:
13113:
13106:
13096:
13089:
13077:
13065:
13029:
13023:
13003:
12996:
12976:
12969:
12945:
12938:
12914:
12907:
12870:Polar Oxides
12869:
12864:
12857:
12833:
12826:
12802:
12795:
12784:. Retrieved
12773:
12762:. Retrieved
12741:
12734:
12730:
12706:
12672:
12665:
12641:
12634:
12622:
12614:
12610:
12590:
12583:
12572:. Retrieved
12565:the original
12560:
12548:
12537:. Retrieved
12527:
12516:. Retrieved
12512:the original
12502:
12490:
12457:
12453:
12443:
12432:. Retrieved
12417:
12410:
12367:
12363:
12353:
12328:
12324:
12318:
12301:
12295:
12289:
12264:
12260:
12254:
12243:. Retrieved
12224:
12217:
12206:. Retrieved
12187:
12180:
12169:. Retrieved
12154:
12147:
12135:
12121:
12109:
12098:. Retrieved
12094:
12085:
12073:
12061:
12041:
12034:
12014:
11980:
11953:
11949:
11943:
11931:
11919:
11893:the original
11870:
11860:
11849:. Retrieved
11847:. 2017-08-09
11840:
11831:
11820:. Retrieved
11801:
11791:
11772:
11753:
11731:(1): 20–25.
11728:
11724:
11695:
11690:
11673:
11664:
11645:
11639:
11628:. Retrieved
11618:
11608:
11601:
11593:
11587:. Retrieved
11582:
11569:
11558:. Retrieved
11556:. p. 28
11544:
11533:. Retrieved
11518:
11508:
11494:
11487:
11476:. Retrieved
11470:
11463:
11452:. Retrieved
11437:
11430:
11419:. Retrieved
11415:the original
11404:
11395:
11386:
11363:
11357:
11346:. Retrieved
11331:
11324:
11313:. Retrieved
11307:
11270:
11255:
11148:
11135:
11116:
11072:
11068:fibrillation
11065:
11052:
11037:
10955:
10940:
10860:
10856:
10852:
10847:
10832:
10796:
10788:
10785:
10777:
10770:
10751:
10744:
10734:undesirable
10717:
10680:
10673:
10666:
10646:
10640:
10581:
10549:
10535:are used in
10531:
10487:
10465:(especially
10450:
10446:Pulsed power
10444:
10432:
10423:high voltage
10408:
10388:
10385:
10374:
10344:Applications
10331:
10326:
10322:
10318:
10315:
10273:
10263:900 μF
10236:0.90 pF
10225:800 μF
10198:0.80 pF
10187:700 μF
10160:0.70 pF
10149:600 μF
10122:0.60 pF
10111:500 μF
10084:0.50 pF
10073:450 μF
10046:0.45 pF
10035:400 μF
10008:0.40 pF
9997:350 μF
9970:0.35 pF
9959:300 μF
9932:0.30 pF
9921:250 μF
9894:0.25 pF
9830:910 μF
9803:0.91 pF
9792:820 μF
9765:0.82 pF
9754:750 μF
9727:0.75 pF
9716:680 μF
9689:0.68 pF
9678:620 μF
9651:0.62 pF
9640:560 μF
9613:0.56 pF
9602:510 μF
9575:0.51 pF
9564:470 μF
9537:0.47 pF
9526:430 μF
9499:0.43 pF
9488:390 μF
9461:0.39 pF
9450:360 μF
9423:0.36 pF
9412:330 μF
9385:0.33 pF
9374:300 μF
9347:0.30 pF
9336:270 μF
9309:0.27 pF
9298:240 μF
9271:0.24 pF
9260:220 μF
9233:0.22 pF
9222:200 μF
9195:0.20 pF
9184:180 μF
9157:0.18 pF
9146:160 μF
9119:0.16 pF
9108:150 μF
9081:0.15 pF
9070:130 μF
9043:0.13 pF
9032:120 μF
9005:0.12 pF
8994:110 μF
8967:0.11 pF
8956:100 μF
8929:0.10 pF
8864:
8842:
8824:
8822:
8819:
8814:
8806:
8804:
8794:
8792:
8787:
8784:
8751:
8736:
8732:
8717:
8708:
8703:through-hole
8683:
8676:
8669:
8665:
8658:
8650:
8630:
8625:
8619:
8612:
8605:
8601:
8596:
8592:
8419:
8412:
8408:
8403:
8399:
8393:
8389:
8384:
8380:
8374:
8370:
8359:
8355:
8345:
8125:
8121:permittivity
8112:
8105:
8103:
8006:
8003:
7858:
7838:
7835:
7593:
7488:
7474:
7470:
7406:
7401:
7396:
7392:
7386:
7379:
7375:
7323:
7290:
7283:
7273:
7266:
7238:
7207:
7204:
7192:
7180:
7173:
7150:
7142:
7134:permittivity
7130:
7127:centimetres.
7112:
7105:
7101:
6969:
6889:
6822:
6801:
6786:
6781:
6769:
6724:
6715:
6696:between the
6686:RLC circuits
6679:
6675:
6659:
6654:
6651:
6636:
6592:, primarily
6587:
6577:
6565:
6464:
6406:
6375:
6360:
6218:
6215:
6156:
6127:
6118:
6111:
6107:
6097:
5921:
5893:
5695:
5691:
5679:
5671:
5621:
5619:
5595:
5485:
5020:
4777:
4765:
4659:
4636:
4513:
4506:
4499:
4495:
4394:
4392:
4383:
4381:
4373:
4367:
4363:
4357:
4338:
4156:
3907:
3898:
3893:
3883:
3878:
3871:
3619:
3612:
3608:
3600:
3594:
3591:
3506:
3504:
3349:
3344:
3336:
3329:
3287:
3174:
3172:
3034:
3030:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2996:The current
2995:
2758:
2394:
2387:multiplier.
2353:
2208:
1729:
1717:permittivity
1714:
1568:
1562:
1555:
1551:
1539:
1530:
1461:
1457:permittivity
1454:
1414:
1036:
992:permittivity
949:
935:
931:
907:
786:
720:
669:
665:
653:
648:
617:
577:image sensor
569:memory chips
566:
559:
548:
524:Karol Pollak
521:
509:transmitters
498:
463:
458:
450:
441:was used by
439:condensatore
438:
434:
432:
418:
399:
368:
362:, after the
333:
302:
261:to pass. In
244:
229:
205:oxide layers
193:plastic film
162:
151:
133:
129:
117:
111:
36:
14854:Memory cell
14677:Transformer
14419:Sutton tube
14259:Charge pump
14112:Memory cell
14042:Zener diode
14004:Laser diode
13887:transistors
13769:transistors
12615:Electronics
11123:groundwater
11020:Oscillators
11011:Capacitive
10799:information
10647:AC coupling
10588:three phase
10560:car battery
10545:charge pump
10257:9.0 μF
10254:900 nF
10248:9.0 nF
10245:900 pF
10239:9.0 pF
10219:8.0 μF
10216:800 nF
10210:8.0 nF
10207:800 pF
10201:8.0 pF
10181:7.0 μF
10178:700 nF
10172:7.0 nF
10169:700 pF
10163:7.0 pF
10143:6.0 μF
10140:600 nF
10134:6.0 nF
10131:600 pF
10125:6.0 pF
10105:5.0 μF
10102:500 nF
10096:5.0 nF
10093:500 pF
10087:5.0 pF
10067:4.5 μF
10064:450 nF
10058:4.5 nF
10055:450 pF
10049:4.5 pF
10029:4.0 μF
10026:400 nF
10020:4.0 nF
10017:400 pF
10011:4.0 pF
9991:3.5 μF
9988:350 nF
9982:3.5 nF
9979:350 pF
9973:3.5 pF
9953:3.0 μF
9950:300 nF
9944:3.0 nF
9941:300 pF
9935:3.0 pF
9915:2.5 μF
9912:250 nF
9906:2.5 nF
9903:250 pF
9897:2.5 pF
9824:9.1 μF
9821:910 nF
9815:9.1 nF
9812:910 pF
9806:9.1 pF
9786:8.2 μF
9783:820 nF
9777:8.2 nF
9774:820 pF
9768:8.2 pF
9748:7.5 μF
9745:750 nF
9739:7.5 nF
9736:750 pF
9730:7.5 pF
9710:6.8 μF
9707:680 nF
9701:6.8 nF
9698:680 pF
9692:6.8 pF
9672:6.2 μF
9669:620 nF
9663:6.2 nF
9660:620 pF
9654:6.2 pF
9634:5.6 μF
9631:560 nF
9625:5.6 nF
9622:560 pF
9616:5.6 pF
9596:5.1 μF
9593:510 nF
9587:5.1 nF
9584:510 pF
9578:5.1 pF
9558:4.7 μF
9555:470 nF
9549:4.7 nF
9546:470 pF
9540:4.7 pF
9520:4.3 μF
9517:430 nF
9511:4.3 nF
9508:430 pF
9502:4.3 pF
9482:3.9 μF
9479:390 nF
9473:3.9 nF
9470:390 pF
9464:3.9 pF
9444:3.6 μF
9441:360 nF
9435:3.6 nF
9432:360 pF
9426:3.6 pF
9406:3.3 μF
9403:330 nF
9397:3.3 nF
9394:330 pF
9388:3.3 pF
9368:3.0 μF
9365:300 nF
9359:3.0 nF
9356:300 pF
9350:3.0 pF
9330:2.7 μF
9327:270 nF
9321:2.7 nF
9318:270 pF
9312:2.7 pF
9292:2.4 μF
9289:240 nF
9283:2.4 nF
9280:240 pF
9274:2.4 pF
9254:2.2 μF
9251:220 nF
9245:2.2 nF
9242:220 pF
9236:2.2 pF
9216:2.0 μF
9213:200 nF
9207:2.0 nF
9204:200 pF
9198:2.0 pF
9178:1.8 μF
9175:180 nF
9169:1.8 nF
9166:180 pF
9160:1.8 pF
9140:1.6 μF
9137:160 nF
9131:1.6 nF
9128:160 pF
9122:1.6 pF
9102:1.5 μF
9099:150 nF
9093:1.5 nF
9090:150 pF
9084:1.5 pF
9064:1.3 μF
9061:130 nF
9055:1.3 nF
9052:130 pF
9046:1.3 pF
9026:1.2 μF
9023:120 nF
9017:1.2 nF
9014:120 pF
9008:1.2 pF
8988:1.1 μF
8985:110 nF
8979:1.1 nF
8976:110 pF
8970:1.1 pF
8950:1.0 μF
8947:100 nF
8941:1.0 nF
8938:100 pF
8932:1.0 pF
8404:capacitance
8385:conductance
8115:) is now a
7261:vacuum tube
7252:electrolyte
6787:conditioned
6772:megohmmeter
6740:polystyrene
6736:polysulfone
6690:underdamped
6662:microphonic
6643:Curie point
6019:Simplified
5998:conductance
5932:real-valued
5687:electronics
4786:domain by:
4388:capacitance
4377:AC coupling
4143:AC circuits
3905:) replaces
3894:discharging
3312:DC circuits
2419:, the work
1190:Gauss's law
651:capacitance
593:Capacitance
532:electrolyte
466:electricity
410:frequencies
329:Netherlands
317:Leyden jars
279:frequencies
247:Leyden jars
203:, air, and
181:electrolyte
154:capacitance
73:Capacitance
21:Capacitance
15234:Capacitors
15218:Categories
15203:Runt pulse
15175:television
14869:Logic gate
14814:Transistor
14806:Components
14749:reed relay
14739:Parametron
14672:Thermistor
14650:resettable
14609:Connector
14570:Adjustable
14546:Nixie tube
14516:Crossatron
14483:Trochotron
14458:Iconoscope
14453:Charactron
14430:X-ray tube
14302:Compactron
14282:Acorn tube
14239:Buck–boost
14160:Solaristor
14022:Photodiode
13999:Gunn diode
13995:(CLD, CRD)
13777:Transistor
13632:Capacitors
13370:2011.11867
13322:Complexity
13271:2017-07-11
13223:2022-06-18
13192:2022-06-17
12786:2013-03-17
12764:2021-07-23
12574:2013-03-17
12539:2023-09-07
12518:2013-03-17
12495:Ulaby 1999
12434:2013-03-17
12370:(1): 932.
12245:2013-03-17
12208:2013-03-17
12171:2013-03-17
12140:Ulaby 1999
12100:2009-02-19
11936:Ulaby 1999
11924:Ulaby 1999
11912:Ulaby 1999
11851:2019-09-20
11822:2019-10-06
11759:US 2800616
11655:0691096856
11630:2013-03-17
11589:2009-08-10
11560:2009-08-09
11535:2013-03-17
11478:2013-03-17
11454:2013-03-17
11421:2013-03-17
11348:2013-03-17
11315:2016-12-01
11290:References
11151:pre-charge
10956:dielectric
10843:crossovers
10657:Decoupling
10633:Polyester
10608:substation
10526:microfarad
10467:TEA lasers
10419:flash tube
10319:microfarad
10310:See also:
10306:Historical
10278:following
10260:90 μF
10251:90 nF
10242:90 pF
10222:80 μF
10213:80 nF
10204:80 pF
10184:70 μF
10175:70 nF
10166:70 pF
10146:60 μF
10137:60 nF
10128:60 pF
10108:50 μF
10099:50 nF
10090:50 pF
10070:45 μF
10061:45 nF
10052:45 pF
10032:40 μF
10023:40 nF
10014:40 pF
9994:35 μF
9985:35 nF
9976:35 pF
9956:30 μF
9947:30 nF
9938:30 pF
9918:25 μF
9909:25 nF
9900:25 pF
9827:91 μF
9818:91 nF
9809:91 pF
9789:82 μF
9780:82 nF
9771:82 pF
9751:75 μF
9742:75 nF
9733:75 pF
9713:68 μF
9704:68 nF
9695:68 pF
9675:62 μF
9666:62 nF
9657:62 pF
9637:56 μF
9628:56 nF
9619:56 pF
9599:51 μF
9590:51 nF
9581:51 pF
9561:47 μF
9552:47 nF
9543:47 pF
9523:43 μF
9514:43 nF
9505:43 pF
9485:39 μF
9476:39 nF
9467:39 pF
9447:36 μF
9438:36 nF
9429:36 pF
9409:33 μF
9400:33 nF
9391:33 pF
9371:30 μF
9362:30 nF
9353:30 pF
9333:27 μF
9324:27 nF
9315:27 pF
9295:24 μF
9286:24 nF
9277:24 pF
9257:22 μF
9248:22 nF
9239:22 pF
9219:20 μF
9210:20 nF
9201:20 pF
9181:18 μF
9172:18 nF
9163:18 pF
9143:16 μF
9134:16 nF
9125:16 pF
9105:15 μF
9096:15 nF
9087:15 pF
9067:13 μF
9058:13 nF
9049:13 pF
9029:12 μF
9020:12 nF
9011:12 pF
8991:11 μF
8982:11 nF
8973:11 pF
8953:10 μF
8944:10 nF
8935:10 pF
8857:E24 series
8833:10 pF
8639:free space
7478:only when
7214:resonators
7190:circuits.
7114:material.
6748:flashtubes
6711:overdamped
6698:inductance
6370:See also:
6199:dielectric
6131:RLC series
6021:RLC series
5996:, a small
5982:dielectric
5867:dielectric
5791:dielectric
4855:See also:
4524:(denoted X
4166:resistance
4147:See also:
3509:, gives a
3318:RC circuit
3316:See also:
797:elasticity
628:dielectric
620:conductors
544:transistor
486:insulators
435:condensers
414:inductance
395:nanofarads
378:Leyden jar
360:Leyden jar
352:dielectric
299:Leyden jar
297:See also:
273:they tune
207:. When an
173:dielectric
138:. It is a
15059:Placement
14849:Flip-flop
14829:Capacitor
14712:Capacitor
14556:Trigatron
14551:Thyratron
14541:Neon lamp
14468:Monoscope
14348:Phototube
14332:Pentagrid
14297:Barretter
14182:Trancitor
14177:Thyristor
14102:Memristor
14027:PIN diode
13804:(ChemFET)
13687:(archive)
13676:(archive)
13665:(archive)
13534:condenser
13463:(1): 22.
12839:CRC Press
12808:CRC Press
12712:CRC Press
12482:1557-9638
11682:0161-7370
11127:landfills
10960:airplanes
10886:π
10823:integrate
10651:reactance
10557:lead–acid
10541:rectifier
10461:, pulsed
10415:amplifier
10411:car audio
10364:dye laser
10360:flashtube
10327:picofarad
10323:picofarad
10280:IEC 60062
8863:define a
8825:473K 330V
8811:picofarad
8759:varactors
8661:resonance
8647:dichroism
8559:ω
8521:ω
8512:ω
8494:ω
8479:ε
8472:−
8466:ω
8451:ε
8441:ω
8429:ε
8400:imaginary
8317:ω
8303:ω
8285:ω
8268:ω
8259:ω
8247:ω
8222:Σ
8215:⋅
8209:ω
8188:Σ
8184:∮
8180:ω
8168:ω
8159:ω
8143:ω
8083:ω
8069:ω
8057:ε
8047:ε
8037:ω
7945:−
7930:ε
7919:∞
7916:−
7912:∫
7902:ε
7833:is used.
7783:−
7750:∫
7703:∫
7677:∫
7630:∫
7609:∫
7525:∫
7426:∫
6939:−
6688:that are
6540:⋅
6534:ω
6508:ω
6478:ω
6450:ω
6441:frequency
6350:, where V
6287:ω
6257:⋅
6231:ω
6065:⋅
6062:ω
6053:−
6037:⋅
6034:ω
5853:⋅
5850:ω
5817:⋅
5814:ω
5783:∥
5730:Σ
5515:⋅
5454:−
5421:−
5351:−
5205:−
5176:⋯
5099:−
5056:∑
4970:⋯
4911:∑
4746:∘
4730:ω
4723:
4697:ω
4690:
4674:−
4617:ω
4589:ω
4476:ω
4470:
4447:ω
4444:−
4384:inversely
4311:π
4299:−
4287:ω
4278:−
4266:ω
4231:π
4219:−
4207:ω
4198:−
4162:reactance
4158:Impedance
4116:τ
4104:−
4047:τ
4035:−
3982:τ
3970:−
3840:τ
3828:−
3820:−
3760:τ
3748:−
3740:−
3688:τ
3676:−
3491:τ
3479:τ
3452:∫
3406:capacitor
3159:τ
3147:τ
3120:∫
2946:ε
2914:ε
2866:ε
2578:∫
2539:∫
2369:−
2302:ε
2269:−
2244:ε
2110:−
1936:−
1861:−
1845:−
1809:−
1680:ε
1625:ε
1513:∝
1431:ε
1339:ε
1317:ε
1314:σ
1265:∫
1214:ε
1206:σ
1165:±
1159:σ
1129:−
1001:ε
843:rectified
575:(CCD) in
494:telephony
474:porcelain
459:capacitor
451:condenser
340:Pomerania
306:lightning
147:terminals
145:with two
130:condenser
118:capacitor
40:Capacitor
14824:Inductor
14819:Resistor
14734:Inductor
14704:Reactive
14682:Varistor
14662:Resistor
14640:Antifuse
14526:Ignitron
14521:Dekatron
14409:Klystron
14398:Gyrotron
14327:Nuvistor
14244:Split-pi
14130:(MOS IC)
14097:Memistor
13855:(MuGFET)
13849:(MOSFET)
13821:(FinFET)
13403:44693636
13395:29027908
13217:Archived
13183:Archived
13057:37739028
12874:R. Waser
12755:Archived
12402:28428625
11868:(2002).
11781:Archived
11745:23077215
11626:. eFunda
11516:(2003).
11199:See also
11085:, has a
11001:theremin
10510:coilguns
10506:railguns
10276:RKM code
10270:RKM code
8487:″
8459:′
7986:′
7971:′
7952:′
7849:varicaps
7809:′
7790:′
7771:′
7739:′
7711:′
7698:′
7666:′
7651:′
7561:′
7546:′
7248:tantalum
7244:aluminum
6798:Lifespan
6616:failure.
6598:aluminum
6594:tantalum
6366:Q factor
4174:spectrum
3384:resistor
3332:resistor
3294:inductor
3019:integral
917:circuit.
913:circuit.
598:Overview
402:wireless
236:resistor
177:sintered
79:Invented
15064:Routing
14898:(3D IC)
14635:Ferrite
14603:Passive
14594:Varicap
14582:digital
14531:Krytron
14353:Tetrode
14338:Pentode
14192:Varicap
14173:(3D IC)
14149:RF CMOS
14053:devices
13827:(FGMOS)
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13375:Bibcode
13330:Bibcode
12462:Bibcode
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12372:Bibcode
12333:Bibcode
12269:Bibcode
11108:shorted
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10732:radiate
10721:snubber
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10377:battery
10284:BS 1852
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9842:Series
8885:Letter
8877:Series
8626:complex
8379:is the
8349:is the
7297:aerogel
7242:use an
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7157:plastic
6805:fatigue
6766:Leakage
6703:ringing
6682:damping
6354:is the
6348:
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5382:(volts)
5314:(volts)
5021:smaller
4350:is the
4342:is the
3882:is the
787:In the
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711:coulomb
660:in the
505:Marconi
457:, with
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213:voltage
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67:
15041:Design
14977:Theory
14963:(ASIC)
14957:(FPOA)
14951:(FPGA)
14945:(CPLD)
14910:(EPLD)
14667:Switch
14358:Triode
14322:Nonode
14287:Audion
14167:(SITh)
14051:Other
14018:(OLED)
13980:Diodes
13931:(LET)
13913:(FET)
13885:Other
13833:(IGBT)
13810:(CMOS)
13797:BioFET
13792:BiCMOS
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10392:joules
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9845:Digit
8880:Digit
8788:220 μF
8689:Styles
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7216:, and
6744:Teflon
6612:parts.
6579:Ripple
5920:, the
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5556:farads
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4502:) = −1
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2287:where
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90:(1746)
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14933:(PAL)
14927:(PLD)
14921:(PLA)
14904:(ECL)
14887:(HIC)
14744:Relay
14717:types
14655:eFUSE
14426:(TWT)
14414:Maser
14405:(IOT)
14394:(CFA)
14383:(BWO)
14307:Diode
14254:SEPIC
14234:Boost
14187:TRIAC
14156:(SCR)
14119:(MOV)
14093:(LEC)
14012:(LED)
13971:(UJT)
13960:(SIT)
13954:(PUT)
13897:(BJT)
13866:(TFT)
13842:LDMOS
13837:ISFET
13399:S2CID
13365:arXiv
13186:(PDF)
13179:(PDF)
13053:S2CID
12758:(PDF)
12751:(PDF)
12568:(PDF)
12557:(PDF)
11896:(PDF)
11879:Wiley
11875:(PDF)
11741:S2CID
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11554:(PDF)
11247:Notes
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10475:radar
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8874:Code
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8712:paper
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8597:prime
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8551:cmplx
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14070:DIAC
14006:(LD)
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13870:VMOS
13787:PMOS
13782:NMOS
13767:MOS
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13622:ISBN
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13520:ISBN
13424:ISBN
13391:PMID
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12878:ISBN
12868:(in
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10986:use
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10848:The
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10809:and
10712:and
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3524:C
3521:R
3507:C
3487:d
3482:)
3476:(
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3446:C
3443:1
3438:+
3435:R
3432:)
3429:t
3426:(
3423:i
3420:=
3417:)
3414:t
3411:(
3402:v
3398:+
3395:)
3392:t
3389:(
3380:v
3376:=
3371:0
3367:V
3350:t
3340:0
3337:V
3306:L
3302:C
3283:C
3266:t
3262:d
3256:)
3253:t
3250:(
3247:V
3243:d
3236:C
3233:=
3227:t
3223:d
3217:)
3214:t
3211:(
3208:Q
3204:d
3197:=
3194:)
3191:t
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3185:I
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3155:d
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3144:(
3141:I
3136:t
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3103:)
3098:0
3094:t
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3087:V
3084:=
3079:C
3075:)
3072:t
3069:(
3066:Q
3060:=
3057:)
3054:t
3051:(
3048:V
3038:0
3035:t
3033:(
3031:V
3010:t
3008:(
3006:Q
3002:t
3000:(
2998:I
2967:)
2959:(
2954:2
2950:E
2941:2
2938:1
2933:=
2928:2
2924:E
2920:d
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2909:2
2906:1
2901:=
2896:2
2891:)
2887:d
2884:E
2880:(
2873:d
2869:A
2858:2
2855:1
2850:=
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2824:=
2821:W
2801:d
2797:/
2793:V
2790:=
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2703:Q
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2649:2
2646:1
2641:=
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2631:2
2627:Q
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2616:1
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2582:0
2574:=
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2553:V
2548:Q
2543:0
2535:=
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2248:o
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2163:=
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2088:1
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2061:2
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2034:1
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2004:2
1998:2
1994:Q
1990:+
1985:1
1981:Q
1954:C
1951:2
1944:2
1940:Q
1931:1
1927:Q
1920:=
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1897:V
1875:2
1869:2
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1856:1
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1823:2
1817:2
1813:Q
1804:1
1800:Q
1774:2
1770:Q
1747:1
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1699:2
1694:d
1690:U
1686:d
1683:A
1675:2
1672:1
1667:=
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1653:d
1648:d
1644:U
1639:(
1632:d
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1617:2
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1609:=
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1588:1
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1566:d
1563:U
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1552:V
1543:d
1540:U
1516:L
1510:C
1490:d
1470:A
1438:d
1434:A
1425:=
1422:C
1399:V
1379:V
1375:/
1371:Q
1368:=
1365:C
1342:A
1334:d
1331:Q
1325:=
1322:d
1309:=
1306:d
1303:E
1300:=
1297:z
1293:d
1288:)
1285:z
1282:(
1279:E
1274:d
1269:0
1261:=
1258:V
1234:V
1210:/
1203:=
1200:E
1176:A
1172:/
1168:Q
1162:=
1132:Q
1109:Q
1106:+
1086:d
1066:d
1045:E
1021:d
978:d
958:A
936:d
932:A
874:C
870:/
866:Q
863:=
860:V
821:V
817:/
813:Q
810:=
807:C
753:V
749:d
743:Q
739:d
732:=
729:C
691:V
688:Q
683:=
680:C
670:V
666:Q
654:C
404:(
34:.
27:.
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