760:. At the time Qualcomm was founded, Jacobs had already been working on addressing telecommunications problems for the military using digital technology to increase the capacity of spectrum. Qualcomm knew that CDMA would greatly increase the efficiency and availability of wireless, but the wireless industry having already invested millions of dollars into TDMA was skeptical. Jacobs and Qualcomm spent several years improving infrastructure and performing tests and demonstrations of CDMA. In 1993, CDMA became accepted as the wireless industry standard. By 1995, CDMA was being used commercially in the wireless industry as the foundation of
2463:
554:. In a half-duplex system, communication only works in one direction at a time. A walkie-talkie is an example of a half-duplex system because both users can communicate with one another, but not at the same time, someone has to finish transmitting before the next person can begin. In a full-duplex system, both users can communicate at the same time. A telephone is the most common example of a full-duplex system because both users can speak and be heard at the same time on each end. Some types of full-duplexing methods are:
3534:
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3523:
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239:(TDM) scheme. TDMA provides different time slots to different transmitters in a cyclically repetitive frame structure. For example, node 1 may use time slot 1, node 2 time slot 2, etc. until the last transmitter when it starts over. An advanced form is dynamic TDMA (DTDMA), where an assignment of transmitters to time slots varies on each frame.
744:
spectrum and is then reassembled on the other end. CDMA allows multiple people to speak at the same time over the same frequency, allowing more conversations to be transmitted over the same amount of spectrum; this is one reason why CDMA eventually became the most widely adopted channel access method in the wireless industry.
691:(MANs), multiple access methods enable bus networks, ring networks, star networks, wireless networks and half-duplex point-to-point communication, but are not required in full-duplex point-to-point serial lines between network switches and routers. The most common multiple access method is CSMA/CD, which is used in
218:
cellular communication systems. In OFDMA, each node may use several sub-carriers, making it possible to provide different quality of service (different data rates) to different users. The assignment of sub-carriers to users may be changed dynamically, based on the current radio channel conditions and
743:
the two most widely adopted technologies are CDMA and TDMA. TDMA technology works by identifying natural breaks in speech and utilizing one radio wave to support multiple transmissions in turn. In CDMA technology, each individual packet receives a unique code that is broken up over a wide frequency
351:) use the same frequency hopping sequence synchronously, meaning that they send on the same frequency channel, but CDMA/CA or TDMA is used to avoid collisions within the VPAN. Frequency-hopping is used by Bluetooth to reduce the cross-talk and collision probability between nodes in different VPANs.
747:
The origins of CDMA can be traced back to the 1940s where it was patented by the United States government and used throughout World War II to transmit messages. However, following the war the patent expired and the use of CDMA diminished and was widely replaced by TDMA. That was until
346:
communication system is based on a combination of frequency-hopping and either CSMA/CA statistical time-division multiplexing communication (for data communication applications) or TDMA (for audio transmission). All nodes belonging to the same user (to the same
330:
cell phone systems. Each information bit (or each symbol) is represented by a long code sequence of several pulses, called chips. The sequence is the spreading code, and each message signal (for example each phone call) uses a different spreading code.
303:, meaning that a wider radio channel bandwidth is used than the data rate of individual bit streams requires, and several message signals are transferred simultaneously over the same carrier frequency, utilizing different spreading codes. Per the
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439:
188:(FDM) scheme, which provides different frequency bands to different data streams. In the FDMA case, the frequency bands are allocated to different nodes or devices. An example of FDMA systems were the first-generation
400:
Packet mode channel access methods select a single network transmitter for the duration of a packet transmission. Some methods are more suited to wired communication while others are more suited to wireless.
589:
cellular system combines the use of frequency-division duplex (FDD) to prevent interference between outward and return signals, with FDMA and TDMA to allow multiple handsets to work in a single cell.
719:
to function as a portion of a communications link between more than one pair of ground-based terminals concurrently. Three types of multiple access presently used with communications satellites are
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115:
Several ways of categorizing multiple-access schemes and protocols have been used in the literature. For example, Daniel Minoli (2009) identifies five principal types of multiple-access schemes:
91:(MAC). Medium access control deals with issues such as addressing, assigning multiplex channels to different users and avoiding collisions. Media access control is a sub-layer in the
972:
207:(WDM), where different data streams get different colors in fiber-optical communications. In the WDMA case, different network nodes in a bus or hub network get a different color.
249:
cellular systems are based on a combination of TDMA and FDMA. Each frequency channel is divided into eight time slots, of which seven are used for seven phone calls, and one for
192:
cell-phone systems, where each phone call was assigned to a specific uplink frequency channel, and another downlink frequency channel. Each message signal (each phone call) is
259:
multiple access is typically also based on time-domain multiplexing, but not in a cyclically repetitive frame structure. Due to its random character, it can be categorized as
1377:
1344:
483:
408:
1580:
1367:
427:
2798:
1516:
925:
2058:
388:) scheme is based on using variable transmission power between users in order to share the available power on the channel. Examples include multiple
1117:
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standard for high-speed networking over home wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables) employs a combination of TDMA, token passing and
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of much less than 1 (less than 0 dB), meaning that the transmission power can be reduced to a level below the level of the noise and
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1245:
355:
976:
530:
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systems and more advanced cellular systems that use directional antennas and power modulation to refine spatial transmission patterns.
342:(FHSS), where the channel frequency is changed rapidly according to a sequence that constitutes the spreading code. As an example, the
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2256:
2230:
1509:
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421:
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modems on a satellite transponder, where users get on demand a larger share of the power budget to transmit at higher data rates.
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1923:
1502:
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271:(MAC) protocol, i.e. a principle for the nodes to take turns on the channel and to avoid collisions. Common examples are
223:(SC-FDMA), a.k.a. linearly-precoded OFDMA (LP-OFDMA), is based on single-carrier frequency-domain-equalization (SC-FDE).
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2301:
1147:
818:
724:
181:
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1990:
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339:
1392:
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2002:
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204:
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1995:
1565:
1354:
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1235:
1155:
1103:
323:
185:
87:
A channel access method may also be a part of the multiple access protocol and control mechanism, also known as
3247:
2337:
1255:
404:
Common statistical time-division multiplexing multiple access protocols for wired multi-drop networks include:
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250:
124:
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2330:
2313:
1372:
1288:
1212:
1189:
728:
518:
433:
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232:
1075:
The
Qualcomm Equation: How a Fledgling Telecom Company Forged a New Path to Big Profits and Market Dominance
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38:
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304:
542:
Where these methods are used for dividing forward and reverse communication channels, they are known as
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3318:
3257:
2964:
1018:
236:
150:
The
Telecommunications Handbook (Terplan and Morreale, 2000) identifies the following MAC categories:
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2286:
2048:
2042:
2036:
1985:
1953:
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1446:
716:
712:
260:
1095:
163:
Polling: Generalized polling, Distributed polling, Token
Passing, Implicit polling, Slotted access
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3351:
3195:
3146:
3069:
2969:
2647:
2533:
2528:
2406:
2014:
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312:
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2834:
2829:
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2607:
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335:
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835:
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1722:
1441:
1130:
479:
Common multiple access protocols that may be used in packet radio wireless networks include:
308:
88:
77:
2523:
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for avoiding interference among adjacent WLAN cells or access points. This is combined with
369:(SDMA) transmits different information in different physical areas. Examples include simple
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3064:
3034:
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558:
512:
319:
268:
8:
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2364:
2354:
1165:
220:
58:
42:
3341:
3298:
3229:
3099:
3029:
3004:
2939:
2786:
2507:
926:"Fundamentals of Communications Access Technologies: FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, OFDMA, AND SDMA"
684:
1324:
440:
Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance and resolution using priorities
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3303:
3217:
3200:
3163:
3009:
2839:
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2568:
2467:
1420:
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1079:
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951:
898:
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649:
614:
570:
506:
197:
45:
to transmit over it and to share its capacity. Examples of shared physical media are
26:
22:
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617:
for shared channel access among several private area networks in the same room with
290:
3591:
3386:
3346:
3326:
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3222:
3180:
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2553:
2538:
2381:
2281:
2276:
2153:
1595:
1525:
1407:
1307:
873:
773:
168:
Random access (RA): Pure RA (ALOHA, GRA), Adaptive RA (TRA), CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA
46:
991:
695:. Although today's Ethernet installations use full-duplex connections directly to
675:
Different channel access constraints and schemes apply to different applications.
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2637:
2612:
2600:
2325:
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696:
300:
92:
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3059:
3019:
2989:
2864:
2699:
2652:
2627:
2585:
2416:
2411:
2240:
1857:
1546:
370:
81:
877:
184:(FDMA) channel-access scheme is the most standard analog system, based on the
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3361:
3134:
3124:
3039:
2929:
2924:
2914:
2899:
2721:
2580:
2421:
1494:
1049:
808:
720:
600:
463:
128:
203:
A related technique is wavelength division multiple access (WDMA), based on
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3079:
3024:
2954:
2919:
2854:
2753:
2743:
2595:
2396:
2143:
2127:
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700:
624:
604:
104:
69:
54:
581:
Note that hybrids of these techniques are frequently used. Some examples:
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2999:
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2944:
2904:
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2225:
2174:
2084:
2072:
551:
547:
487:
284:
80:
or transmission medium. In this context, multiplexing is provided by the
73:
62:
50:
3444:
3151:
2849:
2758:
2714:
2684:
2662:
1415:
641:
457:
416:
132:
100:
1851:
245:(MF-TDMA) combines time and frequency multiple access. As an example,
3429:
2894:
2709:
2476:
1397:
663:
610:
543:
451:
343:
193:
172:
Channel access schemes generally fall into the following categories.
96:
948:
Wireless
Sensors and Instruments: Networks, Design, and Applications
648:
with dynamic TDMA, meaning that resource reservation is achieved by
3424:
3414:
3331:
3156:
2979:
2204:
2108:
2007:
1930:
1897:
1329:
1230:
1125:
757:
753:
699:. CSMA/CD is still implemented to achieve compatibility with older
692:
501:
412:
276:
445:
Bitwise
Arbitration based on constructive interference as used on
3419:
3404:
2622:
2438:
1968:
1935:
1810:
1741:
1675:
1670:
1590:
1225:
635:
631:
618:
446:
348:
291:
Code-division multiple access and spread spectrum multiple access
280:
272:
3449:
3409:
2731:
2147:
2018:
1918:
1660:
1600:
1263:
1220:
973:"Multiple Access Techniques in communication: FDMA, TDMA, CDMA"
3434:
3371:
2679:
2235:
2220:
2183:
2170:
2089:
2067:
1873:
1665:
1339:
659:
315:
from other message signals sharing the same frequency range.
809:
Guowang Miao; Jens Zander; Ki Won Sung; Ben
Slimane (2016).
3376:
2401:
2099:
1913:
1781:
1708:
990:
Elinav, Doron; Rubin, Mati E.; Brener, Snir (Mar 6, 2014),
655:
645:
596:
491:
467:
389:
120:
116:
16:
Means for multiple terminals to communicate over one medium
1821:
1796:
1717:
1704:
1680:
592:
586:
546:
methods. A duplexing communication system can be either
2199:
2122:
1892:
1694:
1615:
761:
752:
an MIT engineer, and fellow employees from the company
678:
327:
246:
215:
189:
160:
Reservation: DA/TDMA, DA/FDMA+DA/WDMA, DA/CDMA, DA/SDMA
484:
Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance
409:
Carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection
307:, the wide bandwidth makes it possible to send with a
428:
Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance for Wireless
175:
837:
Satellite
Systems Engineering in an IPv6 Environment
670:
599:packet-switched service combines FDD and FDMA with
1019:"The world-changing technology that almost wasn't"
989:
376:
361:
3605:
226:
1524:
890:
666:to allow multiple devices to share the medium.
576:
2492:
1510:
1111:
833:
525:Orthogonal frequency-division multiple access
243:Multi-frequency time-division multiple access
235:(TDMA) channel access scheme is based on the
212:orthogonal frequency-division multiple access
3507:Global telecommunications regulation bodies
786:for inter-base station interference control
706:
621:for shared channel access within a network.
356:multi-carrier code-division multiple access
154:Fixed assigned: TDMA, FDMA+WDMA, CDMA, SDMA
3543:
2499:
2485:
1517:
1503:
1118:
1104:
945:
872:. Springer-Verlag/University of Michigan.
531:Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing
715:, multiple access is the capability of a
607:scheme for transferring the actual data.
422:Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
867:
756:founded the telecommunications company
3606:
2506:
2387:Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Service
1035:
804:
802:
800:
395:
257:Statistical time-division multiplexing
110:
2480:
1498:
1099:
1067:
1065:
473:Dynamic time-division multiple access
214:(OFDMA) scheme, for example, used in
135:(1990) categorize the protocols into
3553:
2345:Spectral efficiency comparison table
1071:
1016:
1012:
1010:
1008:
811:Fundamentals of Mobile Data Networks
734:
679:Local and metropolitan area networks
638:for multiple access within the cell.
537:
283:, used in wireless networks such as
68:A channel access method is based on
970:
797:
613:packet mode communication combines
354:Other techniques include OFDMA and
279:bus networks and hub networks, and
13:
1062:
868:Rom, Raphael; Sidi, Moshe (1990).
182:frequency-division multiple access
176:Frequency-division multiple access
14:
3625:
1005:
834:Daniel Minoli (3 February 2009).
500:ALOHA and slotted ALOHA, used in
496:distributed coordination function
340:frequency-hopping spread spectrum
3575: This article incorporates
3570:
3552:
3542:
3533:
3532:
3521:
3142:Free-space optical communication
2461:
2450:
1536:List of mobile phone generations
1038:"Qualcomm Founder Set to Retire"
671:Application-specific definitions
603:for reservation inquiries and a
210:An advanced form of FDMA is the
205:wavelength-division multiplexing
3588:General Services Administration
1029:
928:. Electronic Design. 2013-01-22
894:The Telecommunications Handbook
324:direct-sequence spread spectrum
186:frequency-division multiplexing
993:Power Division Multiple Access
983:
964:
939:
918:
884:
861:
827:
813:. Cambridge University Press.
630:(WLANs) are based on FDMA and
382:Power-division multiple access
377:Power-division multiple access
367:Space-division multiple access
362:Space-division multiple access
137:Conflict-free access protocols
1:
1435:Delay and disruption tolerant
790:
519:Code-division multiple access
434:Carrier-sense multiple access
297:code-division multiple access
233:time-division multiple access
227:Time-division multiple access
76:or signals to share the same
3528:Telecommunication portal
3309:Telecommunications equipment
2457:Telecommunication portal
1036:Tibken, Shara (2011-12-21).
897:. CRC Press. pp. 266–.
840:. CRC Press. pp. 136–.
779:Dynamic bandwidth allocation
628:wireless local area networks
326:(DSSS), used for example in
265:dynamic bandwidth allocation
7:
3045:Alexander Stepanovich Popov
946:Halit Eren (Nov 16, 2005).
767:
577:Hybrid application examples
10:
3630:
2749:Telecommunications history
1954:CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Release 0
950:. CRC Press. p. 112.
689:metropolitan area networks
644:wireless networks combine
299:(CDMA) scheme is based on
237:time-division multiplexing
3516:
3458:
3395:
3357:Public Switched Telephone
3317:
3281:
3238:
3179:
3169:telecommunication circuit
3130:Fiber-optic communication
3113:
2875:Francis Blake (telephone)
2822:
2670:Optical telecommunication
2514:
2447:
2269:
2249:
2213:
2198:
2163:
2136:
2121:
2098:
2057:
2028:
1978:
1967:
1946:
1906:
1891:
1866:
1844:
1836:EDGE/EGPRS - Evolved EDGE
1820:
1809:
1769:
1761:D-AMPS (IS-54 and IS-136)
1750:
1731:
1703:
1693:
1648:
1624:
1614:
1542:
1533:
1469:
1434:
1406:
1353:
1315:
1306:
1287:
1272:
1254:
1211:
1188:
1146:
1137:
878:10.1007/978-1-4612-3402-9
870:Multiple Access Protocols
784:Radio resource management
565:Frequency-division duplex
145:Carrier Sensing protocols
3268:Orbital angular-momentum
2705:Satellite communications
2544:Communications satellite
717:communications satellite
713:satellite communications
707:Satellite communications
261:statistical multiplexing
3147:Molecular communication
2970:Gardiner Greene Hubbard
2799:Undersea telegraph line
2534:Cable protection system
2292:Comparison of standards
1931:UTRA-TDD LCR / TD-SCDMA
891:Kornel Terplan (2000).
313:co-channel interference
305:Shannon–Hartley theorem
263:methods and capable of
99:and a component of the
3614:Channel access methods
3583:Federal Standard 1037C
3577:public domain material
3289:Communication protocol
3075:Charles Sumner Tainter
2890:Walter Houser Brattain
2835:Edwin Howard Armstrong
2643:Information revolution
2297:Channel access methods
1936:UTRA-TDD HCR / TD-CDMA
1457:Dynamic Source Routing
1127:Channel access methods
494:, potentially using a
336:frequency-hopping CDMA
72:, that allows several
41:connected to the same
35:multiple access method
3596: (in support of
3263:Polarization-division
2995:Narinder Singh Kapany
2960:Erna Schneider Hoover
2880:Jagadish Chandra Bose
2860:Alexander Graham Bell
2591:online video platform
2468:Telephones portal
1576:MTA - MTB - MTC - MTD
309:signal-to-noise ratio
157:Demand assigned (DA)
89:medium access control
78:communication channel
37:allows more than two
31:channel access method
3105:Vladimir K. Zworykin
3065:Almon Brown Strowger
3035:Charles Grafton Page
2690:Prepaid mobile phone
2618:Electrical telegraph
2085:iBurst (IEEE 802.20)
1858:CDMA2000 1X Advanced
1131:media access control
1017:Qualcomm, Qualcomm.
559:Time-division duplex
513:Mobile Slotted Aloha
338:(FH-CDMA), based on
322:(DS-CDMA), based on
320:direct-sequence CDMA
269:media access control
59:point-to-point links
3055:Johann Philipp Reis
2814:Wireless revolution
2776:The Telephone Cases
2633:Hydraulic telegraph
1971:(3.5G, 3.75G, 3.9G)
1813:(2.5G, 2.75G, 2.9G)
1581:Mobile TeleSeratout
1355:Collision avoidance
1072:Mock, Dave (2005).
1042:Wall Street Journal
971:Sadique, Abubaker.
685:local area networks
486:(CSMA/CA), used in
411:(CSMA/CD), used in
396:Packet mode methods
221:Single-carrier FDMA
111:Fundamental schemes
43:transmission medium
3253:Frequency-division
3230:Telephone exchange
3100:Charles Wheatstone
3030:Jun-ichi Nishizawa
3005:Innocenzo Manzetti
2940:Reginald Fessenden
2675:Optical telegraphy
2508:Telecommunications
2459:
2045:(TIA/EIA/IS-856-B)
2039:(TIA/EIA/IS-856-A)
2037:1xEV-DO Revision A
1317:Collision recovery
725:frequency-division
267:. This requires a
23:telecommunications
3566:
3565:
3304:Store and forward
3299:Data transmission
3213:Network switching
3164:Transmission line
3010:Guglielmo Marconi
2975:Internet pioneers
2840:Mohamed M. Atalla
2809:Whistled language
2474:
2473:
2277:Cellular networks
2265:
2264:
2194:
2193:
2117:
2116:
1963:
1962:
1919:UTRA-FDD / W-CDMA
1887:
1886:
1854:(TIA/EIA/IS-2000)
1805:
1804:
1689:
1688:
1492:
1491:
1471:Duplexing methods
1465:
1464:
1302:
1301:
1085:978-0-8144-2858-0
904:978-0-8493-3137-4
847:978-1-4200-7868-8
741:cellular networks
735:Cellular networks
731:multiple access.
650:packet scheduling
615:frequency hopping
571:Echo cancellation
538:Duplexing methods
507:Reservation ALOHA
198:carrier frequency
47:wireless networks
27:computer networks
3621:
3601:
3595:
3590:. Archived from
3574:
3573:
3556:
3555:
3546:
3545:
3536:
3535:
3526:
3525:
3524:
3397:Notable networks
3387:Wireless network
3327:Cellular network
3319:Types of network
3294:Computer network
3181:Network topology
3095:Thomas A. Watson
2950:Oliver Heaviside
2935:Philo Farnsworth
2910:Daniel Davis Jr.
2885:Charles Bourseul
2845:John Logie Baird
2554:Data compression
2549:Computer network
2501:
2494:
2487:
2478:
2477:
2466:
2465:
2464:
2455:
2454:
2453:
2382:Mobile broadband
2282:Mobile telephony
2270:Related articles
2211:
2210:
2154:LTE Advanced Pro
2134:
2133:
2049:EV-DO Revision C
2043:EV-DO Revision B
1976:
1975:
1904:
1903:
1818:
1817:
1701:
1700:
1622:
1621:
1547:radio telephones
1526:Cellular network
1519:
1512:
1505:
1496:
1495:
1313:
1312:
1144:
1143:
1120:
1113:
1106:
1097:
1096:
1090:
1089:
1069:
1060:
1059:
1057:
1056:
1033:
1027:
1026:
1014:
1003:
1002:
1001:
1000:
987:
981:
980:
975:. Archived from
968:
962:
961:
943:
937:
936:
934:
933:
922:
916:
915:
913:
911:
888:
882:
881:
865:
859:
858:
856:
854:
831:
825:
824:
806:
774:Diversity scheme
334:Another form is
3629:
3628:
3624:
3623:
3622:
3620:
3619:
3618:
3604:
3603:
3580:
3571:
3569:
3567:
3562:
3522:
3520:
3512:
3454:
3391:
3313:
3277:
3234:
3183:
3175:
3116:
3109:
3015:Robert Metcalfe
2870:Tim Berners-Lee
2818:
2638:Information Age
2510:
2505:
2475:
2470:
2462:
2460:
2451:
2449:
2443:
2350:Frequency bands
2261:
2245:
2203:
2190:
2159:
2126:
2113:
2094:
2053:
2024:
1970:
1969:3G transitional
1959:
1942:
1896:
1883:
1862:
1840:
1812:
1811:2G transitional
1801:
1765:
1746:
1742:cdmaOne (IS-95)
1727:
1685:
1644:
1610:
1538:
1529:
1523:
1493:
1488:
1461:
1430:
1402:
1349:
1298:
1283:
1268:
1250:
1207:
1184:
1133:
1124:
1094:
1093:
1086:
1070:
1063:
1054:
1052:
1034:
1030:
1015:
1006:
998:
996:
988:
984:
969:
965:
958:
944:
940:
931:
929:
924:
923:
919:
909:
907:
905:
889:
885:
866:
862:
852:
850:
848:
832:
828:
821:
807:
798:
793:
770:
750:Irwin M. Jacobs
737:
709:
681:
673:
579:
540:
398:
379:
364:
301:spread spectrum
293:
229:
178:
141:Aloha protocols
113:
93:data link layer
17:
12:
11:
5:
3627:
3617:
3616:
3594:on 2022-01-22.
3564:
3563:
3561:
3560:
3550:
3540:
3530:
3517:
3514:
3513:
3511:
3510:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3482:
3481:
3476:
3468:
3462:
3460:
3456:
3455:
3453:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3401:
3399:
3393:
3392:
3390:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3323:
3321:
3315:
3314:
3312:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3285:
3283:
3279:
3278:
3276:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3248:Space-division
3244:
3242:
3236:
3235:
3233:
3232:
3227:
3226:
3225:
3220:
3210:
3209:
3208:
3198:
3193:
3187:
3185:
3177:
3176:
3174:
3173:
3172:
3171:
3161:
3160:
3159:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3138:
3137:
3127:
3121:
3119:
3111:
3110:
3108:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3085:Camille Tissot
3082:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3060:Claude Shannon
3057:
3052:
3050:Tivadar Puskás
3047:
3042:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3020:Antonio Meucci
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2990:Charles K. Kao
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2965:Harold Hopkins
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2865:Emile Berliner
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2826:
2824:
2820:
2819:
2817:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2804:Videotelephony
2801:
2796:
2795:
2794:
2789:
2779:
2772:
2767:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2740:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2719:
2718:
2717:
2707:
2702:
2700:Radiotelephone
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2666:
2665:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
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2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2604:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2586:Internet video
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2561:
2551:
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2228:
2223:
2217:
2215:
2208:
2196:
2195:
2192:
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2186:
2181:
2167:
2165:
2161:
2160:
2158:
2157:
2151:
2140:
2138:
2131:
2119:
2118:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2111:
2105:
2103:
2096:
2095:
2093:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2077:
2076:
2075:
2064:
2062:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2051:
2046:
2040:
2032:
2030:
2026:
2025:
2023:
2022:
2012:
2011:
2010:
2000:
1999:
1998:
1993:
1982:
1980:
1973:
1965:
1964:
1961:
1960:
1958:
1957:
1950:
1948:
1944:
1943:
1941:
1940:
1939:
1938:
1933:
1928:
1927:
1926:
1910:
1908:
1901:
1889:
1888:
1885:
1884:
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1881:
1876:
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1827:
1825:
1815:
1807:
1806:
1803:
1802:
1800:
1799:
1794:
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1784:
1779:
1773:
1771:
1767:
1766:
1764:
1763:
1757:
1755:
1748:
1747:
1745:
1744:
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1729:
1728:
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1714:
1712:
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1691:
1690:
1687:
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1684:
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1678:
1673:
1668:
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1652:
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1642:
1637:
1631:
1629:
1619:
1612:
1611:
1609:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1591:Autotel (PALM)
1588:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1552:
1550:
1540:
1539:
1534:
1531:
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1522:
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1514:
1507:
1499:
1490:
1489:
1487:
1486:
1481:
1475:
1473:
1467:
1466:
1463:
1462:
1460:
1459:
1454:
1449:
1444:
1438:
1436:
1432:
1431:
1429:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1412:
1410:
1408:Collision-free
1404:
1403:
1401:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1359:
1357:
1351:
1350:
1348:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1321:
1319:
1310:
1304:
1303:
1300:
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1297:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1285:
1284:
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1281:
1278:
1276:
1270:
1269:
1267:
1266:
1260:
1258:
1252:
1251:
1249:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1223:
1217:
1215:
1209:
1208:
1206:
1205:
1200:
1194:
1192:
1186:
1185:
1183:
1182:
1181:
1180:
1170:
1169:
1168:
1163:
1152:
1150:
1141:
1135:
1134:
1123:
1122:
1115:
1108:
1100:
1092:
1091:
1084:
1061:
1028:
1004:
982:
979:on 2019-10-09.
963:
956:
938:
917:
903:
883:
860:
846:
826:
820:978-1107143210
819:
795:
794:
792:
789:
788:
787:
781:
776:
769:
766:
736:
733:
708:
705:
680:
677:
672:
669:
668:
667:
653:
639:
622:
608:
590:
578:
575:
574:
573:
568:
562:
539:
536:
535:
534:
528:
522:
516:
510:
504:
498:
477:
476:
475:(Dynamic TDMA)
470:
461:
455:
449:
443:
437:
431:
425:
419:
397:
394:
378:
375:
371:cellular radio
363:
360:
292:
289:
228:
225:
219:traffic load.
196:on a specific
177:
174:
170:
169:
166:
165:
164:
161:
155:
112:
109:
82:physical layer
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3626:
3615:
3612:
3611:
3609:
3602:
3599:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3584:
3578:
3559:
3551:
3549:
3541:
3539:
3531:
3529:
3519:
3518:
3515:
3508:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3471:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3463:
3461:
3457:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3402:
3400:
3398:
3394:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3324:
3322:
3320:
3316:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3286:
3284:
3280:
3274:
3273:Code-division
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3258:Time-division
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3241:
3237:
3231:
3228:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3215:
3214:
3211:
3207:
3204:
3203:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3188:
3186:
3184:and switching
3182:
3178:
3170:
3167:
3166:
3165:
3162:
3158:
3155:
3154:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3136:
3135:optical fiber
3133:
3132:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3125:Coaxial cable
3123:
3122:
3120:
3118:
3112:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3040:Radia Perlman
3038:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2930:Lee de Forest
2928:
2926:
2925:Thomas Edison
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2915:Donald Davies
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2900:Claude Chappe
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2827:
2825:
2821:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2784:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2777:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2744:Smoke signals
2742:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2724:
2723:
2722:Semiconductor
2720:
2716:
2713:
2712:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2664:
2661:
2660:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2583:
2582:
2581:Digital media
2579:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2521:
2519:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2502:
2497:
2495:
2490:
2488:
2483:
2482:
2479:
2469:
2458:
2446:
2440:
2437:
2433:
2432:Wi-Fi Calling
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2409:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2392:NGMN Alliance
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2352:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2339:
2336:
2332:
2329:
2328:
2327:
2324:
2320:
2317:
2316:
2315:
2312:
2308:
2305:
2304:
2303:
2300:
2299:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2258:
2255:
2254:
2252:
2248:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2201:
2197:
2185:
2182:
2179:
2178:
2176:
2172:
2169:
2168:
2166:
2162:
2155:
2152:
2149:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2135:
2132:
2129:
2124:
2120:
2110:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2097:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2074:
2071:
2070:
2069:
2066:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2056:
2050:
2047:
2044:
2041:
2038:
2034:
2033:
2031:
2027:
2020:
2016:
2013:
2009:
2006:
2005:
2004:
2001:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1987:
1984:
1983:
1981:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1966:
1955:
1952:
1951:
1949:
1945:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1929:
1925:
1922:
1921:
1920:
1917:
1916:
1915:
1912:
1911:
1909:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1894:
1890:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1871:
1869:
1865:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1850:
1849:
1847:
1843:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1808:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1774:
1772:
1768:
1762:
1759:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1749:
1743:
1740:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1730:
1724:
1721:
1719:
1716:
1715:
1713:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1699:
1696:
1692:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1653:
1651:
1647:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1635:AMPS - N-AMPS
1633:
1632:
1630:
1627:
1623:
1620:
1617:
1613:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1520:
1515:
1513:
1508:
1506:
1501:
1500:
1497:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1476:
1474:
1472:
1468:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1439:
1437:
1433:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1414:
1413:
1411:
1409:
1405:
1399:
1396:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1352:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1333:
1331:
1330:Slotted ALOHA
1328:
1326:
1323:
1322:
1320:
1318:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1305:
1295:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1286:
1280:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1265:
1262:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1253:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1218:
1216:
1214:
1210:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1195:
1193:
1191:
1187:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1174:
1171:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1158:
1157:
1154:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1139:Channel-based
1136:
1132:
1128:
1121:
1116:
1114:
1109:
1107:
1102:
1101:
1098:
1087:
1081:
1077:
1076:
1068:
1066:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1032:
1024:
1020:
1013:
1011:
1009:
995:
994:
986:
978:
974:
967:
959:
957:9781420037401
953:
949:
942:
927:
921:
906:
900:
896:
895:
887:
879:
875:
871:
864:
849:
843:
839:
838:
830:
822:
816:
812:
805:
803:
801:
796:
785:
782:
780:
777:
775:
772:
771:
765:
763:
759:
755:
751:
745:
742:
732:
730:
729:time-division
726:
722:
721:code-division
718:
714:
704:
702:
701:repeater hubs
698:
694:
690:
686:
676:
665:
661:
657:
654:
651:
647:
643:
640:
637:
633:
629:
626:
623:
620:
616:
612:
609:
606:
602:
601:slotted Aloha
598:
594:
591:
588:
584:
583:
582:
572:
569:
566:
563:
560:
557:
556:
555:
553:
549:
545:
532:
529:
526:
523:
520:
517:
514:
511:
508:
505:
503:
499:
497:
493:
489:
485:
482:
481:
480:
474:
471:
469:
465:
464:Token passing
462:
459:
456:
453:
450:
448:
444:
441:
438:
435:
432:
429:
426:
423:
420:
418:
414:
410:
407:
406:
405:
402:
393:
391:
387:
383:
374:
372:
368:
359:
357:
352:
350:
345:
341:
337:
332:
329:
325:
321:
316:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
288:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
258:
254:
252:
248:
244:
240:
238:
234:
224:
222:
217:
213:
208:
206:
201:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
173:
167:
162:
159:
158:
156:
153:
152:
151:
148:
146:
142:
138:
134:
131:. R. Rom and
130:
129:random access
126:
122:
118:
108:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
85:
83:
79:
75:
71:
66:
64:
61:operating in
60:
56:
55:ring networks
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
28:
24:
19:
3592:the original
3582:
3568:
3240:Multiplexing
3115:Transmission
3080:Nikola Tesla
3070:Henry Sutton
3025:Samuel Morse
2955:Robert Hooke
2920:Amos Dolbear
2855:John Bardeen
2774:
2754:Telautograph
2658:Mobile phone
2613:Edholm's law
2596:social media
2529:Broadcasting
2397:Push-to-talk
2296:
2175:IEEE 802.16m
2144:LTE Advanced
2128:IMT Advanced
2073:IEEE 802.16e
2068:Mobile WiMAX
2029:3GPP2 family
1956:(TIA/IS-856)
1947:3GPP2 family
1845:3GPP2 family
1824:/3GPP family
1640:TACS - ETACS
1308:Packet-based
1126:
1074:
1053:. Retrieved
1041:
1031:
1022:
997:, retrieved
992:
985:
977:the original
966:
947:
941:
930:. Retrieved
920:
908:. Retrieved
893:
886:
869:
863:
851:. Retrieved
836:
829:
810:
746:
738:
710:
682:
674:
625:IEEE 802.11b
605:dynamic TDMA
580:
541:
478:
460:(IEEE 802.5)
454:(IEEE 802.4)
403:
399:
385:
381:
380:
365:
353:
333:
318:One form is
317:
294:
255:
241:
230:
209:
202:
179:
171:
149:
144:
140:
136:
114:
105:TCP/IP model
86:
74:data streams
70:multiplexing
67:
51:bus networks
34:
30:
20:
18:
3598:MIL-STD-188
3440:NPL network
3152:Radio waves
3090:Alfred Vail
3000:Hedy Lamarr
2985:Dawon Kahng
2945:Elisha Gray
2905:Yogen Dalal
2830:Nasir Ahmed
2764:Teleprinter
2628:Heliographs
2226:5G-Advanced
2214:3GPP family
2164:IEEE family
2156:(4.5G/4.9G)
2137:3GPP family
1979:3GPP family
1907:3GPP family
1852:CDMA2000 1X
1723:CSD - HSCSD
687:(LANs) and
552:full duplex
548:half-duplex
488:IEEE 802.11
442:(CSMA/CARP)
358:(MC-CDMA).
285:IEEE 802.11
63:half-duplex
3486:Antarctica
3445:Toasternet
3367:Television
2850:Paul Baran
2782:Television
2766:(teletype)
2759:Telegraphy
2737:transistor
2715:Phryctoria
2685:Photophone
2663:Smartphone
2653:Mass media
2080:Flash-OFDM
1416:Token Ring
1078:. Amacom.
1055:2019-12-03
999:2016-06-29
932:2014-08-28
791:References
642:HIPERLAN/2
515:(MS-ALOHA)
466:, used in
458:Token Ring
417:IEEE 802.3
275:, used in
101:link layer
3470:Americas
3459:Locations
3430:Internet2
3191:Bandwidth
2895:Vint Cerf
2792:streaming
2770:Telephone
2710:Semaphore
2601:streaming
2180:WiMax 2.1
2035:CDMA2000
1528:standards
1421:Token bus
1398:CSMA/CARP
1050:0099-9660
664:CSMA/CARP
611:Bluetooth
595:with the
544:duplexing
509:(R-ALOHA)
452:Token bus
344:Bluetooth
251:signaling
194:modulated
97:OSI model
39:terminals
3608:Category
3538:Category
3425:Internet
3415:CYCLADES
3332:Ethernet
3282:Concepts
3206:terminal
3157:wireless
2980:Bob Kahn
2823:Pioneers
2648:Internet
2539:Cable TV
2205:IMT-2020
2109:HiperMAN
2008:DC-HSDPA
1898:IMT-2000
1426:MS-ALOHA
1231:TD-SCDMA
1023:Qualcomm
768:See also
758:Qualcomm
754:Linkabit
697:switches
693:Ethernet
502:ALOHAnet
413:Ethernet
277:Ethernet
119:, TDMA,
3558:Commons
3548:Outline
3501:Oceania
3420:FidoNet
3405:ARPANET
3218:circuit
2787:digital
2516:History
2439:Osmocom
2287:History
2257:DECT-5G
2231:NR-IIoT
1676:DataTAC
1671:Mobitex
1378:CSMA/CA
1345:CSMA/CD
1335:R-ALOHA
1264:HC-SDMA
1246:MC-CDMA
1241:FH-CDMA
1236:DS-CDMA
1226:TD-CDMA
1198:MF-TDMA
1166:SC-FDMA
636:CSMA/CA
632:DS-CDMA
619:CSMA/CA
527:(OFDMA)
447:CAN bus
430:(MACAW)
349:piconet
281:CSMA/CA
273:CSMA/CD
133:M. Sidi
103:of the
95:of the
3496:Europe
3466:Africa
3450:Usenet
3410:BITNET
3347:Mobile
3223:packet
2732:MOSFET
2727:device
2524:Beacon
2241:NB-IoT
2207:(2021)
2202:(2018)
2148:E-UTRA
2130:(2013)
2125:(2009)
2102:family
2061:family
2019:E-UTRA
1900:(2001)
1895:(1998)
1754:family
1735:family
1711:family
1697:(1991)
1628:family
1618:(1979)
1601:B-Netz
1549:(1946)
1221:W-CDMA
1082:
1048:
954:
910:1 June
901:
853:1 June
844:
817:
727:, and
533:(OFDM)
521:(CDMA)
436:(CSMA)
424:(MACA)
253:data.
143:, and
127:, and
65:mode.
3579:from
3479:South
3474:North
3435:JANET
3372:Telex
3362:Radio
3201:Nodes
3196:Links
3117:media
2695:Radio
2680:Pager
2608:Drums
2574:video
2569:image
2559:audio
2417:ViLTE
2412:VoLTE
2370:5G NR
2319:STDMA
2307:OFDMA
2250:Other
2236:LTE-M
2221:5G NR
2184:WiBro
2171:WiMAX
2090:WiBro
2003:HSPA+
1996:HSUPA
1991:HSDPA
1874:WiDEN
1867:Other
1770:Other
1733:3GPP2
1666:Hicap
1661:C-450
1649:Other
1566:Altai
1447:VANET
1442:MANET
1368:MACAW
1340:AX.25
1325:ALOHA
1203:STDMA
1161:OFDMA
660:ITU-T
658:, an
567:(FDD)
561:(TDD)
3491:Asia
3377:UUCP
3337:ISDN
2427:ViNR
2422:VoNR
2402:MIMO
2375:CDMA
2360:UMTS
2338:SDMA
2331:CDMA
2326:SSMA
2314:TDMA
2302:FDMA
2100:ETSI
2059:IEEE
1986:HSPA
1924:FOMA
1914:UMTS
1879:DECT
1831:GPRS
1782:iDEN
1777:CDPD
1752:AMPS
1709:3GPP
1626:AMPS
1586:AMTS
1561:IMTS
1373:CSMA
1363:MACA
1289:PAMA
1274:PDMA
1256:SDMA
1213:CDMA
1190:TDMA
1178:WDMA
1148:FDMA
1129:and
1080:ISBN
1046:ISSN
952:ISBN
912:2012
899:ISBN
855:2012
842:ISBN
815:ISBN
656:G.hn
646:FDMA
597:GPRS
585:The
492:WiFi
468:FDDI
415:and
390:SCPC
386:PDMA
295:The
231:The
180:The
125:SDMA
121:CDMA
117:FDMA
57:and
29:, a
25:and
3382:WAN
3352:NGN
3342:LAN
2623:Fax
2564:DCT
2407:IMS
2365:LTE
2355:GSM
2015:LTE
1822:GSM
1797:CT2
1792:PHS
1787:PDC
1718:GSM
1705:GSM
1681:CT1
1656:NMT
1606:AMR
1596:ARP
1571:OLT
1556:MTS
1484:FDD
1479:TDD
1452:DTN
1393:HCF
1388:PCF
1383:DCF
1173:WDM
1156:FDM
874:doi
739:In
711:In
683:In
593:GSM
587:GSM
550:or
33:or
21:In
3610::
3600:).
3586:.
2200:5G
2177:)
2123:4G
1893:3G
1695:2G
1616:1G
1544:0G
1064:^
1044:.
1040:.
1021:.
1007:^
799:^
764:.
762:2G
723:,
703:.
328:3G
287:.
247:2G
216:4G
200:.
190:1G
147:.
139:,
123:,
107:.
84:.
53:,
49:,
3509:)
3505:(
2500:e
2493:t
2486:v
2173:(
2150:)
2146:(
2021:)
2017:(
1707:/
1518:e
1511:t
1504:v
1119:e
1112:t
1105:v
1088:.
1058:.
1025:.
960:.
935:.
914:.
880:.
876::
857:.
823:.
652:.
490:/
384:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.