1031:, Zhongguo; "Middle Kingdom"). After conquering the Ming, the Qing identified their state as "China" (Zhongguo), and referred to it as "Dulimbai Gurun" in the Manchu language. The Qing emperors equated the lands of the Qing state (including both "China proper" and present day Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia, Tibet and other areas) as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multiethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meant Han-populated areas in "China proper", proclaiming that both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China", using "China" to refer to the Qing in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs, and the "Chinese language" (Dulimbai gurun i bithe) referred to Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term "Chinese people" (
2010:
1252:
22:
1940:
1869:, with Five Races referring to the Han, Manchus, Mongols, Muslims (Uyghurs, Hui etc.) and Tibetans. The Five-Striped Flag was adopted as the national flag, and the Republic of China viewed itself as a single unified state encompassing all five regions handed down by the Qing dynasty. The People's Republic of China, which was founded in 1949 and replaced the Republic of China on the Chinese mainland, has continued to claim essentially the same borders, with the only major exception being the recognition of an independent
1236:
1044:, they proclaimed that the new land was absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu language memorial. The Qing expounded on their ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han peoples like the Manchus, Mongols, Uighurs and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han people, into "one family" united under the Qing state, showing that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family, the Qing used the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" (
950:
942:) in 1645, the second year after the Qing dynasty replaces the Ming dynasty. This 15-province system was gradually replaced by the 18-province system between 1662 and 1667. Using the 15-province system and the name of Kiang-nan Province indicates that the concept of China proper probably had appeared between 1645 and 1662 and this concept may reflect the idea that identifies China as the territory of the former Ming dynasty after the
799:
2024:
680:
2952:
1223:, foreign governments have generally accepted Chinese claims over its ethnic minority areas, because to redefine a country's territory every time it underwent a change of regime would cause endless instability and warfare. Also, he asks, "if the boundaries of the Qing were considered illegitimate, why should it go back to the much smaller Ming in preference to the quite extensive
1175:", the Chinese and Japanese term equal to "China proper" at the time, actually originated from Japan and was translated into "China proper", hence the concept of "China proper" was developed by Japanese people, and it had become a tool to divide Chinese people, making way for the Japanese invasion of Mongolia,
1100:". Some Ming loyalists of Han ethnicity refused to use Zhongguo to refer to areas outside the borders of Ming China, in effect refusing to acknowledge the legitimacy of the Qing dynasty. Han Chinese intellectuals gradually embraced the new meaning of "China" and began to recognize it as their homeland.
1989:
In polls the majority of the people of Taiwan call themselves "Taiwanese" only with the rest identifying as "Taiwanese and
Chinese" or "Chinese" only. 98% of the people of Taiwan are descendants of immigrants from mainland China since the 1600s, but the inclusion of Taiwan in the definition of China
1923:) since 1922, which were controlled by governments that declared independence from China. The Republic of China subdivided Inner Mongolia in its time on the mainland, although the People's Republic of China later joined Mongol-inhabited territories into a single autonomous region. The PRC joined the
1083:
While the Qing dynasty used "China" (Zhongguo) to describe non-Han areas, some Han scholar-officials opposed the Qing emperor's use of
Zhongguo to refer to non-Han areas, using instead Zhongguo to mark a distinction between the culturally Han areas and the territories newly acquired by the Qing
1056:, "interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" of the different peoples. A Manchu language version of a treaty with the Russian Empire concerning criminal jurisdiction over bandits called people from the Qing as "people of the Central Kingdom (Dulimbai Gurun)".
1974:. Conversely, Han people form the majority in most of Manchuria, much of Inner Mongolia, many areas in Xinjiang and scattered parts of Tibet today, not least due to the expansion of Han settlement encouraged by the late Qing dynasty, the Republic of China, and the People's Republic of China.
2192:
Source: United States
Central Intelligence Agency, 1983. The map shows the distribution of ethnolinguistic groups according to the majority ethnic group by region in 1983. Note that this map does not represent the current distribution of ethnic groups due to internal migration and
1315:) and two "directly-governed" areas. After the Manchu-led Qing dynasty succeeded the Ming dynasty in China proper, the Qing court decided to continue to use the Ming administrative system to rule over former Ming lands, without applying it to other domains under Qing rule, namely
1272:
founded by the Han people. Chinese civilization developed from a core region in the North China Plain, and expanded outwards over several millennia, conquering and assimilating surrounding peoples, or being conquered and influenced in turn. Some dynasties, such as the
1981:
and Manchu, are essentially monolingual in the
Chinese language, but do not identify as ethnic Han. The Chinese language itself is also a complex entity, and should be described as a family of related languages rather than a single language if the criterion of
1064:
1908:. The provinces that the late Qing dynasty set up have also been kept: Xinjiang became an autonomous region under the People's Republic of China, while the three provinces of Manchuria now have somewhat different borders, with Fengtian renamed as Liaoning.
859:
appeared. However, it is plausible that historians during the age of empires and the fast-changing borders in the eighteenth century, applied it to distinguish the 18 provinces in China's interior from its frontier territories. This would also apply to
1962:, was part of successive dynasties of ethnic Han origin, including the Ming dynasty and the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty. However, these areas were and continue to be populated by various non-Han minority groups, such as the
1259:
There is no fixed geographical extent for China proper, as it is used to express the contrast between the core and frontier regions of China from multiple perspectives: historical, administrative, cultural, and linguistic.
1195:
Today, China proper is a controversial concept in China itself, since the current official paradigm does not contrast the core and the periphery of China. There is no single widely used term corresponding to it in the
1397:
Near the end of the Qing dynasty, there was an effort to extend the province system of China proper to the rest of the empire. Taiwan was converted into a separate province in 1885, but was ceded to Japan in 1895.
1018:, published in 1749. In the nineteenth century, the term "China proper" was sometimes used by Chinese officials when they were communicating in foreign languages. For instance, the Qing ambassador to Britain
1296:
The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox
Chinese dynasty of ethnic Han origin and the second-last imperial dynasty of China. It governed fifteen administrative entities, which included thirteen provinces
1418:(Kokonor), Inner Mongolia, and Outer Mongolia, but these proposals were not put to practice, and these areas were outside the provincial system of China proper when the Qing dynasty fell in 1912.
2956:
1167:
published his article "The term 'China proper' should be abolished immediately", which argued that the widely accepted area covered by "China proper" is not the actual territory of any of the
2732:
Vol. 12, Volume 15 of
Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte (illustrated ed.). Aschendorff (Druck und Verlag der Aschendorffschen Buchhandlung).
1839:
Some of the revolutionaries who sought to overthrow Qing rule desired to establish a state independent of the Qing dynasty within the bounds of the
Eighteen Provinces, as evinced by their
1947:
China proper is often associated with the Han people, the majority ethnic group of China and with the extent of the
Chinese languages, an important unifying element of the Han ethnicity.
1156:
1374:
and did not administer as part of a regular province of China proper. On the other hand, Taiwan was a new acquisition of the Qing dynasty, and it was placed under the administration of
2703:
The
General History of China. Containing a geographical, historical, chronological, political and physical description of the empire of China, Chinese-Tartary, Corea and Thibet...
2713:
A General
Description of China. Containing the topography of the fifteen provinces which compose this vast empire, that of Tartary, the isles, and other tributary countries...
1911:
When the Qing dynasty fell, Republican Chinese control of Qing territories, including of those generally considered to be in "China proper", was tenuous, and non-existent in
1950:
However, Han regions in the present day do not correspond well to the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty. Much of southwestern China, such as areas in the provinces of
697:, are terms used primarily in the West in reference to the traditional "core" regions of China centered in the southeast. The term was first used by Westerners during the
751:
at the time due to differences in terminology used by the Qing to refer to the regions. Even to today, the expression is controversial among scholars, particularly in
1931:). The Republic of China officially recognized the independence of Mongolia in 1946, which was also acknowledged by the PRC government since its founding in 1949.
1041:
2357:
2985:
1858:
1137:, "feudatory region"). These wàifān were fully subject to and governed by the Qing government and were considered part of China (Zhongguo), unlike wàiguó (
2393:
2894:
Zhao, Gang (January 2006). "Reinventing China: Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century".
2816:. Vol. 12, Volume 15 of Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
915:. He then said: "China, properly so called,... comprehends from north to south eighteen degrees; its extent from east to west being somewhat less..."
1843:. Others favoured the replacement of the entire Qing dynasty by a new republic, as evinced by their Five-Striped Flag. Some revolutionaries, such as
895:
adopted this concept in his book. When describing the Chinese Empire under the Qing dynasty, Winterbotham divided it into three parts: China proper,
1000:
922:, which the Qing dynasty maintained until 1662. Although Ming dynasty also had 15 basic local divisions, Winterbotham uses the name of Kiang-nan (
1096:, while the seventeen provinces of the traditional heartland, that is, "China proper", and three eastern provinces of Manchuria are called "
2869:
Die Eroberung von Qinghai unter Berücksichtigung von Tibet und Khams 1717 - 1727: anhand der Throneingaben des Grossfeldherrn Nian Gengyao
1943:
The approximate extent of the Han ethnicity in China and Taiwan as of 1983, denoted in brown. Scattered distribution is denoted by circles
684:
2282:, London: Printed for, and sold by the editor; J. Ridgway; and W. Button. (pp. 35–37: General Description of the Chinese Empire →
1358:
There are some minor differences between the extent of Ming China and the extent of the eighteen provinces of Qing China: for example,
2559:
1355:) of China proper under the Qing dynasty. It was these eighteen provinces that early Western sources referred to as China proper.
1255:
The Eighteen Provinces of China proper in 1875, before Taiwan's separation from Fujian in 1885 and its annexation by Japan in 1895
978:
2975:
1074:, it was mentioned that while the Torghuts were unlike the Russians, the "people of the Central Kingdom" (dulimba-i gurun;
1293:
dynasties, were forced to relinquish the North China Plain itself to rivaling regimes founded by peoples from the north.
888:
2405:
2369:
2877:
2849:
2821:
2793:
2765:
2737:
2682:
2490:
2474:
1862:
1203:
The separation of China into a "China proper" dominated by Han people and other states for ethnic minorities such as
1004:
900:
842:
32:
2599:
2429:
2417:
2345:
2321:
824:
2516:
2381:
2333:
2720:
Darby's Universal Gazetteer, or, A New Geographical Dictionary. ... Illustrated by a ... Map of the United States
1143:, "outer/foreign countries") like Korea, Vietnam, the Ryukyus and Japan, who paid tribute to Qing China or were
1037:, Zhongguo ren; Manchu: Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) referred to all Han, Manchu, and Mongol subjects of the Qing.
2450:
1916:
1176:
809:
572:
471:
367:
169:
51:
1335:. The 15 administrative units of the Ming dynasty underwent minor reforms to become the "Eighteen Provinces" (
590:
489:
385:
187:
69:
1080:, Zhongguo) were like the Torghut Mongols, and the "people of the Central Kingdom" referred to the Manchus.
2543:
2441:
Joseph Esherick, "How the Qing Became China," in Joseph W. Esherick, Hasan Kayali and Eric Van Young, ed.,
943:
1977:
Ethnic Han is not synonymous with speakers of the Chinese language. Many non-Han ethnicities, such as the
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2089:
2084:
1995:
1905:
1866:
778:
716:
1316:
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The Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty still largely exist, but their boundaries have changed.
1324:
1320:
1184:
918:
However, to introduce China proper, Winterbotham still used the outdated 15-province system of the
1179:, and other parts of China. Gu's article sparked a heated debate on the definition and origin of "
2674:
Grounds of Judgment: Extraterritoriality and Imperial Power in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan
1928:
1172:
820:
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1983:
1328:
904:
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1912:
1332:
908:
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One way of thinking about China proper is to refer to the long-standing territories held by
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1251:
1216:
892:
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Harry Harding, "The Concept of 'Greater China': Themes, Variations, and Reservations", in
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8:
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was reorganized into a province in 1884. Manchuria was split into the three provinces of
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impugns on the legitimacy of China's current territorial borders, which is based on the
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2911:
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2231:
Used broadly to mean China within the Great Wall, with its eighteen historic provinces.
1269:
1244:
1168:
1159:
conflicts had raised Chinese people's concern for national unity, and the concept of a
1109:), which meant the "interior region eighteen provinces", or abbreviated it as "nèidì" (
740:
1010:
The concept of "China proper" also appeared before this 1795 book. It can be found in
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1991:
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was still administered as part of China proper before it was conqured by the Manchu.
1208:
736:
1939:
1865:, and the latter idea was therefore adopted by the new republic as the principle of
1103:
The Qing dynasty referred to the Han-inhabited 18 provinces as "nèidì shíbā shěng" (
2903:
2586:
1924:
1857:) which roughly identifies the Eighteen Provinces. When the Qing dynasty fell, the
1840:
1298:
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728:
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542:
441:
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284:
240:
125:
35:. China proper is shaded in pink, while other Chinese territories have pink borders
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2170:) used within China, in reference to the eighteen provinces within the Great Wall.
755:, due to issues pertaining to contemporary territorial claim and ethnic politics.
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2101:
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981:
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2872:. Vol. 2 of Tunguso Sibirica (reprint ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
2503:
2754:
Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Foret, Philippe; Millward, James A (2004).
2633:
Mackerras, Colin (2012). "Han-minority relations". In Gries, Peter Hays (ed.).
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2111:
2096:
2074:
2059:
2037:
2029:
1920:
1204:
1180:
1160:
966:
865:
752:
723:) reside, sometimes known as "Outer China". There is no fixed extent for China
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2907:
2137:
2132:
2052:
2047:
1971:
1963:
1144:
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861:
856:
698:
2785:
The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China
2635:
State and Society in 21st Century China: Crisis, Contention and Legitimation
2280:
An Historical, Geographical, and Philosophical View of the Chinese Empire...
1183:" (Chinese nation), which contributed to unifying the Chinese people in the
2757:
New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde
2443:
Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World
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2158:
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2015:
1790:
1411:
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1187:, and to an extent shaped the later established concept of Zhonghua minzu.
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919:
727:, as many administrative, cultural, and linguistic shifts have occurred in
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612:
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731:. One definition refers to the original area of Chinese civilization, the
2611:
1967:
1274:
938:, Nán-Zhílì) during the Ming dynasty and was renamed to Kiang-nan (i.e.,
929:
912:
770:
766:
712:
629:
2915:
1873:. As a result, the concept of China proper fell out of favour in China.
2079:
1978:
1282:
1164:
1071:
739:); another to the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty. There was no
1092:(Military History of the Qing Dynasty) calls the Inner Asian polities
2064:
1889:
1689:
1371:
1359:
1131:) which means "outer feudatories" or "outer vassals", or as "fānbù" (
1019:
954:
868:, which would encompass vast lands overseas. The same would apply to
782:
762:
732:
633:
1022:
used it in an English language article, which he published in 1887.
949:
827:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
2648:
1885:
1870:
1844:
1824:
1773:
1610:
1533:
1403:
1399:
1363:
1125:, Outer Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet as "wàifān" (
1085:
970:
962:
939:
877:
720:
715:
population—and the "frontier" regions of China where more non-Han
1959:
1955:
1893:
1881:
1877:
1736:
1704:
1657:
1642:
1595:
1516:
1415:
1383:
1362:
were Ming possessions belonging to the province of Liaodong (now
1212:
1121:), while they referred to the non-Han areas of China such as the
1060:
705:
to describe the distinction between the historical "Han lands" (
1951:
1901:
1751:
1627:
1563:
1471:
1454:
1437:
1391:
1375:
1306:
881:
1861:
bequeathed all the territories of the Qing dynasty to the new
1281:
dynasties, were particularly expansionist, extending far into
891:, the concept can date back to 1827. But as early as in 1795,
1897:
1807:
1721:
1674:
1580:
1548:
1501:
1486:
1407:
1387:
974:
679:
2788:(illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press.
2223:"Glossary – China. Library of Congress Country Studies"
1163:
became more popular among Chinese scholars. On Jan 1, 1939,
2753:
2606:
1379:
855:
It is not clear when the concept of "China proper" in the
2841:
China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia
2286:→ 1. Origin of its Name, 2. Extent, Boundaries, &c.)
1884:
were eventually split from Hebei (renamed from Zhili),
1414:
in 1907. There was discussion to do the same in Tibet,
1239:
The approximate extent of China proper during the late
2308:
Marquis Tseng, "China: The Sleep and the Awakening",
1370:; however, the Qing conquered it before entering the
1243:, the last dynasty of China ruled by the Han people.
661:
554:
453:
349:
266:
252:
151:
137:
2295:
Copyright has passed, "Full View" available through
2005:
2722:(p. 154),. Philadelphia: Bennett and Walton.
2677:(illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press.
911:and suspected that the name of "China" came from
2967:
1378:, one of the provinces of China proper. Eastern
1025:"Dulimbai Gurun" is the Manchu name for China (
2844:(reprint ed.). Harvard University Press.
1990:proper, is still a controversial subject. See
1386:, while much of what now constitutes northern
711:)—i.e. regions long dominated by the majority
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1600:
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1491:
1138:
1132:
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1116:
1110:
1104:
1075:
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761:usually includes the geographical regions of
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1115:), "interior region" and also as "jùnxiàn" (
928:, Jiāngnán) province, which had been called
2986:Metropolitan or continental parts of states
685:Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary
2810:Hauer, Erich (2007). Corff, Oliver (ed.).
1765:Additional provinces in late Qing dynasty
2632:
2626:
2469:. Harvard University Press. p. 284.
2264:, 136 (December 1993), pp. 660–686.
2212:
2119:—Socio-economic divisions of China proper
1859:abdication decree of the Xuantong Emperor
1263:
843:Learn how and when to remove this message
1938:
1421:The Provinces of the Qing Dynasty were:
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1155:In the early 20th century, a series of
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1986:is used to classify its subdivisions.
999:. Note that the outer borders include
2809:
2637:. Psychology Press. pp. 219–220.
1934:
1147:of China but were not part of China.
683:Map of China proper in 1900 from the
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2466:China's Last Empire - The Great Qing
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792:
2647:
2561:"中华民族是一个"？——追记抗战初期一场关于中国是不是多民族国家的辩论
1219:principle. According to sinologist
1084:empire. In the early 19th century,
13:
2959:from websites or documents of the
2945:Photographic survey of Outer China
2865:
2813:Handwörterbuch der Mandschusprache
2564:. 29 December 2008. Archived from
1904:from Guangdong. Guangxi is now an
14:
2997:
2932:
2715:, London: G.G.J. and J. Robinson.
2360:, pp. 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14.
1161:unified, undivided Chinese nation
880:managed to expand all the way to
719:and new foreign immigrants (e.g.
2955: This article incorporates
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2445:(Rowman & Littlefield, 2006
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2008:
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1171:. Gu further theorized that "
903:. He adopted the opinions of
2601:徘徊到纠结——顾颉刚关于"中国"与"中华民族"的历史见解
2310:The Asiatic Quarterly Review
2205:
1285:, while others, such as the
953:A 1944 map of China Proper,
788:
25:A 1912 map from an issue of
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2976:Historical regions of China
2001:
1917:Mongolian People's Republic
1042:conquered Dzungaria in 1759
823:the claims made and adding
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2312:, Vol. III 3 (1887), p. 4.
2157:Eighteen Provinces inside
2090:Qing dynasty in Inner Asia
2085:Ming dynasty in Inner Asia
1996:Political status of Taiwan
1867:Five Races Under One Union
1764:
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424:Eighteen Provinces inside
2941:The Catholic Encyclopedia
2782:Elliott, Mark C. (2001).
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571:
566:
548:
541:
536:
532:
524:
520:
510:
506:
488:
470:
465:
447:
440:
435:
431:
420:
416:
406:
402:
384:
366:
361:
343:
336:
331:
327:
319:
315:
305:
301:
292:
283:
278:
260:
246:
239:
234:
230:
222:
218:
208:
204:
186:
168:
163:
145:
131:
124:
119:
115:
104:
100:
90:
86:
68:
50:
46:
41:
2961:United States Government
2908:10.1177/0097700405282349
2838:Perdue, Peter C (2009).
2600:
2560:
2544:
2517:
2179:Sometimes including the
2143:
1185:Second Sino-Japanese War
1012:The Gentleman's Magazine
573:Traditional Chinese
472:Traditional Chinese
368:Traditional Chinese
170:Traditional Chinese
164:Alternative Chinese name
52:Traditional Chinese
2726:Dvořák, Rudolf (1895).
2718:Darby, William (1827).
2699:Du Halde, Jean-Baptiste
1929:Tibet Autonomous Region
1896:autonomous region from
1366:), which is inside the
1360:some parts of Manchuria
1059:In the Manchu official
1050:) or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" (
591:Simplified Chinese
490:Simplified Chinese
386:Simplified Chinese
188:Simplified Chinese
70:Simplified Chinese
2957:public domain material
2709:Grosier, Jean-Baptiste
2653:The Revolutionary Army
1998:for more information.
1984:mutual intelligibility
1944:
1264:Historical perspective
1256:
1248:
1065:account of his meeting
1007:
979:War Information Office
779:Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau
687:
36:
2729:Chinas religionen ...
2651:(1903). "Chapter 4".
2276:Winterbotham, William
2117:Chinese macro-regions
1942:
1254:
1238:
1069:Torghut Mongol leader
1001:several areas claimed
952:
682:
31:magazine showing the
24:
2598:(27 February 2017).
2248:depts.washington.edu
1217:succession of states
944:Ming–Qing transition
893:William Winterbotham
862:Great Britain proper
2866:Wu, Shuhui (1995).
2705:, London: J. Watts.
2568:on 10 February 2019
2262:The China Quarterly
2227:Library of Congress
2128:Great Wall of China
1427:Eighteen provinces
1063:'s Manchu language
995:The Battle of China
874:First French Empire
872:in contrast to the
455:guānnèi shíbā shěng
412:guānnèi shíbā shěng
28:National Geographic
2981:Geography of China
2614:on 9 February 2019
1945:
1935:Ethnic perspective
1841:Eighteen-Star Flag
1270:dynasties of China
1257:
1249:
1245:Liaodong Peninsula
1016:The Monthly Review
1008:
808:possibly contains
741:direct translation
688:
323:Eighteen Provinces
37:
2181:Mongolian Plateau
2070:North China Plain
1992:History of Taiwan
1906:autonomous region
1863:Republic of China
1837:
1836:
1342:Yīshíbā Xíngshěng
1209:Chinese Turkestan
1169:Chinese dynasties
1005:Republic of China
853:
852:
845:
810:original research
737:North China Plain
677:
676:
669:
668:
650:Standard Mandarin
562:
561:
556:nèidì shíbā shěng
543:Standard Mandarin
516:nèidì shíbā shěng
461:
460:
442:Standard Mandarin
357:
356:
338:Standard Mandarin
274:
273:
241:Standard Mandarin
159:
158:
153:Chung Kuo Pen T'u
126:Standard Mandarin
33:Republic of China
16:Geopolitical term
2993:
2954:
2953:
2927:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2862:
2860:
2858:
2834:
2832:
2830:
2806:
2804:
2802:
2778:
2776:
2774:
2750:
2748:
2746:
2695:
2693:
2691:
2657:
2656:
2645:
2639:
2638:
2630:
2624:
2623:
2621:
2619:
2610:. Archived from
2597:
2596:
2591:
2590:
2584:
2578:
2577:
2575:
2573:
2556:
2550:
2549:
2540:
2534:
2533:
2530:
2529:
2523:
2514:
2513:
2508:
2507:
2501:
2495:
2494:
2488:
2480:
2460:
2454:
2439:
2433:
2427:
2421:
2415:
2409:
2403:
2397:
2391:
2385:
2379:
2373:
2367:
2361:
2355:
2349:
2343:
2337:
2331:
2325:
2319:
2313:
2306:
2300:
2293:
2287:
2273:
2267:
2258:
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2251:
2240:
2234:
2233:
2219:
2194:
2190:
2184:
2177:
2171:
2169:
2165:
2154:
2032:
2027:
2026:
2025:
2018:
2013:
2012:
2011:
1856:
1855:
1847:, used the term
1833:
1832:
1816:
1815:
1799:
1798:
1782:
1781:
1760:
1759:
1745:
1744:
1730:
1729:
1713:
1712:
1698:
1697:
1683:
1682:
1666:
1665:
1651:
1650:
1636:
1635:
1619:
1618:
1604:
1603:
1589:
1588:
1572:
1571:
1557:
1556:
1542:
1541:
1525:
1524:
1510:
1509:
1495:
1494:
1424:
1423:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1313:
1304:
1198:Chinese language
1142:
1141:
1136:
1135:
1130:
1129:
1120:
1119:
1114:
1113:
1108:
1107:
1079:
1078:
1055:
1054:
1049:
1048:
1036:
1035:
1030:
1029:
998:
991:
937:
936:
927:
926:
848:
841:
837:
834:
828:
825:inline citations
801:
800:
793:
749:Chinese language
710:
709:
665:
664:
641:
640:
603:
602:
601:
600:
585:
584:
583:
582:
558:
557:
534:
533:
502:
501:
500:
499:
484:
483:
482:
481:
457:
456:
433:
432:
398:
397:
396:
395:
380:
379:
378:
377:
353:
352:
329:
328:
297:
296:
295:
294:
270:
269:
268:Chung Kuo Pen Pu
256:
255:
232:
231:
200:
199:
198:
197:
182:
181:
180:
179:
155:
154:
141:
140:
117:
116:
82:
81:
80:
79:
64:
63:
62:
61:
39:
38:
3001:
3000:
2996:
2995:
2994:
2992:
2991:
2990:
2966:
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2951:
2935:
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2884:
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2856:
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2852:
2828:
2826:
2824:
2800:
2798:
2796:
2772:
2770:
2768:
2744:
2742:
2740:
2689:
2687:
2685:
2666:
2661:
2660:
2646:
2642:
2631:
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2617:
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2581:
2571:
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2521:
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2404:
2400:
2392:
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2356:
2352:
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2328:
2320:
2316:
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2294:
2290:
2274:
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2259:
2255:
2242:
2241:
2237:
2221:
2220:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2197:
2191:
2187:
2178:
2174:
2155:
2151:
2146:
2123:Willow Palisade
2102:Outer Manchuria
2028:
2023:
2021:
2014:
2009:
2007:
2004:
1937:
1368:Ming Great Wall
1266:
1233:
1221:Colin Mackerras
1193:
1153:
992:
984:
982:propaganda film
959:Northeast China
897:Chinese Tartary
849:
838:
832:
829:
814:
802:
798:
791:
775:Tibetan Plateau
729:Chinese history
663:zhōngyuán hàndì
626:Literal meaning
617:zhōngyuán hàndì
525:Literal meaning
421:Literal meaning
351:shíbā xíngshěng
320:Literal meaning
311:shíbā xíngshěng
223:Literal meaning
105:Literal meaning
17:
12:
11:
5:
2999:
2989:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2948:
2947:
2942:
2934:
2933:External links
2931:
2929:
2928:
2891:
2879:978-3447037563
2878:
2863:
2851:978-0674042025
2850:
2835:
2823:978-3447055284
2822:
2807:
2795:978-0804746847
2794:
2779:
2767:978-1134362226
2766:
2751:
2739:978-0199792054
2738:
2723:
2716:
2706:
2696:
2684:978-0199792054
2683:
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2658:
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2579:
2551:
2535:
2496:
2475:
2455:
2434:
2422:
2420:, pp. 44, 205.
2410:
2398:
2386:
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2147:
2145:
2142:
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2135:
2130:
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2120:
2114:
2112:Zhonghua Minzu
2109:
2104:
2099:
2097:Outer Mongolia
2094:
2093:
2092:
2087:
2077:
2075:Chinese Empire
2072:
2067:
2062:
2060:Mainland China
2057:
2056:
2055:
2045:
2040:
2038:Names of China
2034:
2033:
2030:History portal
2019:
2003:
2000:
1936:
1933:
1921:Outer Mongolia
1892:from Sichuan,
1888:from Jiangsu,
1849:Zhongguo Benbu
1835:
1834:
1827:
1822:
1818:
1817:
1810:
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1802:
1800:
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1469:
1464:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1429:
1428:
1265:
1262:
1232:
1229:
1205:East Turkestan
1192:
1189:
1181:Zhonghua minzu
1152:
1149:
1040:When the Qing
967:Outer Mongolia
866:British Empire
851:
850:
805:
803:
796:
790:
787:
753:mainland China
693:, also called
675:
674:
671:
670:
667:
666:
659:
653:
652:
646:
645:
644:Transcriptions
637:
636:
627:
623:
622:
619:
618:
615:
609:
608:
605:
604:
593:
587:
586:
575:
569:
568:
564:
563:
560:
559:
552:
546:
545:
539:
538:
537:Transcriptions
530:
529:
526:
522:
521:
518:
517:
514:
508:
507:
504:
503:
492:
486:
485:
474:
468:
467:
463:
462:
459:
458:
451:
445:
444:
438:
437:
436:Transcriptions
429:
428:
422:
418:
417:
414:
413:
410:
404:
403:
400:
399:
388:
382:
381:
370:
364:
363:
359:
358:
355:
354:
347:
341:
340:
334:
333:
332:Transcriptions
325:
324:
321:
317:
316:
313:
312:
309:
303:
302:
299:
298:
287:
281:
280:
276:
275:
272:
271:
264:
258:
257:
254:zhōngguó běnbù
250:
244:
243:
237:
236:
235:Transcriptions
228:
227:
224:
220:
219:
216:
215:
214:zhōngguó běnbù
212:
206:
205:
202:
201:
190:
184:
183:
172:
166:
165:
161:
160:
157:
156:
149:
143:
142:
139:zhōngguó běntǔ
135:
129:
128:
122:
121:
120:Transcriptions
113:
112:
106:
102:
101:
98:
97:
96:zhōngguó běntǔ
94:
88:
87:
84:
83:
72:
66:
65:
54:
48:
47:
44:
43:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2998:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2973:
2971:
2964:
2962:
2958:
2946:
2943:
2940:
2937:
2936:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2892:
2881:
2875:
2871:
2870:
2864:
2853:
2847:
2843:
2842:
2836:
2825:
2819:
2815:
2814:
2808:
2797:
2791:
2787:
2786:
2780:
2769:
2763:
2760:. Routledge.
2759:
2758:
2752:
2741:
2735:
2731:
2730:
2724:
2721:
2717:
2714:
2710:
2707:
2704:
2700:
2697:
2686:
2680:
2676:
2675:
2669:
2668:
2654:
2650:
2644:
2636:
2629:
2613:
2609:
2608:
2603:
2583:
2567:
2563:
2555:
2547:
2539:
2531:
2520:
2500:
2492:
2486:
2478:
2476:9780674054554
2472:
2468:
2467:
2459:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2438:
2431:
2426:
2419:
2414:
2407:
2402:
2395:
2390:
2383:
2378:
2371:
2366:
2359:
2354:
2347:
2342:
2335:
2330:
2323:
2318:
2311:
2305:
2298:
2292:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2272:
2266:
2263:
2257:
2249:
2245:
2244:"Outer China"
2239:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2218:
2216:
2211:
2193:assimilation.
2189:
2182:
2176:
2161:
2160:
2153:
2149:
2139:
2138:Russia proper
2136:
2134:
2133:Serbia proper
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2091:
2088:
2086:
2083:
2082:
2081:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2054:
2053:Greater China
2051:
2050:
2049:
2048:Chinese world
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2035:
2031:
2020:
2017:
2006:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1987:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1948:
1941:
1932:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1909:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1874:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1820:
1819:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1803:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1786:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1768:
1763:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1747:
1740:
1738:
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1725:
1723:
1720:
1717:
1716:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1700:
1693:
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1688:
1685:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1670:
1669:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1653:
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1641:
1638:
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1629:
1626:
1623:
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1614:
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1431:
1430:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1395:
1393:
1390:was added to
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1372:Central Plain
1369:
1365:
1361:
1356:
1354:
1344:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1312:Bùzhèngshǐ Sī
1308:
1300:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1271:
1261:
1253:
1246:
1242:
1237:
1228:
1227:boundaries?"
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1201:
1199:
1188:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1157:Sino-Japanese
1151:Political use
1148:
1146:
1145:vassal states
1124:
1101:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1081:
1073:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1057:
1043:
1038:
1023:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1006:
1002:
997:
996:
989:
988:
983:
980:
976:
972:
969:), Sinkiang (
968:
964:
960:
956:
951:
947:
945:
941:
931:
921:
916:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
889:Harry Harding
887:According to
885:
883:
879:
875:
871:
870:France proper
867:
863:
858:
857:Western world
847:
844:
836:
826:
822:
818:
812:
811:
806:This section
804:
795:
794:
786:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
733:Central Plain
730:
726:
722:
718:
717:ethnic groups
714:
704:
700:
696:
692:
686:
681:
672:
660:
658:
654:
651:
647:
642:
638:
635:
634:Central Plain
632:territory in
631:
628:
624:
620:
616:
614:
610:
606:
594:
592:
588:
576:
574:
570:
565:
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547:
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531:
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487:
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389:
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371:
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348:
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150:
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136:
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107:
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73:
71:
67:
55:
53:
49:
45:
40:
34:
30:
29:
23:
19:
2949:
2899:
2896:Modern China
2895:
2883:. Retrieved
2868:
2855:. Retrieved
2840:
2827:. Retrieved
2812:
2799:. Retrieved
2784:
2771:. Retrieved
2756:
2743:. Retrieved
2728:
2719:
2712:
2702:
2688:. Retrieved
2673:
2652:
2643:
2634:
2628:
2616:. Retrieved
2612:the original
2605:
2582:
2570:. Retrieved
2566:the original
2554:
2538:
2525:
2518:"中国本部"一名亟应废弃
2499:
2465:
2458:
2442:
2437:
2425:
2413:
2408:, pp. 76–77.
2406:Dunnell 2004
2401:
2394:Elliott 2001
2389:
2382:Dunnell 2004
2377:
2370:Dunnell 2004
2365:
2353:
2341:
2329:
2317:
2309:
2304:
2297:Google Books
2291:
2284:China Proper
2283:
2279:
2271:
2261:
2256:
2247:
2238:
2230:
2188:
2175:
2156:
2152:
2107:Sinocentrism
2016:China portal
1988:
1976:
1949:
1946:
1910:
1875:
1848:
1838:
1791:Hēilóngjiāng
1787:Heilungkiang
1420:
1412:Heilongjiang
1396:
1357:
1350:
1340:
1310:
1295:
1267:
1258:
1241:Ming dynasty
1225:Tang dynasty
1202:
1194:
1154:
1102:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1082:
1058:
1039:
1024:
1015:
1011:
1009:
993:
987:Why We Fight
985:
920:Ming dynasty
917:
886:
854:
839:
830:
807:
758:
757:
744:
724:
703:Qing dynasty
694:
691:China proper
690:
689:
657:Hanyu Pinyin
613:Hanyu Pinyin
550:Hanyu Pinyin
512:Hanyu Pinyin
449:Hanyu Pinyin
408:Hanyu Pinyin
345:Hanyu Pinyin
307:Hanyu Pinyin
248:Hanyu Pinyin
210:Hanyu Pinyin
133:Hanyu Pinyin
109:
92:Hanyu Pinyin
42:China proper
26:
18:
2902:(1): 3–30.
2430:Perdue 2009
2418:Cassel 2012
2334:Dvořák 1895
2183:as a whole.
1968:Miao people
1352:Shíbā Shěng
930:South Zhili
913:Qin dynasty
864:versus the
771:Gobi Desert
767:Tarim Basin
759:Outer China
743:for "China
695:Inner China
426:Shanhaiguan
2970:Categories
2618:9 February
2572:9 February
2451:0742540308
2322:Hauer 2007
2201:References
2080:Inner Asia
1970:, and the
1925:Qamdo area
1283:Inner Asia
1211:) for the
1165:Gu Jiegang
1072:Ayuki Khan
899:, and the
833:March 2024
817:improve it
262:Wade–Giles
226:China core
147:Wade–Giles
2924:144587815
2649:Zou, Rong
2485:cite book
2432:, p. 218.
2396:, p. 503.
2358:Zhao 2006
2348:, p. 102.
2324:, p. 117.
2206:Citations
2065:Metropole
1890:Chongqing
1690:Guǎngdōng
1686:Kwangtung
1317:Manchuria
1177:Manchuria
1123:Northeast
1090:Shengwuji
1067:with the
1020:Zeng Jize
977:from the
955:Manchuria
821:verifying
789:Etymology
783:Manchuria
763:Dzungaria
747:" in the
2916:20062627
2885:10 March
2857:10 March
2829:10 March
2801:10 March
2773:10 March
2745:10 March
2711:(1788).
2701:(1736).
2690:10 March
2384:, p. 83.
2372:, p. 77.
2336:, p. 80.
2278:(1795).
2159:the Pass
2002:See also
1919:(former
1886:Shanghai
1871:Mongolia
1845:Zou Rong
1825:Xīnjiāng
1821:Sinkiang
1774:Fèngtiān
1770:Fengtien
1701:Szechwan
1611:Shāndōng
1607:Shantung
1534:Zhèjiāng
1530:Chekiang
1513:Kweichow
1404:Fengtian
1400:Xinjiang
1364:Liaoning
1325:Xinjiang
1321:Mongolia
1098:Zhongguo
1086:Wei Yuan
971:Xinjiang
963:Mongolia
940:Jiangnan
905:Du Halde
878:Napoleon
876:, which
735:(in the
721:Russians
2664:Sources
2453:): 233.
2346:Wu 1995
1960:Guizhou
1956:Guangxi
1894:Ningxia
1882:Tianjin
1878:Beijing
1737:Guǎngxī
1733:Kwangsi
1705:Sìchuān
1643:Jiāngxī
1639:Kiangsi
1596:Jiāngsū
1592:Kiangsu
1517:Guìzhōu
1477:Chinese
1460:Chinese
1443:Chinese
1416:Qinghai
1384:Sichuan
1299:Chinese
1213:Uyghurs
1061:Tulisen
1003:by the
973:), and
909:Grosier
815:Please
285:Chinese
2922:
2914:
2876:
2848:
2820:
2792:
2764:
2736:
2681:
2473:
2449:
1972:Bouyei
1966:, the
1964:Zhuang
1958:, and
1952:Yunnan
1902:Hainan
1900:, and
1752:Yúnnán
1748:Yunnan
1658:Shǎnxī
1654:Shensi
1628:Fújiàn
1624:Fukien
1577:Chihli
1564:Shānxī
1560:Shansi
1483:Anhwei
1472:Pinyin
1467:Postal
1455:Pinyin
1450:Postal
1438:Pinyin
1433:Postal
1392:Yunnan
1376:Fujian
1329:Taiwan
1309::
1307:pinyin
1301::
1231:Extent
1191:Modern
882:Moscow
781:, and
745:proper
725:proper
699:Manchu
110:proper
108:China
2939:China
2920:S2CID
2912:JSTOR
2522:(PDF)
2168:關內十八省
2164:关内十八省
2144:Notes
2043:Annam
1913:Tibet
1898:Gansu
1808:Jílín
1804:Kirin
1722:Húběi
1718:Hupeh
1675:Hénán
1671:Honan
1581:Zhílì
1549:Gānsù
1545:Kansu
1502:Húnán
1498:Hunan
1487:Ānhuī
1408:Jilin
1388:Burma
1345:, or
1337:一十八行省
1333:Tibet
1106:內地十八省
975:Tibet
701:-led
498:内地十八省
480:內地十八省
394:关内十八省
376:關內十八省
2887:2014
2874:ISBN
2859:2014
2846:ISBN
2831:2014
2818:ISBN
2803:2014
2790:ISBN
2775:2014
2762:ISBN
2747:2014
2734:ISBN
2692:2014
2679:ISBN
2620:2019
2607:Sohu
2574:2019
2545:中国本土
2491:link
2471:ISBN
2447:ISBN
1994:and
1915:and
1880:and
1854:中国本部
1797:黑龍江省
1410:and
1380:Kham
1331:and
1303:布政使司
1291:Song
1289:and
1279:Tang
1277:and
1173:中国本部
1053:內外一家
1047:中外一家
907:and
599:中原汉地
581:中原漢地
293:十八行省
196:中国本部
178:中國本部
78:中国本土
60:中國本土
2904:doi
2528:益世报
1979:Hui
1831:新疆省
1814:吉林省
1780:奉天省
1758:雲南省
1743:廣西省
1728:湖北省
1711:四川省
1696:廣東省
1681:河南省
1664:陝西省
1649:江西省
1634:福建省
1617:山東省
1602:江蘇省
1587:直隸省
1570:山西省
1555:甘肅省
1540:浙江省
1523:貴州省
1508:湖南省
1493:安徽省
1347:十八省
1287:Jin
1275:Han
1094:guo
1088:'s
1034:中國人
961:),
935:南直隶
819:by
713:Han
630:Han
2972::
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2918:.
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2595:兆光
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1319:,
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1128:外藩
1118:郡县
1112:內地
1077:中國
1028:中國
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925:江南
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785:.
777:,
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765:,
708:漢地
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