1407:
2168:. A pardon is an official forgiveness for an acknowledged crime. Once a pardon is issued, all punishment for the crime is waived. A person seeking executive clemency by pardon, reprieve, commutation of sentence, or remission of fine shall execute a formal petition. The petition shall be addressed to the president of the United States and shall be submitted to the pardon attorney, Department of Justice, Washington, D.C. 20530, except for petitions relating to military offenses. A person accepting the pardon through execution of a formal petition must, however, acknowledge that the crime did take place. The president can only grant pardons for federal offences. The president maintains the
55:
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2354:(PEADs) that assert what one government document described as "extraordinary presidential authority in response to extraordinary situations." These secret powers appear to be exempt from congressional oversight. PEADs undergo periodic revision, and although their current contents were not known as of 2020, previous PEADs included emergency powers to detain "alien enemies" and other "dangerous persons"; invoke various forms of martial law; authorize a general warrant permitting search and seizure of persons and property; suspend production of the
2459:
separation of powers. Unilateral action can be seen as a strategic way of circumventing
Congressional authority, or as a way to act complicitly with the tacit approval of the majority party. Other formal theories focus on agency and relationships between the president, other bureaucratic actors, and the public. Comparative perspectives suggest that factors such as partisan support, ideological polarization, and divided government, may be closely linked to unilateral policy making. No one theoretical approach addresses all important issues.
127:
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1970:" has become a prolific source of legislative proposals. The communication is usually in the form of a message or letter from a member of the president's Cabinet, the head of an independent agency, or the president himself, transmitting a draft of a proposed bill to the speaker of the House of Representatives and the president of the Senate. The president may personally propose legislation in annual and special messages to Congress including the annual
1509:
2805:
armed conflict. By the terms of the
Resolution, however, Congress need not act to disapprove the conflict; the cessation of all hostilities is required in 60 to 90 days merely if Congress fails to act. Many have criticized this aspect of the Resolution as unwise and unconstitutional, and no president in the past 35 years has filed a report "pursuant" to these triggering provisions.
2269:, the president is responsible for the protection of Americans abroad and of foreign nationals in the United States. The president decides whether to recognize new nations and new governments, and negotiate treaties with other nations, which become binding on the United States when approved by two-thirds of the Senate. The president may also negotiate
2430:" from which to raise issues nationally, for when a president raises an issue, it inevitably becomes subject to public debate. A president's power and influence may have limits, but politically the president is certainly the most important power in Washington and, furthermore, is one of the most famous and influential of all Americans.
2470:
Predictions about the relationship between presidential popularity and numbers of unilateral directives issued are inconclusive. It has been theorized that less popular presents will issue more presidential directives, but results on this question are mixed. In terms of how the public responds to the
2226:
Under the
Constitution, the president is the federal official that is primarily responsible for the relations of the United States with foreign nations. The president appoints ambassadors, ministers, and consuls (subject to confirmation by the Senate) and receives foreign ambassadors and other public
2433:
Though constrained by various other laws passed by
Congress, the president's executive branch conducts most foreign policy, and their power to order and direct troops as commander-in-chief is quite significant (the exact limits of a president's military powers without Congressional authorization are
1549:
of 1973, Congress must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days, although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed, rendering it ineffectual. Additionally, Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending
1802:
itself, the president has broad powers to manage national affairs and the priorities of the government. The president can unilaterally issue a variety of rules, regulations, and instructions, whose impact and visibility vary widely. Memoranda and other informal orders may not be published. National
2804:
No clear mechanism or requirement exists today for the president and
Congress to consult. The War Powers Resolution of 1973 contains only vague consultation requirements. Instead, it relies on reporting requirements that, if triggered, begin the clock running for Congress to approve the particular
2462:
Empirical research on executive power and its uses is limited, and results are not always consistent. Available results may not align with predictions from separation-of-powers theories: "presidents routinely change status quo policies that theories predict they should not." Evidence suggests that
2442:
provides a system of shared power known as "checks and balances". For example, the president appoints judges and departmental secretaries, but these appointments must be approved by the Senate. The president can approve bills or veto (deny) them. If he does that, the bill is sent back to
Congress,
2414:
Because of the vast array of presidential roles and responsibilities, coupled with a conspicuous presence on the national and international scene, political analysts have tended to place great emphasis on the president's powers. Some have even spoken of "the imperial presidency", referring to the
2291:
The
Constitution does not expressly grant the president additional powers in times of national emergency. Some scholars think that the Framers implied these powers because the structural design of the Executive Branch enables it to act faster than the Legislative Branch. Because the Constitution
2130:
of aides, advisers, and assistants. These individuals are political appointments and are not subject to review by the Senate. All members of the staff serve "at the pleasure of the
President". Since 1995, the president has been required to submit an annual report to Congress listing the name and
2172:
in the U.S. Department of
Justice to review all requests for pardons. The president can also commute a sentence which, in effect, changes the punishment to time served. While the guilty party may be released from custody or not have to serve out a prison term, all other punishments still apply.
1892:
suggested that presidential capacity to pursue objectives unilaterally, rather than through
Congress, "virtually defines what is distinctively modern about the modern American presidency." This shift can be linked to other changes, in particular the polarization of political parties, increasing
2466:
With respect to judicial review it appears that presidents may be more likely to issue executive orders when they differ ideologically from the courts. However the courts overwhelmingly tend to support such directives, upholding 83% of the executive orders that were challenged in federal court
2322:
Harry Truman declared the use of emergency powers when he nationalized private steel mills that failed to produce steel because of a labor strike in 1952. With the Korean War ongoing, Truman asserted that he could not wage war successfully if the economy failed to provide him with the material
2302:
without Congressional approval in 1861. Lincoln claimed that the rebellion created an emergency that permitted him the extraordinary power of unilaterally suspending the writ. With Chief Justice Roger Taney sitting as judge, the Federal District Court of Maryland struck down the suspension in
1524:
The exact degree of authority that the Constitution grants to the president as commander-in-chief has been the subject of much debate throughout American history, with Congress at various times granting the president wide authority and at others attempting to restrict that authority. There is
2395:
that privilege was not absolute. The Court reasoned that the judiciary's interest in the "fair administration of criminal justice" outweighed President Nixon's interest in keeping the evidence secret. Later President Bill Clinton lost in federal court when he tried to assert privilege in the
2458:
Political scientists have attempted to develop theoretical approaches to describe the use and control of unilateral power, but such theories have not been clearly substantiated by empirical evidence. Some theoretical perspectives emphasize the importance of institutional constraints and the
1743:
governments in both Kabul and Baghdad were toppled by an overwhelming superiority of American and allied forces defied the predictions of many military experts. However, insufficient post-war planning and strategy by Bush and his advisors to rebuild those nations were costly.
2450:
he American Constitution...envisages a strong Presidency within an equally strong system of accountability. When the constitutional balance is upset in favor of Presidential power and at the expense of Presidential accountability, the office can be said to become imperial. –
1386:, and is accorded those foreign-affairs functions not otherwise granted to Congress or shared with the Senate. Thus, the president can control the formation and communication of foreign policy and can direct the nation's diplomatic corps. The president may also appoint
2384:
negotiation with Great Britain. While not enshrined in the Constitution, Washington's action created the precedent for privilege. When Richard Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed audio tapes to a special prosecutor in the
2312:
President Franklin Delano Roosevelt similarly invoked emergency powers when he issued an order directing that all Japanese Americans residing on the West Coast be placed into internment camps during World War II. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld this order in
2292:
remains silent on the issue, the courts cannot grant the Executive Branch these powers when it tries to wield them. The courts will only recognize a right of the Executive Branch to use emergency powers if Congress has granted such powers to the president.
1781:
to either supplement regular forces, assist state governments in the case of rebellion or insurrection, or to enforce federal law when such enforcement is impracticable by normal means. Additionally, the president also maintains direct control over the
2437:
The Separation of Powers devised by the founding fathers was primarily designed to prevent the majority from ruling with an iron fist. Based on their experience, the framers shied away from giving any branch of the new government too much power. The
1706:
in modern times. Confronting a major constitutional issue of murky legislation that left the wars in Korea and Vietnam without official declarations of war, Congress quickly authorized sweeping war-making powers for Bush. The leadership of
2046:
which outlines more than 7,000 appointive positions in the government. Many of these appointments are made by the president. The president is also free to appoint a new agency head of ten agencies. For example, it is not unusual for the
2929:
It was not clear whether the White House consulted with Congressional leaders about the military action, or notified them in advance. Thomas S. Foley, the Speaker of the House, said on Tuesday night that he had not been alerted by the
1789:
In times of war or national emergency, the Congress may grant the president broader powers to manage the national economy and protect the security of the United States, but these powers were not expressly granted by the Constitution.
1472:
U.S. ranks have their roots in British military traditions, with the president possessing ultimate authority, but no rank, maintaining a civilian status. Before 1947, the president was the only common superior of the Army (under the
2071:
have set terms that will often outlast presidential terms. For example, governors of the Federal Reserve serve for fourteen years to ensure agency independence. The president also appoints members to the boards of directors for
1537:
that "The President is to be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States. ... It would amount to nothing more than the supreme command and direction of the military and naval forces ... while that of the
1963:. The process has traditionally been difficult and relatively rare. The threat of a presidential veto has usually provided sufficient pressure for Congress to modify a bill so the president would be willing to sign it.
2335:
claimed in 1976 that the powers of the president to decide the constitutionality of government actions concerning national security was absolute and exclusive: "if the President does it, that means it is not illegal".
1550:
and regulation. Presidents have historically initiated the process for going to war, but critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations, including
2144:
2471:
president's actions, there is some evidence to suggest that "individuals are less likely to approve of the president following the use of unilateral power" possibly because it is used in place of legislation.
2900:
President Reagan told Congress of the invasion of Grenada two hours after he had ordered the landing. He told Congressional leaders of the bombing of Libya while the aircraft were on their way.
2329:, voting 6-3 that neither commander-in-chief powers nor any claimed emergency powers gave the president the authority to unilaterally seize private property without Congressional legislation.
1378:, and receive ambassadors. The president shall take care that the laws are faithfully executed and the president has the power to appoint and remove executive officers. The president may make
2871:
Presidents have sent forces abroad more than 100 times; Congress has declared war only five times: the War of 1812, the Mexican War, the Spanish–American War, World War I and World War II.
2008:
must appoint people to more than 6,000 federal positions. The appointments range from top officials at U.S. government agencies, to the White House staff, and members of the United States
1948:
with expressions of their opinion on the constitutionality of a bill's provisions. The president may even declare them unenforceable but the Supreme Court has yet to address this issue.
1762:
As the purpose of a military is to combat foreign invaders and adversaries, U.S. troops cannot be deployed on U.S. soil. The only exception to this rule, is if the president invokes the
2035:. These nominations require Senate confirmation, and this can provide a major stumbling block for presidents who wish to shape the federal judiciary in a particular ideological stance.
1664:
believed in a high amount of civilian leadership of the military, making many tactical and policy decisions based on the recommendations of his advisors—including the decision to use
188:
451:
1497:. The present-day operational command of the Armed Forces is delegated from the president to the Department of Defense and is normally exercised through its secretary. The
165:
154:
2738:
2500:
1884:. Nonetheless, acting independently, a president can heavily influence and redirect the nation's political agenda and reshape its public policies. As early as 1999,
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2060:
1866:
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436:
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1314:
17:
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Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States
4223:
2127:
323:
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Congressional legislation gives the president powers to commandeer states and governors of states, if the president deems they are engaged in insurrection.
446:
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143:
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presidents are more likely to exercise unilateral power with the tacit support of the majority party in Congress, rather than against a hostile Congress.
1909:
it and return the bill to Congress with a veto message suggesting changes (unless Congress is out of session, in which case the president may rely on a
2510:
3892:
2234:
On occasion, the president may personally participate in summit conferences where heads of state meet for direct consultation. For example, President
2180:
are considered too severe. This power can check the legislative and judicial branches by altering punishment for crimes. Presidents can issue blanket
1533:
said that the president, although lacking the power to declare war, would have "the direction of war when authorized or begun", further explaining in
216:
1905:
from Congress. If the president agrees with the bill, he can sign it into law within ten days of receipt. If the president opposes the bill, he can
1740:
1145:
1141:
922:
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408:
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1755:), even though the positions were in fact already statutorily designated as "combatant commander" (CCDR). On 24 October 2002, Defense Secretary
2369:
gives the president the ability to withhold information from the public, Congress, and the courts in national security and diplomatic affairs.
872:
2824:
2149:
1542:
extends to the DECLARING of war and to the RAISING and REGULATING of fleets and armies, all which ... would appertain to the legislature".
1461:
1451:
1336:
797:
318:
180:
1589:—a conflict in western Pennsylvania involving armed farmers and distillers who refused to pay excise tax on spirits. According to historian
1823:
1163:
1004:
897:
2674:
2295:
Emergency presidential power is not a new idea. However, the way in which it is used in the twenty-first century presents new challenges.
1632:, 1861–1865; historians have given Lincoln high praise for his strategic sense and his ability to select and encourage commanders such as
3013:
2784:
2286:
2177:
2103:, a disgruntled office seeker, Congress instituted a merit-based civil service in which positions are filled on a nonpartisan basis. The
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1975:
1307:
1019:
441:
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Banks, William C.; CarriĂł, Alejandro D. (1993). "Presidential Systems in Stress: Emergency Powers in Argentina and the United States".
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tendencies for congressional dysfunction, and the delegation of authority to the executive branch to implement legislative provisions.
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1989:
1952:
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66:
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for New York City to be unconstitutional because only a constitutional amendment could give the president line-item veto power.
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1956:
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1300:
1115:
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1040:
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135:
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of Congress. If Congress has adjourned without acting on proposals, the president may call a special session of the Congress.
4182:
2005:
1981:
Beyond these official powers, the U.S. president, as a leader of his political party and the United States government, holds
1712:
1498:
1075:
959:
806:
255:
3643:
2001:
1966:
Much of the legislation dealt with by Congress is drafted at the initiative of the executive branch. In modern times, the "
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1443:
1176:
176:
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Yu Ouyang and Michael A. Morgan. 2019. "The Contemporary Presidency: How Presidents Utilize Their Emergency Powers."
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resources necessary to keep the troops well-equipped. The U.S. Supreme Court, however, refused to accept that argument in
1493:
and the services (Army, Navy, Marine Corps and Air Force) became subject to the "authority, direction and control" of the
2998:
2679:
2266:
1917:
1803:
security directives may be classified. Public proclamations and international agreements are more easily tracked, as are
1783:
1759:
announced his decision that the use of the commander-in-chief title would thereafter be reserved for the president only.
1490:
1482:
1447:
1092:
969:
489:
280:
205:
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3825:
3800:
3129:
2705:
2658:
2643:
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1807:, which have the binding force of law upon federal agencies but do not require approval of the United States Congress.
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1234:
1214:
989:
984:
939:
627:
509:
352:
344:
92:
4383:
4317:
4148:
3589:
3545:
3102:
3076:
3023:
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2258:; and every president sits down with world leaders to discuss economic and political issues and to reach agreements.
1850:
1838:
1735:
due to Iraq's alleged sponsorship of terrorism and possession of weapons of mass destruction, the speed at which the
1414:, in his capacity as commander-in-chief, salutes the caskets of 18 individual soldiers killed in Afghanistan in 2009.
1229:
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1219:
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1097:
1058:
949:
892:
857:
572:
74:
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1804:
1359:
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An essential factor, then, to counter the abuse of unilateral executive power, is presidential accountability:
2347:
2104:
1539:
1474:
1332:
999:
994:
494:
474:
297:
263:
3868:"The Supreme Court . Law, Power & Personality . Famous Dissents . Korematsu v. United States (1944) | PBS"
2042:, the president appoints the top officials for nearly all federal agencies. These positions are listed in the
3148:
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2073:
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979:
964:
682:
87:
42:
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2239:
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1367:
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421:
313:
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To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water
2533:
1747:
During the 20th century, certain regional commanders came to be called "commander-in-chief". Before 2002,
2490:
2088:
2024:
1925:
1870:
1858:
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and may exercise supreme operational command and control over them. The president has, in this capacity,
1254:
1068:
852:
777:
722:
687:
1769:
The president can – with certain limitations – call into federal service all or individual units of the
2343:
2315:
2192:
2153:
2112:
1971:
1815:
1423:
1363:
1340:
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667:
2012:. Many, but not all, of these positions at the highest levels are appointed by the president with the
1577:
The amount of military detail handled personally by the president in wartime has varied dramatically.
3625:
2452:
1849:
to assist the president with the preparation of the budget. Previous presidents had the privilege of
1831:
1748:
1703:
727:
717:
712:
692:
2621:
2115:
attempted to partially override this change via Executive Order, creating the job classification of
1865:. The power was available to all presidents and was regarded as a power inherent to the office. The
1593:, this was the "first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field", although
2505:
2282:
1930:
1869:
was passed in response to large-scale power exercises by President Nixon. The act also created the
1763:
792:
642:
557:
82:
3916:
2832:
2165:
2120:
1967:
1935:
1881:
677:
672:
547:
4138:
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1585:. In 1794, Washington used his constitutional powers to assemble 12,000 militiamen to quell the
4088:
2684:
2391:
2251:
2116:
1799:
1371:
1158:
767:
732:
637:
612:
113:
105:
2788:
2195:. Presidents can also issue temporary suspensions of prosecution or punishment in the form of
1648:, who had a high degree of autonomy as commander of the armies in France. As president during
1505:
assist with operations as outlined in the presidentially-approved Unified Command Plan (UCP).
4374:
4334:
4172:
3940:
3668:"Statement from the Press Secretary Regarding Executive Grants of Clemency – The White House"
2720:
2416:
2358:; and censor news reports. The Brennan Center found that 56 PEADs were in effect as of 2018.
2247:
2064:
2063:
to be changed by the president. Other agencies that deal with federal regulation such as the
1988:
To improve the working relationship with Congress, presidents in recent years have set up an
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1810:
Early examples of unilateral directives to enact politically controversial policies include
54:
4257:
The enigma of presidential power: Parties, policies and strategic uses of unilateral action
3644:"Frequently Asked Questions Concerning Executive Clemency | PARDON | Department of Justice"
3564:"Executive Order 11183--Establishing the President's Commission on White House Fellowships"
2562:
2439:
2298:
A claim of emergency powers was at the center of President Abraham Lincoln's suspension of
2184:
to forgive entire groups of people. For example, President Jimmy Carter granted amnesty to
2176:
Most pardons are issued as oversight of the judicial branch, especially in cases where the
2017:
1960:
1752:
1720:
1383:
1275:
772:
747:
652:
592:
567:
537:
527:
197:
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1628:
was deeply involved in strategy development and day-to-day military operations during the
8:
3743:
2366:
2270:
1938:
1439:
707:
662:
602:
577:
532:
3818:
Emergency Presidential Power: From the Drafting of the Constitution to the War on Terror
3767:
3052:
4140:
The Myth of the Imperial Presidency: How Public Opinion Checks the Unilateral Executive
3481:
3310:
2763:
2423:
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2100:
2081:
2032:
2013:
1862:
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1691:
1629:
1617:
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1530:
1435:
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National Constitution Center Educational Resources (some internal navigation required)
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Pardons can be controversial when they appear to be politically motivated. President
1945:
1889:
1811:
1751:
were referred to as commanders-in-chief on a daily basis (e.g. Commander in Chief of
1699:
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1676:
1586:
1578:
1534:
1517:
1513:
1502:
912:
782:
742:
697:
597:
499:
394:
2914:"U.S. troops move in panama in effort to seize noriega; gunfire is heard in capital"
4346:
4283:
3989:"10 U.S. Code § 252 - Use of militia and armed forces to enforce Federal authority"
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3224:
2787:. The Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia. Archived from
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2402:
2355:
2039:
2023:
The president also nominates persons to fill federal judicial vacancies, including
2009:
1657:
1645:
1633:
1344:
504:
3893:"Executive Orders Are Normal; Trump's Are Only Appalling Because of What They Say"
3691:
3161:
1394:
of the U.S. Senate. In the condition of a Senate recess, the president may make a
4174:
Perspectives on Presidential Leadership: An International View of the White House
4013:
3988:
3133:
2709:
2662:
2647:
2397:
2332:
2145:
List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States
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1827:
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1613:
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907:
389:
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362:
305:
241:
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1992:. Presidential aides have kept abreast of all important legislative activities.
1924:
a line-item veto over parts of a bill that required spending federal funds. The
3594:
2767:
2480:
2235:
2203:
1819:
1708:
1637:
1348:
1206:
1133:
1786:. As opposed to military forces, militia units can operate on American soil.
4393:
3377:
3336:
3000:
Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War
2374:
2299:
2196:
2188:
2092:
1841:
put additional responsibilities on the presidency for the preparation of the
1774:
1728:
1594:
1431:
1379:
288:
230:
208:
157:
126:
4335:"The Public Cost of Unilateral Action: THE PUBLIC COST OF UNILATERAL ACTION"
3306:
2199:. This power is most commonly used to delay federal sentences of execution.
3590:"2011 Annual Report to Congress on White House Staff | whitehouse.gov"
2485:
2427:
2255:
2211:
2095:
allowed presidents to reward political supporters with jobs. Following the
1982:
1921:
1885:
1649:
1590:
1411:
384:
367:
355:
219:
146:
4310:
Power without persuasion : the politics of direct presidential action
4064:
2243:
2215:
2207:
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2108:
1910:
1902:
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1641:
1602:
1563:
377:
4171:
Cullinane, Michael Patrick; Elliott, Clare Frances (February 18, 2014).
3314:
2959:"George Washington and the Evolution of the American Commander in Chief"
2231:, the president manages all official contacts with foreign governments.
1282:
4350:
3486:
3290:
2381:
1944:
When a bill is presented for signature, the president may also issue a
1778:
1669:
1608:
1559:
1358:
The Constitution explicitly assigns the president the power to sign or
1352:
4287:
1873:
as a legislative counterpoint to the Office of Management and Budget.
1529:
intended Congress to declare war and the president to direct the war;
3717:"War and International Law America's Foreign Policy: A Brief History"
2386:
2107:
now oversees the staffing of 2.8 million federal jobs in the federal
2043:
1845:, although Congress was required to approve it. The act required the
271:
3477:
3464:
Fairlie, John (1903). "The Administrative Powers of the President".
2608:
Presidents and Their Generals: An American History of Command in War
1656:
worked closely with his generals and admirals, and assigned Admiral
1644:
and had very little contact with the War Department or with General
2377:
2157:
2084:
if a position needs to be filled while Congress is not in session.
1724:
1716:
1695:
1508:
2584:
Commanders in chief : presidential leadership in modern wars
2273:
with foreign powers that are not subject to Senate confirmation.
2181:
1736:
1567:
1916:
Presidents are required to approve all of a bill or none of it;
3917:"Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer 343 U.S. 579 (1952)"
2161:
2077:
1571:
1555:
1375:
4014:"10 U.S. Code § 253 - Interference with State and Federal law"
1640:
paid very little attention to operational military details of
3503:"How the Assassination of James A. Garfield Haunts VA Reform"
2885:"The World; Only Congress Can Declare War. Really. It's True"
2856:"The World; Only Congress Can Declare War. Really. It's True"
2406:, which denied the use of privilege in cases of civil suits.
2123:
removed the classification prior to its full implementation.
1985:
over public opinion whereby they may influence legislation.
1683:
kept a very tight personal control of operations during the
3793:
Constitutional Conflicts Between Congress and the President
3610:
2056:
1906:
1196:
2160:. The two most commonly used clemency powers are those of
2501:
Separation of powers under the United States Constitution
2048:
1201:
3015:
The Awesome Power: Harry S. Truman as Commander in Chief
2629:(reprint). Military Affairs. Charlottesville, Virginia:
1901:
The president has several options when presented with a
1867:
Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974
2551:
2373:
first claimed privilege when Congress requested to see
2350:, administrations since Eisenhower have drafted secret
1920:
have been prohibited. In 1996, Congress gave President
1766:
to quell civil turmoils, rebellions and insurrections.
1489:, and the 1949 amendments to the same act, created the
3040:
Lyndon Johnson's War: The Road to Stalemate in Vietnam
4272:"The President, the Court, and Policy Implementation"
2782:
2087:
In the past, presidents could appoint members of the
3291:"Unilateral Action and Presidential Power: A Theory"
2409:
3615:
2011 Annual Report to Congress on White House Staff
3528:"Trump plan to gut civil service triggers pushback"
3055:. University of North Carolina School of Education.
2973:
Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln As Commander in Chief
3719:. Constitutional Rights Foundation. Archived from
3447:"Presidential Powers - LawShelf Educational Media"
3211:Lowande, Kenneth; Rogowski, Jon C. (11 May 2021).
2783:Christopher, James A.; Baker, III (July 8, 2008).
2739:"Common Interpretation: Commander in Chief Clause"
2511:Powers of the prime minister of the United Kingdom
1516:and his troops before their march to suppress the
4137:Christenson, Dino P.; Kriner, Douglas L. (2020).
4136:
3071:. Edinburgh University Press. 2009. p. 261.
2943:Elusive Victories: The American Presidency at War
1687:, which some historians have sharply criticized.
1382:, which need to be ratified by two-thirds of the
452:Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review
4391:
4170:
4089:"Summary of the Decision United States v. Nixon"
3795:. University Press of Kansas. pp. 249–272.
1896:
1719:achieved mixed results. In the aftermath of the
4333:Reeves, Andrew; Rogowski, Jon C. (April 2018).
4312:. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
4254:
4113:"Presidential Immunity From Judicial Direction"
3210:
1660:as "Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief".
1597:briefly took control of artillery units in the
1583:military subordination under civilian authority
1581:, the first U.S. president, firmly established
4332:
4235:
4233:
2631:The Judge Advocate General's School, U.S. Army
3941:"C-SPAN Landmark Cases | Youngstown V Sawyer"
3526:Reid, Tim; Layne, Nathan (22 December 2023).
3334:
2819:
2817:
2815:
2813:
2776:
2206:commuted the sentence of White House staffer
1308:
4382:Kenneth Lowande and Jon C. Rogowski. 2021. "
2586:. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.
2214:commuted the sentence of and later pardoned
4239:
4230:
4130:
3963:
3698:. Cornell University Law School. 2007-08-06
3206:
3204:
3202:
3168:. Cornell University Law School. 2007-08-06
3151:, 25 October 2002. Retrieved on 2016-05-04.
3018:. LSU Press. March 1999. pp. 265–269.
2785:"The National War Powers Commission Report"
2287:International Emergency Economic Powers Act
3546:"Serving at the Pleasure of the President"
3366:"Bush's Tactic of Refusing Laws Is Probed"
3363:
3289:Moe, Terry M.; Howell, William G. (1999).
3200:
3198:
3196:
3194:
3192:
3190:
3188:
3186:
3184:
3182:
2905:
2876:
2847:
2810:
1315:
1301:
4164:
4039:"Presidential Emergency Action Documents"
3840:
3525:
3485:
3288:
3228:
2736:
2326:Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer
2097:assassination of President James Garfield
1454:. However, the constitutional ability to
2912:Gordon, Michael R. (December 20, 1990).
2882:
2853:
2675:"DOD Releases Unified Command Plan 2011"
2577:
2575:
2135:. The 2011 report listed 454 employees.
1995:
1607:
1507:
1405:
4269:
4263:
3890:
3556:
3463:
3179:
3068:Accessing the George W. Bush Presidency
2961:. The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
2352:Presidential Emergency Action Documents
2342:According to research conducted by the
1464:expressly designates the president as:
1366:, ask for the written opinion of their
447:Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court
437:Multidistrict Litigation Judicial Panel
36:This article is part of a series on the
18:Commander-in-Chief of the United States
14:
4392:
4326:
4307:
4301:
3820:. University of Wisconsin. p. 6.
3423:"How Our Laws Are Made - Congress.gov"
3274:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2911:
2581:
2361:
2309:, although Lincoln ignored the order.
1616:advising with his Generals during the
27:Constitutional, legal, and soft powers
4386:." Annual Review of Political Science
4339:American Journal of Political Science
4248:
4244:. New York: W.W. Norton. pp. ix.
3966:Michigan Journal of International Law
3957:
3815:
3790:
3626:"Pardon Information and Instructions"
3230:10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-102043
2825:"The Law: The President's War Powers"
2773:(reposting). Retrieved June 15, 2007.
2572:
2400:. The Supreme Court affirmed this in
2138:
1702:assemble and lead one of the largest
1499:chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
1401:
807:Elections in the District of Columbia
3741:
3500:
3053:"The Presidency of George H.W. Bush"
2528:
2526:
2389:scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in
2126:The president must also appoint his
1446:, and form military policy with the
1355:that is attached to the presidency.
1335:include those explicitly granted by
1177:United States and the United Nations
409:Inferior Courts of the United States
4191:
3865:
3341:"Court Strikes Down Line-Item Veto"
3282:
3154:
2737:Ramsey, Michael; Vladeck, Stephen.
2680:United States Department of Defense
2613:
2582:Dawson, Joseph G. III, ed. (1993).
2534:"Annotated Constitution Article II"
2276:
2238:led the American delegation to the
1955:with a two-thirds vote in both the
1853:funds as they saw fit, however the
1793:
1784:District of Columbia National Guard
1668:, to commit American forces in the
1462:Article II of the U.S. Constitution
281:Vice President of the United States
24:
4368:
4255:Chiou, FY; Rothenberg, LS (2017).
3684:
3364:Abramowitz, Michael (2006-07-24).
3217:Annual Review of Political Science
2667:
2426:famously called the presidency a "
2221:
2069:Securities and Exchange Commission
345:Supreme Court of the United States
53:
25:
4411:
2523:
2415:expanded role of the office that
2410:Constraints on presidential power
2156:gives the president the power of
1839:Budget and Accounting Act of 1921
75:Constitution of the United States
3768:"Treaty vs. Executive Agreement"
2945:(Oxford University Press, 2012)
2883:Mitchell, Alison (May 2, 1999).
2854:Mitchell, Alison (May 2, 1999).
2131:salary of every employee of the
2080:. The president can also make a
1876:Executive orders are subject to
1434:to launch, direct and supervise
1281:
1269:
520:Elections by State and Territory
125:
120:
4400:Presidency of the United States
4377:Presidential Studies Quarterly.
4270:Thrower, Sharece (March 2017).
4242:War and the American Presidency
4216:
4143:. University of Chicago Press.
4119:. Cornell University Law School
4105:
4081:
4057:
4031:
4006:
3981:
3972:
3933:
3909:
3884:
3859:
3841:Greenberg, David (2001-11-30).
3834:
3809:
3784:
3760:
3735:
3709:
3660:
3636:
3618:
3602:from the original on 2017-01-20
3582:
3538:
3519:
3494:
3457:
3439:
3415:
3390:
3357:
3328:
3237:
3213:"Presidential Unilateral Power"
3138:
3123:
3111:
3085:
3059:
3045:
3032:
3006:
2991:
2978:
2965:
2951:
2935:
2757:
2730:
2725:About the Joint Chiefs of Staff
2714:
2683:. April 8, 2011. Archived from
2540:. Cornell University Law School
2029:United States courts of appeals
1847:Office of Management and Budget
1512:A painting depicting president
1182:United Nations Security Council
1085:District of Columbia Government
4276:Presidential Studies Quarterly
3295:Presidential Studies Quarterly
3094:Presidential Decisions for War
2831:. June 1, 1970. Archived from
2745:. National Constitution Center
2727:. Retrieved February 25, 2013.
2699:
2652:
2637:
2600:
2348:New York University Law School
2105:Office of Personnel Management
1704:military coalitions of nations
1333:president of the United States
298:United States Attorney General
264:President of the United States
13:
1:
4384:Presidential Unilateral Power
3149:American Forces Press Service
2516:
2443:which can override the veto.
2178:Federal Sentencing Guidelines
2170:Office of the Pardon Attorney
2074:government-owned corporations
1990:Office of Legislative Affairs
1897:Powers related to legislation
1487:National Security Act of 1947
442:Alien Terrorist Removal Court
4259:. UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
4203:National Constitution Center
3672:trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov
2559:"United States Constitution"
2419:maintained during his term.
1843:United States federal budget
1458:is vested only in Congress.
1343:as well as those granted by
432:Court of International Trade
7:
4308:Howell, William G. (2003).
4177:. Routledge. pp. 80–.
4117:Legal Information Institute
3891:Schwarz, Jon (2017-01-26).
3696:Legal Information Institute
3166:Legal Information Institute
3097:. JHU Press. October 2010.
2986:Woodrow Wilson: A Biography
2538:Legal Information Institute
2491:Fourth branch of government
2474:
2380:'s notes from an unpopular
2089:United States civil service
1871:Congressional Budget Office
1855:United States Supreme Court
1527:framers of the Constitution
1426:as well as all federalized
1390:and some officers with the
1351:, and also a great deal of
10:
4416:
4224:"Federalist Papers No. 51"
4043:Brennan Center for Justice
2316:Korematsu v. United States
2280:
2154:United States Constitution
2142:
2000:Before taking office, the
1972:State of the Union address
1934:, found Clinton's veto of
1824:Nullification Proclamation
1816:Proclamation of Neutrality
1599:defense of Washington D.C.
1424:United States Armed Forces
1341:United States Constitution
3404:. University of Groningen
2620:King, Archibald (1960) .
2619:
2453:Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.
2027:, such as members of the
1832:Emancipation Proclamation
1438:, order or authorize the
873:List of political parties
4240:Schlesinger, A. (2004).
4065:"United States v. Nixon"
3978:10 USC Sections 252, 253
3945:landmarkcases.c-span.org
3772:U.S. Department of State
2506:Unitary executive theory
2283:National Emergencies Act
1931:Clinton v. New York City
1764:Insurrection Act of 1807
1694:in 1990 and the ensuing
1636:. On the other extreme,
1276:United States portal
788:Northern Mariana Islands
136:House of Representatives
3816:Chris, Edelson (2013).
3307:10.1111/1741-5705.00070
2467:between 1942 and 1998.
2117:Schedule F appointments
1968:executive communication
1731:that followed, and the
1666:atomic weapons on Japan
1566:, and the invasions of
1005:Individualist anarchism
177:Congressional districts
4045:. NYU Law. May 6, 2020
3791:Louis, Fisher (2007).
2565:. September 17, 1787.
2456:
2392:United States v. Nixon
2240:Paris Peace Conference
1861:as a violation of the
1857:revoked the privilege
1621:
1554:'s military move into
1521:
1470:
1442:, unilaterally launch
1415:
1374:, grant reprieves and
1142:Diplomatic missions of
1020:Political polarization
490:Presidential elections
114:United States Congress
58:
3843:"Lincoln's Crackdown"
3398:"Presidential Powers"
2721:Joint Chiefs of Staff
2448:
2417:Franklin D. Roosevelt
2267:Department of Defense
2248:Franklin D. Roosevelt
2208:Lewis "Scooter" Libby
2065:Federal Reserve Board
1996:Powers of appointment
1733:2003 invasion of Iraq
1654:Franklin D. Roosevelt
1611:
1547:War Powers Resolution
1511:
1491:Department of Defense
1483:secretary of the navy
1479:Navy and Marine Corps
1466:
1448:Department of Defense
1428:United States Militia
1418:The president is the
1409:
1396:temporary appointment
1370:, convene or adjourn
217:President Pro Tempore
57:
4199:"Declare War Clause"
2984:John Milton Cooper,
2971:James M. McPherson,
2794:on November 26, 2010
2563:United States Senate
2440:separation of powers
2271:executive agreements
2227:officials. With the
2121:Biden administration
2113:Trump administration
2018:United States Senate
1753:U.S. Central Command
1749:combatant commanders
1721:September 11 attacks
1495:secretary of defense
1440:deployment of troops
1146:in the United States
886:Political ideologies
510:Presidential primary
3466:Michigan Law Review
3370:The Washington Post
3345:The Washington Post
2764:Hamilton, Alexander
2623:Command of the Army
2367:Executive privilege
2362:Executive privilege
2263:Department of State
1525:consensus that the
1436:military operations
1288:Politics portal
1123:Department of State
798:U.S. Virgin Islands
4351:10.1111/ajps.12340
4018:Cornell Law School
3993:Cornell Law School
3748:historycentral.com
3723:on 4 November 2019
3632:. 12 January 2015.
3552:. August 15, 2016.
2941:Andrew J. Polsky,
2918:The New York Times
2889:The New York Times
2860:The New York Times
2835:on January 7, 2008
2424:Theodore Roosevelt
2229:secretary of state
2139:Executive clemency
2133:White House Office
2101:Charles J. Guiteau
2091:. This use of the
2082:recess appointment
2033:U.S. Supreme Court
2014:advice and consent
1863:Presentment Clause
1757:Donald H. Rumsfeld
1713:War in Afghanistan
1692:invasion of Kuwait
1679:from his command.
1630:American Civil War
1622:
1618:American Civil War
1552:Theodore Roosevelt
1531:Alexander Hamilton
1522:
1503:combatant commands
1420:commander-in-chief
1416:
1402:Commander-in-chief
1392:advice and consent
1388:Article III judges
1130:Secretary of State
500:Off-year elections
482:National Elections
189:Non-voting members
67:Federal government
59:
4288:10.1111/psq.12348
4184:978-1-135-07903-1
4093:landmarkcases.org
3692:"Executive Power"
3611:National Archives
3550:National Archives
3162:"Executive Power"
2434:open to debate).
2371:George Washington
2306:Ex parte Merryman
1946:signing statement
1890:William G. Howell
1812:George Washington
1727:, the subsequent
1700:George H. W. Bush
1681:Lyndon B. Johnson
1677:Douglas MacArthur
1587:Whiskey Rebellion
1579:George Washington
1535:Federalist No. 69
1518:Whiskey Rebellion
1514:George Washington
1452:Homeland Security
1325:
1324:
1164:Visa requirements
1116:Foreign relations
1015:Political culture
955:Constitutionalism
833:Political parties
818:List of Elections
505:Primary elections
495:Midterm elections
417:Courts of appeals
45:
16:(Redirected from
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3570:. 15 August 2016
3568:Federal Register
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3501:Ornstein, Norm.
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3427:www.congress.gov
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2496:Madisonian Model
2403:Clinton v. Jones
2356:Federal Register
2277:Emergency powers
2040:executive branch
2010:diplomatic corps
1918:selective vetoes
1805:executive orders
1800:executive branch
1794:Executive powers
1658:William D. Leahy
1646:John J. Pershing
1634:Ulysses S. Grant
1545:Pursuant to the
1475:secretary of war
1360:veto legislation
1345:Acts of Congress
1317:
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1093:District Council
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960:Environmentalism
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319:Federal agencies
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3641:
3637:
3630:www.justice.gov
3624:
3623:
3619:
3605:
3603:
3588:
3587:
3583:
3573:
3571:
3562:
3561:
3557:
3544:
3543:
3539:
3524:
3520:
3511:
3509:
3499:
3495:
3478:10.2307/1273781
3462:
3458:
3445:
3444:
3440:
3431:
3429:
3421:
3420:
3416:
3407:
3405:
3396:
3395:
3391:
3382:
3380:
3362:
3358:
3349:
3347:
3335:Dewar, Hellen;
3333:
3329:
3319:
3317:
3287:
3283:
3267:
3266:
3260:
3258:
3254:
3247:
3245:"Archived copy"
3243:
3242:
3238:
3209:
3180:
3171:
3169:
3160:
3159:
3155:
3143:
3139:
3128:
3124:
3116:
3112:
3105:
3091:
3090:
3086:
3079:
3065:
3064:
3060:
3051:
3050:
3046:
3037:
3033:
3026:
3012:
3011:
3007:
2997:Eric Larrabee,
2996:
2992:
2983:
2979:
2970:
2966:
2957:
2956:
2952:
2940:
2936:
2930:Administration.
2922:
2920:
2910:
2906:
2893:
2891:
2881:
2877:
2864:
2862:
2852:
2848:
2838:
2836:
2823:
2822:
2811:
2797:
2795:
2791:
2781:
2777:
2762:
2758:
2748:
2746:
2735:
2731:
2719:
2715:
2704:
2700:
2690:
2688:
2687:on May 13, 2011
2673:
2672:
2668:
2657:
2653:
2642:
2638:
2626:
2618:
2614:
2606:Matthew Moten,
2605:
2601:
2594:
2580:
2573:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2543:
2541:
2532:
2531:
2524:
2519:
2477:
2412:
2398:Lewinsky affair
2364:
2333:President Nixon
2289:
2279:
2254:leaders during
2224:
2222:Foreign affairs
2147:
2141:
2111:. In 2020, the
2038:As head of the
2006:transition team
2002:president-elect
1998:
1953:override vetoes
1899:
1878:judicial review
1828:Abraham Lincoln
1796:
1771:National Guards
1662:Harry S. Truman
1626:Abraham Lincoln
1614:Abraham Lincoln
1444:nuclear weapons
1404:
1321:
1292:
1280:
1270:
1268:
1260:
1259:
1211:
1193:
1173:
1154:Nationality law
1150:
1138:
1118:
1108:
1107:
1080:
1035:
1025:
1024:
1011:
946:
888:
878:
877:
869:
849:
835:
825:
824:
812:
802:
524:
516:
486:
477:
467:
466:
461:Other tribunals
456:
422:District courts
404:
339:
329:
328:
310:
306:Merrick Garland
258:
248:
247:
242:Mitch McConnell
239:Minority Leader
228:Majority Leader
193:
169:Hakeem Jeffries
166:Minority Leader
155:Majority Leader
131:
108:
98:
97:
69:
46:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4413:
4403:
4402:
4388:
4387:
4380:
4370:
4367:
4364:
4363:
4345:(2): 424–440.
4325:
4318:
4300:
4282:(1): 122–145.
4262:
4247:
4229:
4215:
4190:
4183:
4163:
4149:
4129:
4104:
4080:
4056:
4030:
4005:
3980:
3971:
3956:
3932:
3908:
3883:
3858:
3833:
3827:978-0700615346
3826:
3808:
3802:978-0299295301
3801:
3783:
3759:
3734:
3708:
3683:
3659:
3635:
3617:
3595:whitehouse.gov
3581:
3555:
3537:
3518:
3493:
3472:(3): 190–210.
3456:
3438:
3414:
3402:www.let.rug.nl
3389:
3356:
3339:(1998-06-26).
3337:Biskupic, Joan
3327:
3281:
3236:
3178:
3153:
3145:"CINC" Is Sunk
3137:
3130:10 U.S.C.
3122:
3110:
3103:
3084:
3077:
3058:
3044:
3038:Larry Berman,
3031:
3024:
3005:
2990:
2977:
2964:
2950:
2934:
2904:
2875:
2846:
2809:
2775:
2769:The Federalist
2756:
2729:
2713:
2706:10 U.S.C.
2698:
2666:
2659:10 U.S.C.
2651:
2644:50 U.S.C.
2636:
2612:
2599:
2592:
2571:
2550:
2521:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2514:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2481:Abuse of power
2476:
2473:
2411:
2408:
2363:
2360:
2344:Brennan Center
2278:
2275:
2242:in 1919 after
2223:
2220:
2210:and President
2204:George W. Bush
2193:fled to Canada
2140:
2137:
2025:federal judges
1997:
1994:
1976:joint sessions
1939:appropriations
1898:
1895:
1882:interpretation
1820:Andrew Jackson
1795:
1792:
1775:naval militias
1709:George W. Bush
1638:Woodrow Wilson
1403:
1400:
1362:, command the
1349:implied powers
1323:
1322:
1320:
1319:
1312:
1305:
1297:
1294:
1293:
1291:
1290:
1278:
1265:
1262:
1261:
1258:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1245:European Union
1242:
1240:United Kingdom
1237:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1217:
1210:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1192:
1191:
1190:
1189:
1184:
1172:
1171:
1166:
1161:
1156:
1149:
1148:
1137:
1136:
1134:Antony Blinken
1126:
1125:
1119:
1114:
1113:
1110:
1109:
1106:
1105:
1103:Superior Court
1100:
1095:
1089:
1088:
1079:
1078:
1072:
1071:
1066:
1056:
1050:
1049:
1036:
1031:
1030:
1027:
1026:
1023:
1022:
1017:
1010:
1009:
1008:
1007:
1002:
992:
987:
982:
977:
972:
970:Libertarianism
967:
962:
957:
952:
945:
944:
943:
942:
937:
927:
926:
925:
923:Traditionalist
920:
915:
910:
905:
900:
889:
884:
883:
880:
879:
876:
875:
868:
867:
866:
865:
860:
848:
847:
842:
836:
831:
830:
827:
826:
823:
822:
811:
810:
801:
800:
795:
790:
785:
780:
778:American Samoa
775:
770:
765:
760:
755:
750:
745:
740:
735:
730:
725:
723:South Carolina
720:
715:
710:
705:
700:
695:
690:
688:North Carolina
685:
680:
675:
670:
665:
660:
655:
650:
645:
640:
635:
630:
625:
620:
615:
610:
605:
600:
595:
590:
585:
580:
575:
570:
565:
560:
555:
550:
545:
540:
535:
530:
523:
522:
515:
514:
513:
512:
502:
497:
492:
485:
484:
478:
473:
472:
469:
468:
465:
464:
455:
454:
449:
444:
439:
434:
429:
419:
413:
412:
403:
402:
397:
392:
387:
381:
380:
375:
370:
365:
359:
358:
349:
348:
340:
335:
334:
331:
330:
327:
326:
321:
316:
309:
308:
302:
301:
293:
292:
285:
284:
276:
275:
268:
267:
259:
254:
253:
250:
249:
246:
245:
235:
234:
224:
223:
213:
212:
202:
201:
192:
191:
185:
184:
173:
172:
162:
161:
151:
150:
140:
139:
118:
117:
109:
104:
103:
100:
99:
96:
95:
90:
85:
79:
78:
70:
65:
64:
61:
60:
50:
49:
39:
38:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4412:
4401:
4398:
4397:
4395:
4385:
4381:
4379:
4378:
4373:
4372:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4329:
4321:
4319:9780691102702
4315:
4311:
4304:
4289:
4285:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4266:
4258:
4251:
4243:
4236:
4234:
4225:
4219:
4204:
4200:
4194:
4186:
4180:
4176:
4175:
4167:
4152:
4150:9780226704531
4146:
4142:
4141:
4133:
4118:
4114:
4108:
4094:
4090:
4084:
4070:
4066:
4060:
4044:
4040:
4034:
4019:
4015:
4009:
3994:
3990:
3984:
3975:
3967:
3960:
3946:
3942:
3936:
3922:
3918:
3912:
3898:
3897:The Intercept
3894:
3887:
3873:
3869:
3862:
3848:
3844:
3837:
3829:
3823:
3819:
3812:
3804:
3798:
3794:
3787:
3773:
3769:
3763:
3749:
3745:
3744:"Recognition"
3738:
3722:
3718:
3712:
3697:
3693:
3687:
3673:
3669:
3663:
3649:
3645:
3639:
3631:
3627:
3621:
3612:
3601:
3597:
3596:
3591:
3585:
3569:
3565:
3559:
3551:
3547:
3541:
3533:
3529:
3522:
3508:
3504:
3497:
3488:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3460:
3452:
3448:
3442:
3428:
3424:
3418:
3403:
3399:
3393:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3360:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3331:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3301:(4): 850–72.
3300:
3296:
3292:
3285:
3277:
3271:
3257:on 2011-06-07
3253:
3246:
3240:
3231:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3207:
3205:
3203:
3201:
3199:
3197:
3195:
3193:
3191:
3189:
3187:
3185:
3183:
3167:
3163:
3157:
3150:
3146:
3141:
3135:
3131:
3126:
3119:
3114:
3106:
3104:9780801895784
3100:
3096:
3095:
3088:
3080:
3078:9780748627417
3074:
3070:
3069:
3062:
3054:
3048:
3041:
3035:
3027:
3025:9780807125151
3021:
3017:
3016:
3009:
3003:
3001:
2994:
2987:
2981:
2974:
2968:
2960:
2954:
2948:
2947:online review
2944:
2938:
2931:
2919:
2915:
2908:
2901:
2890:
2886:
2879:
2872:
2861:
2857:
2850:
2839:September 28,
2834:
2830:
2826:
2820:
2818:
2816:
2814:
2806:
2790:
2786:
2779:
2772:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2744:
2740:
2733:
2726:
2722:
2717:
2711:
2707:
2702:
2686:
2682:
2681:
2676:
2670:
2664:
2660:
2655:
2649:
2645:
2640:
2632:
2625:
2624:
2616:
2609:
2603:
2595:
2593:9780700605798
2589:
2585:
2578:
2576:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2554:
2539:
2535:
2529:
2527:
2522:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2478:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2455:
2454:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2435:
2431:
2429:
2425:
2420:
2418:
2407:
2405:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2379:
2376:
2375:Chief Justice
2372:
2368:
2359:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2340:
2337:
2334:
2330:
2328:
2327:
2320:
2318:
2317:
2310:
2308:
2307:
2301:
2300:habeas corpus
2296:
2293:
2288:
2284:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2259:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2232:
2230:
2219:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2200:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2189:draft dodgers
2187:
2183:
2179:
2174:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2146:
2136:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2093:spoils system
2090:
2085:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2061:administrator
2058:
2054:
2050:
2045:
2041:
2036:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2021:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1993:
1991:
1986:
1984:
1979:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1964:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1951:Congress may
1949:
1947:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1933:
1932:
1927:
1926:Supreme Court
1923:
1919:
1914:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1894:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1874:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1835:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1808:
1806:
1801:
1791:
1787:
1785:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1767:
1765:
1760:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1745:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1729:War on Terror
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1688:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1619:
1615:
1610:
1606:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1595:James Madison
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1575:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1558:in 1903, the
1557:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1541:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1519:
1515:
1510:
1506:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1469:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1432:plenary power
1429:
1425:
1421:
1413:
1408:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1356:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1318:
1313:
1311:
1306:
1304:
1299:
1298:
1296:
1295:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1277:
1267:
1266:
1264:
1263:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1250:Latin America
1248:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1212:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1200:
1198:
1195:
1194:
1188:
1185:
1183:
1180:
1179:
1178:
1175:
1174:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1140:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1128:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1117:
1112:
1111:
1104:
1101:
1099:
1096:
1094:
1091:
1090:
1087:
1086:
1082:
1081:
1077:
1074:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1064:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1051:
1048:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1037:
1034:
1029:
1028:
1021:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1012:
1006:
1003:
1001:
998:
997:
996:
993:
991:
990:Republicanism
988:
986:
985:Protectionism
983:
981:
978:
976:
973:
971:
968:
966:
963:
961:
958:
956:
953:
951:
948:
947:
941:
940:Progressivism
938:
936:
933:
932:
931:
928:
924:
921:
919:
916:
914:
911:
909:
906:
904:
901:
899:
896:
895:
894:
891:
890:
887:
882:
881:
874:
871:
870:
864:
861:
859:
856:
855:
854:
853:Third parties
851:
850:
846:
843:
841:
838:
837:
834:
829:
828:
821:
819:
814:
813:
809:
808:
804:
803:
799:
796:
794:
791:
789:
786:
784:
781:
779:
776:
774:
771:
769:
766:
764:
763:West Virginia
761:
759:
756:
754:
751:
749:
746:
744:
741:
739:
736:
734:
731:
729:
726:
724:
721:
719:
716:
714:
711:
709:
706:
704:
701:
699:
696:
694:
691:
689:
686:
684:
681:
679:
676:
674:
671:
669:
668:New Hampshire
666:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
649:
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
634:
631:
629:
628:Massachusetts
626:
624:
621:
619:
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
604:
601:
599:
596:
594:
591:
589:
586:
584:
581:
579:
576:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
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