1018:
Development Kit) and as a component of an IDE (VADS, Eclipse, Ada Pro). The interrelationship and interdependence of technologies grew. The advent of web services promoted growth of web languages and scripting languages. Scripts trace back to the early days of
Command Line Interfaces (CLI) where the user could enter commands to be executed by the system. User Shell concepts developed with languages to write shell programs. Early Windows designs offered a simple batch programming capability. The conventional transformation of these language used an interpreter. While not widely used, Bash and Batch compilers have been written. More recently sophisticated interpreted languages became part of the developers tool kit. Modern scripting languages include PHP, Python, Ruby and Lua. (Lua is widely used in game development.) All of these have interpreter and compiler support.
1039:
1266:
5227:
1021:"When the field of compiling began in the late 50s, its focus was limited to the translation of high-level language programs into machine code ... The compiler field is increasingly intertwined with other disciplines including computer architecture, programming languages, formal methods, software engineering, and computer security." The "Compiler Research: The Next 50 Years" article noted the importance of object-oriented languages and Java. Security and
2208:
5237:
1153:
1825:
2287:"The many source-language features described in the preceding section result in a number of salient differences between compilers and assemblers. On any one item the distinction may not be clear-cut. Moreover, it may be difficult to distinguish a simple compiler from a powerful macro assembler. Nevertheless, the differences are usually substantial enough that there remains a qualitative distinction between assemblers and compilers."
980:
machine (middle end), and translation to the target (back end). TCOL was developed for the PQCC research to handle language specific constructs in the intermediate representation. Variations of TCOL supported various languages. The PQCC project investigated techniques of automated compiler construction. The design concepts proved useful in optimizing compilers and compilers for the (since 1995, object-oriented) programming language
5247:
555:
954:. C++ was first used in 1980 for systems programming. The initial design leveraged C language systems programming capabilities with Simula concepts. Object-oriented facilities were added in 1983. The Cfront program implemented a C++ front-end for C84 language compiler. In subsequent years several C++ compilers were developed as C++ popularity grew.
1355:. Lexing and parsing comprise the syntactic analysis (word syntax and phrase syntax, respectively), and in simple cases, these modules (the lexer and parser) can be automatically generated from a grammar for the language, though in more complex cases these require manual modification. The lexical grammar and phrase grammar are usually
1131:
In some cases, the design of a language feature may require a compiler to perform more than one pass over the source. For instance, consider a declaration appearing on line 20 of the source which affects the translation of a statement appearing on line 10. In this case, the first pass needs to gather
1017:
High-level languages continued to drive compiler research and development. Focus areas included optimization and automatic code generation. Trends in programming languages and development environments influenced compiler technology. More compilers became included in language distributions (PERL, Java
996:
document. Army and Navy worked on the Ada
Language System (ALS) project targeted to DEC/VAX architecture while the Air Force started on the Ada Integrated Environment (AIE) targeted to IBM 370 series. While the projects did not provide the desired results, they did contribute to the overall effort on
707:
Compiler technology evolved from the need for a strictly defined transformation of the high-level source program into a low-level target program for the digital computer. The compiler could be viewed as a front end to deal with the analysis of the source code and a back end to synthesize the analysis
1103:
A compiler for a relatively simple language written by one person might be a single, monolithic piece of software. However, as the source language grows in complexity the design may be split into a number of interdependent phases. Separate phases provide design improvements that focus development on
1095:
A compiler implements a formal transformation from a high-level source program to a low-level target program. Compiler design can define an end-to-end solution or tackle a defined subset that interfaces with other compilation tools e.g. preprocessors, assemblers, linkers. Design requirements include
1000:
Other Ada compiler efforts got underway in
Britain at the University of York and in Germany at the University of Karlsruhe. In the U. S., Verdix (later acquired by Rational) delivered the Verdix Ada Development System (VADS) to the Army. VADS provided a set of development tools including a compiler.
979:
PQCC research into code generation process sought to build a truly automatic compiler-writing system. The effort discovered and designed the phase structure of the PQC. The BLISS-11 compiler provided the initial structure. The phases included analyses (front end), intermediate translation to virtual
935:
based on B and BCPL. The BCPL compiler had been transported to
Multics by Bell Labs and BCPL was a preferred language at Bell Labs. Initially, a front-end program to Bell Labs' B compiler was used while a C compiler was developed. In 1971, a new PDP-11 provided the resource to define extensions to B
567:
capacity of early computers led to substantial technical challenges when the first compilers were designed. Therefore, the compilation process needed to be divided into several small programs. The front end programs produce the analysis products used by the back end programs to generate target code.
1188:
performs optimizations on the IR that are independent of the CPU architecture being targeted. This source code/machine code independence is intended to enable generic optimizations to be shared between versions of the compiler supporting different languages and target processors. Examples of middle
991:
document formalized the program support environment (APSE) along with the kernel (KAPSE) and minimal (MAPSE). An Ada interpreter NYU/ED supported development and standardization efforts with the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Standards Organization (ISO). Initial
908:
language developed by IBM and IBM User Group. IBM's goal was to satisfy business, scientific, and systems programming requirements. There were other languages that could have been considered but PL/I offered the most complete solution even though it had not been implemented. For the first few years
1112:
Classifying compilers by number of passes has its background in the hardware resource limitations of computers. Compiling involves performing much work and early computers did not have enough memory to contain one program that did all of this work. As a result, compilers were split up into smaller
1099:
In the early days, the approach taken to compiler design was directly affected by the complexity of the computer language to be processed, the experience of the person(s) designing it, and the resources available. Resource limitations led to the need to pass through the source code more than once.
844:
Early operating systems and software were written in assembly language. In the 1960s and early 1970s, the use of high-level languages for system programming was still controversial due to resource limitations. However, several research and industry efforts began the shift toward high-level systems
1176:
by collecting type information. If the input program is syntactically incorrect or has a type error, it generates error and/or warning messages, usually identifying the location in the source code where the problem was detected; in some cases the actual error may be (much) earlier in the program.
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Furthermore, for optimization compilers can contain interpreter functionality, and interpreters may include ahead of time compilation techniques. For example, where an expression can be executed during compilation and the results inserted into the output program, then it prevents it having to be
562:
Theoretical computing concepts developed by scientists, mathematicians, and engineers formed the basis of digital modern computing development during World War II. Primitive binary languages evolved because digital devices only understand ones and zeros and the circuit patterns in the underlying
1001:
Unix/VADS could be hosted on a variety of Unix platforms such as DEC Ultrix and the Sun 3/60 Solaris targeted to
Motorola 68020 in an Army CECOM evaluation. There were soon many Ada compilers available that passed the Ada Validation tests. The Free Software Foundation GNU project developed the
871:
at the
University of Cambridge was originally developed as a compiler writing tool. Several compilers have been implemented, Richards' book provides insights to the language and its compiler. BCPL was not only an influential systems programming language that is still used in research but also
539:
is computer software that transforms and then executes the indicated operations. The translation process influences the design of computer languages, which leads to a preference of compilation or interpretation. In theory, a programming language can have both a compiler and an interpreter. In
1143:
Splitting a compiler up into small programs is a technique used by researchers interested in producing provably correct compilers. Proving the correctness of a set of small programs often requires less effort than proving the correctness of a larger, single, equivalent program.
3221:
Joseph M. Newcomer, David Alex Lamb, Bruce W. Leverett, Michael Tighe, William A. Wulf - Carnegie-Mellon
University and David Levine, Andrew H. Reinerit - Intermetrics: "TCOL Ada: Revised Report on An Intermediate Representation for the DOD Standard Programming Language",
1909:
Interpretation does not replace compilation completely. It only hides it from the user and makes it gradual. Even though an interpreter can itself be interpreted, a set of directly executed machine instructions is needed somewhere at the bottom of the execution stack (see
840:. The symbol processing capabilities provided useful features for artificial intelligence research. In 1962, LISP 1.5 release noted some tools: an interpreter written by Stephen Russell and Daniel J. Edwards, a compiler and assembler written by Tim Hart and Mike Levin.
909:
of the
Multics project, a subset of the language could be compiled to assembly language with the Early PL/I (EPL) compiler by Doug McIlory and Bob Morris from Bell Labs. EPL supported the project until a boot-strapping compiler for the full PL/I could be developed.
878:(Basic Language for Implementation of System Software) was developed for a Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-10 computer by W. A. Wulf's Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) research team. The CMU team went on to develop BLISS-11 compiler one year later in 1970.
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is one of the most widely used Ada compilers. GNAT is free but there is also commercial support, for example, AdaCore, was founded in 1994 to provide commercial software solutions for Ada. GNAT Pro includes the GNU GCC based GNAT with a tool suite to provide an
1901:
it to be exclusively compiled or exclusively interpreted, although it is possible to design languages that rely on re-interpretation at run time. The categorization usually reflects the most popular or widespread implementations of a language – for instance,
936:
and rewrite the compiler. By 1973 the design of C language was essentially complete and the Unix kernel for a PDP-11 was rewritten in C. Steve
Johnson started development of Portable C Compiler (PCC) to support retargeting of C compilers to new machines.
2105:(CIL) and others. A JIT compiler generally runs inside an interpreter. When the interpreter detects that a code path is "hot", meaning it is executed frequently, the JIT compiler will be invoked and compile the "hot" code for increased performance.
2755:
McCarthy, J.; Brayton, R.; Edwards, D.; Fox, P.; Hodes, L.; Luckham, D.; Maling, K.; Park, D.; Russell, S. (March 1960). "LISP I Programmers Manual" (PDF). Boston, Massachusetts: Artificial Intelligence Group, M.I.T. Computation Center and Research
1139:
needed to generate high quality code. It can be difficult to count exactly how many passes an optimizing compiler makes. For instance, different phases of optimization may analyse one expression many times but only analyse another expression once.
1582:
performs optimizations on the intermediate representation in order to improve the performance and the quality of the produced machine code. The middle end contains those optimizations that are independent of the CPU architecture being targeted.
1937:. However, there is nothing inherent in the definition of Common Lisp that stops it from being interpreted. Other languages have features that are very easy to implement in an interpreter, but make writing a compiler much harder; for example,
2143:(ASIC). Such compilers are said to be hardware compilers, because the source code they compile effectively controls the final configuration of the hardware and how it operates. The output of the compilation is only an interconnection of
1359:, which simplifies analysis significantly, with context-sensitivity handled at the semantic analysis phase. The semantic analysis phase is generally more complex and written by hand, but can be partially or fully automated using
1208:
takes the optimized IR from the middle end. It may perform more analysis, transformations and optimizations that are specific for the target CPU architecture. The back end generates the target-dependent assembly code, performing
1720:
Due to the extra time and space needed for compiler analysis and optimizations, some compilers skip them by default. Users have to use compilation options to explicitly tell the compiler which optimizations should be enabled.
971:
design would produce a Production Quality Compiler (PQC) from formal definitions of source language and the target. PQCC tried to extend the term compiler-compiler beyond the traditional meaning as a parser generator (e.g.,
1561:(requiring all local variables to be initialized before use), rejecting incorrect programs or issuing warnings. Semantic analysis usually requires a complete parse tree, meaning that this phase logically follows the
571:
It is usually more productive for a programmer to use a high-level language, so the development of high-level languages followed naturally from the capabilities offered by digital computers. High-level languages are
1201:), relocation of computation to a less frequently executed place (e.g., out of a loop), or specialization of computation based on the context, eventually producing the "optimized" IR that is used by the back end.
1441:. Typically the preprocessing phase occurs before syntactic or semantic analysis; e.g. in the case of C, the preprocessor manipulates lexical tokens rather than syntactic forms. However, some languages such as
527:
of source input to target output. Program faults caused by incorrect compiler behavior can be very difficult to track down and work around; therefore, compiler implementers invest significant effort to ensure
1233:
techniques for solving them are well-developed and implemented in production-quality compilers. Typically the output of a back end is machine code specialized for a particular processor and operating system.
1712:
was criticized for a long time for lacking powerful interprocedural optimizations, but it is changing in this respect. Another open source compiler with full analysis and optimization infrastructure is
2343:
Sudarsanam, Ashok; Malik, Sharad; Fujita, Masahiro (2002). "A Retargetable Compilation Methodology for Embedded Digital Signal Processors Using a Machine-Dependent Code Optimization Library".
770:
which is usually considered the first high-level language. In 1957, they completed a FORTRAN compiler that is generally credited as having introduced the first unambiguously complete compiler.
625:. "BNF and its extensions have become standard tools for describing the syntax of programming notations. In many cases, parts of compilers are generated automatically from a BNF description."
1674:
are fast to perform during compilation but only affect a small local fragment of the code, and can be performed independently of the context in which the code fragment appears. In contrast,
2154:
An example of hardware compiler is XST, the Xilinx Synthesis Tool used for configuring FPGAs. Similar tools are available from Altera, Synplicity, Synopsys and other hardware vendors.
1945:, and many scripting languages allow programs to construct arbitrary source code at runtime with regular string operations, and then execute that code by passing it to a special
1160:
Regardless of the exact number of phases in the compiler design, the phases can be assigned to one of three stages. The stages include a front end, a middle end, and a back end.
1994:(VM) may or may not be executed on the same platform as the compiler that produced it. For this reason, such compilers are not usually classified as native or cross compilers.
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3556:
683:(Formula Translation) for engineering and science applications is considered to be one of the first actually implemented high-level languages and first optimizing compiler.
1124:. Thus, partly driven by the resource limitations of early systems, many early languages were specifically designed so that they could be compiled in a single pass (e.g.,
2425:
3240:
CECOM Center for Software Engineering Advanced Software Technology, "Final Report - Evaluation of the ACEC Benchmark Suite for Real-Time Applications", AD-A231 968, 1990
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2449:
Lecture notes. Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools. Jing-Shin Chang. Department of Computer Science & Information Engineering. National Chi-Nan University
1485:. Common token categories may include identifiers, keywords, separators, operators, literals and comments, although the set of token categories varies in different
1339:, it was traditionally implemented and analyzed as several phases, which may execute sequentially or concurrently. This method is favored due to its modularity and
1678:
requires more compilation time and memory space, but enable optimizations that are only possible by considering the behavior of multiple functions simultaneously.
1670:, to whole procedures, or even the whole program. There is a trade-off between the granularity of the optimizations and the cost of compilation. For example,
3967:
2934:
Knuth, Donald E.; Pardo, Luis Trabb, "Early development of programming languages", Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology (Marcel Dekker) 7: 419–493
2647:(Tagungsband zum Kolloquium 14. November 2014 in Jena). GI Series: Lecture Notes in Informatics (LNI) – Thematics (in German). Vol. T-7. Bonn, Germany:
1979:
compiler is one whose output is intended to directly run on the same type of computer and operating system that the compiler itself runs on. The output of a
1120:
has classically been seen as a benefit because it simplifies the job of writing a compiler and one-pass compilers generally perform compilations faster than
2606:
2367:
A compiler is a computer program that translates a program written in a high-level language (HLL), such as C, into an equivalent assembly language program .
2037:
compiler will frequently take in a high-level language program as an input and then transform the code and annotate it with parallel code annotations (e.g.
2112:. A bytecode interpreter executes the bytecode, but the JIT compiler will translate the bytecode to machine code when increased performance is necessary.
967:(Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) sponsored a compiler project with Wulf's CMU research team in 1970. The Production Quality Compiler-Compiler
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2710:
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machine architecture. In the late 1940s, assembly languages were created to offer a more workable abstraction of the computer architectures. Limited
2192:
instructions executed by hardware, are not considered compilers. (The inverse program that translates machine code to assembly language is called a
957:
In many application domains, the idea of using a higher-level language quickly caught on. Because of the expanding functionality supported by newer
4172:
3423:
992:
Ada compiler development by the U.S. Military Services included the compilers in a complete integrated design environment along the lines of the
488:, compilers that produce compilers (or parts of them), often in a generic and reusable way so as to be able to produce many differing compilers.
3199:
Leverett, Cattell, Hobbs, Newcomer, Reiner, Schatz, Wulf: "An Overview of the Production Quality Compiler-Compiler Project", CMU-CS-89-105, 1979
1631:: the intermediate language representation is transformed into functionally equivalent but faster (or smaller) forms. Popular optimizations are
2952:
1181:(IR) for further processing by the middle end. This IR is usually a lower-level representation of the program with respect to the source code.
1177:
Aspects of the front end include lexical analysis, syntax analysis, and semantic analysis. The front end transforms the input program into an
462:, programs that translate from low-level languages to higher level ones; programs that translate between high-level languages, usually called
3819:
3249:
P.Biggar, E. de Vries, D. Gregg, "A Practical Solution for Scripting Language Compilers", submission to Science of Computer Programming, 2009
2009:, used C as its target language. The C code generated by such a compiler is usually not intended to be readable and maintained by humans, so
1405:, table-driven parsers used in the 1960s typically read the source one character at a time and did not require a separate tokenizing phase.
1132:
information about declarations appearing after statements that they affect, with the actual translation happening during a subsequent pass.
676:
High-level language design during the formative years of digital computing provided useful programming tools for a variety of applications:
5286:
3682:
2330:
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programs which each made a pass over the source (or some representation of it) performing some of the required analysis and translations.
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942:(OOP) offered some interesting possibilities for application development and maintenance. OOP concepts go further back but were part of
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For some languages, such as Java, applications are first compiled using a bytecode compiler and delivered in a machine-independent
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A program that rewrites object code back into the same type of object code while applying optimisations and transformations is a
2140:
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which define the language's syntax. The parse tree is often analyzed, augmented, and transformed by later phases in the compiler.
1237:
This front/middle/back-end approach makes it possible to combine front ends for different languages with back ends for different
1906:
is sometimes called an interpreted language, and C a compiled one, despite the existence of BASIC compilers and C interpreters.
4980:
4952:
4111:
2013:
and creating pretty C intermediate code are ignored. Some of the features of C that make it a good target language include the
2001:. C, viewed by some as a sort of portable assembly language, is frequently the target language of such compilers. For example,
734:
to describe it), although the A-0 compiler functioned more as a loader or linker than the modern notion of a full compiler.
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William A. Whitaker, "Ada - the project: the DoD High Order Working Group", ACM SIGPLAN Notices (Volume 28, No. 3, March 1991)
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Porter Adams, Vicki (5 October 1981). "Captain Grace M. Hopper: the Mother of COBOL". InfoWorld. 3 (20): 33. ISSN 0199-6649.
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are a type of compiler that takes a high-level language as its input and outputs a high-level language. For example, an
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928:(Uniplexed Information and Computing Service) operating system for a PDP-7 in B. Unics eventually became spelled Unix.
829:
1332:, a data structure mapping each symbol in the source code to associated information such as location, type and scope.
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rigorously defined interfaces both internally between compiler components and externally between supporting toolsets.
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4990:
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Bjarne Stroustrup, "An Overview of the C++ Programming Language", Handbook of Object Technology (Editor: Saba Zamir,
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1745:: optimizations that depend on the details of the CPU architecture that the compiler targets. A prominent example is
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17:
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phase, though it is often possible to fold multiple phases into one pass over the code in a compiler implementation.
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646:("Plan assembly device") to automatically translate the mathematical formulation of a program into machine-readable
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4344:
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1363:. These phases themselves can be further broken down: lexing as scanning and evaluating, and parsing as building a
549:
195:
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A program that translates into an object code format that is not supported on the compilation machine is called a
1655:
Compiler analysis is the prerequisite for any compiler optimization, and they tightly work together. For example,
568:
As computer technology provided more resources, compiler designs could align better with the compilation process.
523:. Compilers generally implement these phases as modular components, promoting efficient design and correctness of
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1998:
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into the target code. Optimization between the front end and back end could produce more efficient target code.
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is often a temporary compiler, used for compiling a more permanent or better optimised compiler for a language.
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4891:
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The disadvantage of compiling in a single pass is that it is not possible to perform many of the sophisticated
780:. The COBOL design drew on A-0 and FLOW-MATIC. By the early 1960s COBOL was compiled on multiple architectures.
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3048:
BCPL: The Language and Its Compiler, M Richards, Cambridge University Press (first published 31 December 1981)
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is the branch of software engineering that deals with trying to show that a compiler behaves according to its
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The scope of compiler analysis and optimizations vary greatly; their scope may range from operating within a
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computer at the University of Manchester is considered by some to be the first compiled programming language.
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Proceedings of the 1998 ACM/SIGDA sixth international symposium on Field programmable gate arrays - FPGA '98
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recalculated each time the program runs, which can greatly speed up the final program. Modern trends toward
1593:: This is the gathering of program information from the intermediate representation derived from the input;
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of the system. This involves resource and storage decisions, such as deciding which variables to fit into
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remarked: "... it was not only an improvement on its predecessors but also on nearly all its successors."
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2081:(JIT compiler) defer compilation until runtime. JIT compilers exist for many modern languages including
1983:
is designed to run on a different platform. Cross compilers are often used when developing software for
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M.Hall, D. Padua, K. Pingali, "Compiler Research: The Next 50 Years", ACM Communications 2009 Vol 54 #2
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1529:, which replaces the linear sequence of tokens with a tree structure built according to the rules of a
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The front end analyzes the source code to build an internal representation of the program, called the
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the token sequence to identify the syntactic structure of the program. This phase typically builds a
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practice, programming languages tend to be associated with just one (a compiler or an interpreter).
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McCarthy, John; Abrahams, Paul W.; Edwards, Daniel J.; Hart, Timothy P.; Levin, Michael I. (1965).
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1757:: the transformed intermediate language is translated into the output language, usually the native
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884:(Multiplexed Information and Computing Service), a time-sharing operating system project, involved
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1005:(GCC) which provides a core capability to support multiple languages and targets. The Ada version
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S.C. Johnson, "a Portable C Compiler: Theory and Practice", 5th ACM POPL Symposium, January 1978
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converts the input character sequence to a canonical form ready for the parser. Languages which
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3949:(in English, Spanish, Japanese, Chinese, Italian, and Russian). New York: John Wiley and Sons.
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while sharing the optimizations of the middle end. Practical examples of this approach are the
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scans the input and verifies syntax and semantics according to a specific source language. For
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799:
650:. While no actual implementation occurred until the 1970s, it presented concepts later seen in
524:
387:
335:
294:
72:
1949:. To implement these features in a compiled language, programs must usually be shipped with a
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491:
A compiler is likely to perform some or all of the following operations, often called phases:
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There are many different types of compilers which produce output in different useful forms. A
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2976:"Revised(3) Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme, (Dedicated to the Memory of ALGOL 60)"
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1308:, which is then treated by the remaining compiler phases. The scanner and parser handles the
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which form the high-level language architecture. Elements of these formal languages include:
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102:
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B. Stroustrup: "What is Object-Oriented Programming?" Proceedings 14th ASU Conference, 1986.
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Proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages (HOPL) conference, June 1978
1749:, which rewrites short sequences of assembler instructions into more efficient instructions.
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designed by Ken Iverson in the late 1950s. APL is a language for mathematical computations.
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273:
3631:
2426:"The Evolution of Programming Languages: From Primitive Binary to High-Level Abstractions"
1926:
at times blur the traditional categorizations of compilers and interpreters even further.
1681:
Interprocedural analysis and optimizations are common in modern commercial compilers from
8:
5202:
5127:
5043:
5028:
4793:
4573:
4530:
4525:
4422:
4412:
4384:
2045:
statements). Other terms for a source-to-source compiler are transcompiler or transpiler.
1762:
1660:
1656:
1644:
1602:
1506:
1285:
1210:
1121:
976:) without much success. PQCC might more properly be referred to as a compiler generator.
795:
89:
3873:. Computer software engineering series (1st printing, 1st ed.). Potomac, Maryland:
3493:
961:
and the increasing complexity of computer architectures, compilers became more complex.
912:
Bell Labs left the Multics project in 1969, and developed a system programming language
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4808:
4750:
4735:
4725:
4510:
4309:
3526:
3474:
2961:
2830:
2797:
2721:
2604:(1951). "Ăśber automatische Rechenplanfertigung bei programmgesteuerten Rechenanlagen".
2574:
2406:
2352:
1962:
1811:
and using rigorous testing (often called compiler validation) on an existing compiler.
1618:
1594:
1498:
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4019:
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3832:
3801:
3773:
3747:
3692:
3678:
3516:
3396:
3353:
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3183:
3016:
2766:
2765:
Compilers Principles, Techniques, & Tools 2nd edition by Aho, Lam, Sethi, Ullman
2662:
2652:
2601:
2581:
2553:
2543:
2506:
2477:
2396:
2356:
2242:
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and is commonly used to prepare code for execution on embedded software applications.
2132:
1890:
1590:
1360:
1117:
749:
658:
516:
484:
415:
38:
4134:
3478:
3387:, Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 289–329, 28 February 2012,
2863:
2834:
2801:
1729:
The back end is responsible for the CPU architecture specific optimizations and for
1397:
their keywords or allow arbitrary spaces within identifiers require this phase. The
535:
Compilers are not the only language processor used to transform source programs. An
5020:
4904:
4871:
4666:
4588:
4477:
4463:
4458:
4407:
4394:
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4033:
3722:
3706:
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3466:
3388:
2917:
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2820:
2787:
2615:
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2410:
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2303:
2117:
1911:
1758:
1702:
1690:
1632:
1610:
1598:
1502:
1490:
1477:, which converts lexemes into a processed value. A token is a pair consisting of a
1449:
1398:
1344:
1269:
893:
496:
444:
383:
67:
31:
30:
This article is about software to translate computer languages. For the manga, see
3126:
3103:"PL/I As a Tool for System Programming", F.J. Corbato, Datamation 6 May 1969 issue
2974:
Abelson, Hal; Dybvig, R. K.; et al. Rees, Jonathan; Clinger, William (eds.).
2023:
of the original source, and the wide platform support available with C compilers.
665:, a high-level language and automatic translator. His ideas were later refined by
5091:
4985:
4957:
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4003:
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2531:
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1991:
1984:
1950:
1774:
1682:
1614:
1513:
1348:
1309:
803:
573:
233:
129:
3380:
2385:
Proceedings of the 25th International Symposium on Software Testing and Analysis
5197:
5101:
5000:
4846:
4818:
4120:
3862:
3815:
3688:
3392:
3209:
3148:
2167:
2159:
A program that translates from a low-level language to a higher level one is a
2098:
2026:
While a common compiler type outputs machine code, there are many other types:
1980:
1808:
1606:
1554:
1530:
1406:
1257:, which have multiple front-ends, shared optimizations and multiple back-ends.
1218:
917:
723:
670:
603:
The sentences in a language may be defined by a set of rules called a grammar.
435:
207:
107:
27:
Computer program which translates code from one programming language to another
4214:
4202:
2539:
1505:. This may not be a separate step—it can be combined with the parsing step in
5265:
5086:
4374:
4107:
4087:
3985:
3934:
3919:(2nd ed.). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier/Morgan Kaufmann. p. 8.
3891:
3670:
3357:
2666:
2619:
1706:
1550:
1501:
can be used to recognize it. The software doing lexical analysis is called a
1410:
1173:
950:
language science. Bell Labs became interested in OOP with the development of
807:
776:: The Conference on Data Systems Language (CODASYL) initiated development of
745:
609:(BNF) describes the syntax of "sentences" of a language. It was developed by
558:
A diagram of the operation of a typical multi-language, multi-target compiler
402:
language). The name "compiler" is primarily used for programs that translate
3085:
Report II of the SHARE Advanced Language Development Committee, 25 June 1964
2997:
Recursive Functions of Symbolic Expressions and Their Computation by Machine
2392:
1717:, which is used by many organizations for research and commercial purposes.
1509:, in which case parsing is done at the character level, not the token level.
635:
5182:
4841:
4211:
explaining the key conceptual difference between compilers and interpreters
3787:
3761:
2875:
2237:
2193:
2189:
2148:
2051:
compilers compile to assembly language of a theoretical machine, like some
2010:
1546:
1429:
1335:
While the frontend can be a single monolithic function or program, as in a
1329:
921:
719:
632:
designed the first (algorithmic) programming language for computers called
622:
492:
423:
162:
82:
3512:
3470:
2825:
2792:
1997:
The lower level language that is the target of a compiler may itself be a
1557:(associating variable and function references with their definitions), or
5172:
4798:
4710:
3971:
3942:
3039:" M. Richards, University Mathematical Laboratory Cambridge, England 1969
1934:
1667:
1617:, etc. Accurate analysis is the basis for any compiler optimization. The
1226:
1169:
759:
629:
610:
564:
419:
403:
303:
284:
152:
147:
4175:
A collection of references to mainstream Compiler Construction Textbooks
3726:
2921:
2636:
Keller, Stack und automatisches Gedächtnis – eine Struktur mit Potenzial
2633:
Fothe, Michael; Wilke, Thomas, eds. (2015) . Written at Jena, Germany.
5192:
5122:
4715:
4448:
4304:
4064:
The Compiler Design Handbook: Optimizations and Machine Code Generation
3709:(September 1981). "A History of Language Processor Technology in IBM".
3674:
3278:
2336:
2160:
2144:
2086:
1622:
1542:
1526:
1364:
1222:
819:
727:
694:
690:
458:
427:
119:
37:"Compile" and "Compiling" redirect here. For the software company, see
4225:
3492:
Swartz, Jordan S.; Betz, Vaugh; Rose, Jonathan (22–25 February 1998).
2784:
Proceedings of the 1952 ACM national meeting (Pittsburgh) on - ACM '52
2333:
by Alfred V. Aho, Ravi Sethi, Jeffrey D. Ullman - Second Edition, 2007
1897:. However, in practice there is rarely anything about a language that
1371:(AST, syntax tree). In some cases additional phases are used, notably
4697:
4658:
4068:
3129:", ACM Second History of Programming Languages Conference, April 1993
2090:
2020:
1987:
that are not intended to support a software development environment.
1782:
1698:
1461:) breaks the source code text into a sequence of small pieces called
897:
889:
811:
697:
to become the dominant high-level language for business applications.
662:
474:
375:
167:
3068:
2207:
1824:
4758:
4241:
2817:
Proceedings of the 1952 ACM national meeting (Toronto) on - ACM '52
2276:
2048:
1923:
1418:
1317:
791:
787:
741:
614:
157:
3094:
Multicians.org "The Choice of PL/I" article, Editor /tom Van Vleck
1421:) are examples of stropped languages whose compilers would have a
1152:
2125:
1942:
1885:
Higher-level programming languages usually appear with a type of
1562:
1522:
1273:
881:
767:
711:
Some early milestones in the development of compiler technology:
680:
298:
254:
3899:
2526:
Hellige, Hans Dieter, ed. (2004) . Written at Bremen, Germany.
1773:
of appropriate machine instructions along with their associated
1625:
of the program are usually also built during the analysis phase.
3116:", R. A. Freiburghouse, GE, Fall Joint Computer Conference 1969
2641:
Cellar, stack and automatic memory - a structure with potential
2120:(also known as synthesis tools) are compilers whose input is a
2052:
2038:
2002:
1714:
947:
500:
279:
2964:, also involved in implementing the first ALGOL 60 compiler.)
2528:
Geschichten der Informatik - Visionen, Paradigmen, Leitmotive
2019:
directive, which can be generated by the compiler to support
2006:
1965:
on which their generated code executes. This is known as the
1903:
1694:
1414:
1246:
964:
951:
875:
850:
777:
686:
330:
3340:
Instruction selection: Principles, methods, and applications
2782:
Hopper, Grace Murray (1952). "The education of a computer".
1929:
Some language specifications spell out that implementations
1469:, which segments the input text into syntactic units called
924:. Ritchie created a boot-strapping compiler for B and wrote
4089:
Compilers and Compiler Generators: An Introduction with C++
3821:
Understanding and Writing Compilers: A Do It Yourself Guide
3008:
2379:
Sun, Chengnian; Le, Vu; Zhang, Qirun; Su, Zhendong (2016).
1946:
1814:
1343:. Most commonly, the frontend is broken into three phases:
1250:
1006:
973:
968:
943:
925:
905:
864:
846:
554:
326:
263:
258:
3333:
3331:
3057:
The BCPL Cintsys and Cintpos User Guide, M. Richards, 2017
1781:). Debug data may also need to be generated to facilitate
1304:. The latter sequence is transformed by the parser into a
1107:
867:(Basic Combined Programming Language) designed in 1966 by
3718:
1686:
1586:
The main phases of the middle end include the following:
885:
833:
763:
447:
than the one on which the cross-compiler itself runs. A
3457:
Aycock, John (2003). "A Brief History of Just-in-Time".
3037:
BCPL: A tool for compiler writing and system programming
2530:(in German) (1 ed.). Berlin / Heidelberg, Germany:
1382:
The main phases of the front end include the following:
3328:
2960:(This statement is sometimes erroneously attributed to
1738:
The main phases of the back end include the following:
3966:
3428:
International Journal of Open Information Technologies
2505:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 304.
872:
provided a basis for the design of B and C languages.
2342:
1445:
support macro substitutions based on syntactic forms.
818:. ALGOL 60 inspired many languages that followed it.
3212:", CMU Research Showcase Report, CMU-CS-82-138, 1982
2381:"Toward understanding compiler bugs in GCC and LLVM"
2203:
2124:
and whose output is a description, in the form of a
2651:(GI) / Köllen Druck + Verlag GmbH. pp. 20–21.
1807:. Techniques include developing the compiler using
1367:(CST, parse tree) and then transforming it into an
931:Bell Labs started the development and expansion of
4007:
3866:
3606:"Decompilers - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
3385:Compiler Construction Using Java, JavaCC, and Yacc
2815:Ridgway, Richard K. (1952). "Compiling routines".
2607:Zeitschrift fĂĽr Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik
2573:
1990:The output of a compiler that produces code for a
3069:"Introduction and Overview of the MULTICS System"
1465:. This phase can be divided into two stages: the
1197:), discovery and propagation of constant values (
1147:
689:(Common Business-Oriented Language) evolved from
5263:
2626:
2594:
2471:
1953:that includes a version of the compiler itself.
1217:, which re-orders instructions to keep parallel
1288:, and categorizes each of them, for example as
802:. ALGOL 60 was the first language to implement
4060:
3869:Assemblers, Compilers, and Program Translation
3669:
3629:
3491:
3421:
3276:
3270:
1549:. This phase performs semantic checks such as
1025:were cited among the future research targets.
576:that are strictly defined by their syntax and
478:, usually programs that translate the form of
4281:Note: This template roughly follows the 2012
4257:
4187:Incremental Approach to Compiler Construction
3915:Cooper, Keith Daniel; Torczon, Linda (2012).
3914:
3740:Optimizing Compilers for Modern Architectures
3630:Chandrasekaran, Siddharth (26 January 2018).
3307:Aho, Lam, Sethi, Ullman 2007, p. 5-6, 109-189
3162:Basic Concepts in Object Oriented Programming
2891:"Did Grace Hopper Create the First Compiler?"
1933:include a compilation facility; for example,
355:
4155:"The LLVM Target-Independent Code Generator"
3733:
3684:Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools
3577:
3550:
3494:"A fast routability-driven router for FPGAs"
3283:The Architecture of Open Source Applications
3066:
2903:
2519:
2378:
2331:Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools
1280:. Starting from the sequence of characters "
641:
633:
4010:Advanced Compiler Design and Implementation
3947:Compiler Construction for Digital Computers
3325:Aho, Lam, Sethi, Ullman 2007, p. 8, 191-300
3210:Delayed binding in PQCC generated compilers
2600:
2472:Chomsky, Noam; Lightfoot, David W. (2002).
2128:or otherwise, of a hardware configuration.
1853:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
640:("Plan Calculus"). Zuse also envisioned a
4264:
4250:
4152:
3860:
3422:Ilyushin, Evgeniy; Namiot, Dmitry (2016).
2632:
1961:One classification of compilers is by the
1225:. Although most optimization problems are
1189:end optimizations are removal of useless (
1104:the functions in the compilation process.
730:programming language (and coined the term
703:(List Processor) for symbolic computation.
362:
348:
3655:Calingaert and Horowitz 1979, pp. 186-187
3160:K. Nygaard, University of Oslo, Norway, "
2973:
2824:
2791:
2058:This Prolog machine is also known as the
2041:) or language constructs (e.g. Fortran's
1873:Learn how and when to remove this message
1351:(also known as scanning or parsing), and
1282:if(net>0.0)total+=net*(1.0+tax/100.0);
1083:Learn how and when to remove this message
4092:. International Thomson Computer Press.
4002:
3961:The first text on compiler construction.
3337:
2999:", Communications of the ACM, April 1960
2904:Strawn, George; Strawn, Candace (2015).
2888:
2849:"List of early compilers and assemblers"
2326:
2324:
2266:
1815:Compiled vis-Ă -vis interpreted languages
1264:
1151:
1046:This section includes a list of general
1028:
553:
4061:Srikant, Y. N.; Shankar, Priti (2003).
3711:IBM Journal of Research and Development
3338:Blindell, Gabriel Hjort (3 June 2016).
2814:
2571:
2525:
2345:Readings in Hardware/Software Co-Design
2259:
2141:application-specific integrated circuit
1789:
1108:One-pass vis-Ă -vis multi-pass compilers
14:
5264:
4981:Knowledge representation and reasoning
3814:
3766:Modern Compiler Implementation in Java
3456:
3281:. In Brown, Amy; Wilson, Greg (eds.).
3149:A Portable Compiler for the Language C
2946:"Hints on Programming Language Design"
2889:Bruderer, Herbert (21 December 2022).
2781:
2700:"The history of FORTRAN I, II and III"
2458:Naur, P. et al. "Report on ALGOL 60".
2423:
2372:
2304:"Encyclopedia: Definition of Compiler"
1284:", the scanner composes a sequence of
1213:in the process. The back end performs
511:), conversion of input programs to an
5006:Philosophy of artificial intelligence
4245:
4106:
4085:
4032:
3941:
3786:
3760:
3705:
2958:from the original on 10 October 2022.
2943:
2716:from the original on 10 October 2022.
2496:
2387:. ISSTA 2016. ACM. pp. 294–305.
2321:
2131:The output of these compilers target
1473:and assigns them a category; and the
904:from MIT. Multics was written in the
398:language) into another language (the
4325:Energy consumption (Green computing)
4271:
3793:Modern Compiler Implementation in ML
3559:from the original on 2 November 2016
3316:Aho, Lam, Sethi, Ullman 2007, p. 111
3289:from the original on 2 December 2016
2967:
1851:adding citations to reliable sources
1818:
1347:(also known as lexing or scanning),
1032:
845:programming languages, for example,
599:, any set of strings on an alphabet.
5287:Programming language implementation
5011:Distributed artificial intelligence
4283:ACM Computing Classification System
3540:from the original on 9 August 2017.
3073:1965 Fall Joint Computer Conference
2906:"Grace Hopper: Compilers and Cobol"
2273:United States Department of Defense
2135:at a very low level, for example a
2073:are also examples of this category.
1621:of every compiled function and the
1489:. The lexeme syntax is typically a
916:based on BCPL concepts, written by
24:
4516:Integrated development environment
3662:
2861:
2697:
2676:from the original on 12 April 2020
2424:Baghai, Christian (4 April 2023).
1565:phase, and logically precedes the
1052:it lacks sufficient corresponding
1012:integrated development environment
482:without a change of language; and
313:Notable compilers & toolchains
25:
5303:
4991:Automated planning and scheduling
4521:Software configuration management
4216:Syntax Analysis & LL1 Parsing
4180:
3127:The Development of the C Language
3067:CorbatĂł, F. J.; Vyssotsky, V. A.
1541:adds semantic information to the
5245:
5235:
5226:
5225:
4232:Forum about compiler development
4189: – a PDF tutorial
3370:Cooper and Toczon (2012), p. 540
2707:History of Programming Languages
2353:10.1016/b978-155860702-6/50045-4
2206:
1823:
1253:-based C/C++ compiler), and the
1037:
550:History of compiler construction
521:machine specific code generation
5236:
4639:Computational complexity theory
4238: (archived 10 October 2014)
4039:Programming Language Pragmatics
3649:
3632:"Cross Compilation Demystified"
3623:
3598:
3571:
3544:
3485:
3450:
3424:"On source-to-source compilers"
3415:
3373:
3364:
3319:
3310:
3301:
3261:
3252:
3243:
3234:
3225:
3215:
3202:
3193:
3176:
3167:
3154:
3141:
3132:
3119:
3106:
3097:
3088:
3079:
3060:
3051:
3042:
3029:
3002:
2989:
2944:Hoare, C.A.R. (December 1973).
2937:
2928:
2897:
2882:
2855:
2841:
2808:
2775:
2759:
2749:
2740:
2691:
2565:
2281:
2184:which translate human readable
1999:high-level programming language
1743:Machine dependent optimizations
1553:(checking for type errors), or
814:. Its syntax was defined using
798:, a key advance in the rise of
593:, a finite sequence of symbols;
408:high-level programming language
4423:Network performance evaluation
2499:"Appendix 1: Backus-Naur Form"
2490:
2465:
2452:
2443:
2417:
2347:. Elsevier. pp. 506–515.
2296:
1578:The middle end, also known as
1148:Three-stage compiler structure
439:produces code for a different
412:low-level programming language
13:
1:
4794:Multimedia information system
4779:Geographic information system
4769:Enterprise information system
4358:Computer systems organization
3267:Cooper and Torczon 2012, p. 8
2137:field-programmable gate array
2122:hardware description language
1573:
1413:(and some implementations of
390:computer code written in one
5153:Computational social science
4741:Theoretical computer science
4554:Software development process
4330:Electronic design automation
4315:Very Large Scale Integration
4173:Compiler textbook references
3974:; Wortman, David B. (1970).
3875:Computer Science Press, Inc.
3582:. Altera.com. Archived from
3164:", SIGPLAN Notices V21, 1986
2572:Iverson, Kenneth E. (1962).
2103:Common Intermediate Language
2005:, the original compiler for
1889:in mind: either designed as
1676:interprocedural optimization
1260:
1116:The ability to compile in a
617:. The ideas derive from the
587:, any finite set of symbols;
270:target-specific initializer)
7:
4976:Natural language processing
4764:Information storage systems
4199: (archived 15 May 2018)
3012:Lisp 1.5 Programmers Manual
2649:Gesellschaft fĂĽr Informatik
2214:Computer programming portal
2199:
2110:intermediate representation
1724:
1326:intermediate representation
1179:intermediate representation
940:Object-oriented programming
726:wrote the compiler for the
613:and used for the syntax of
513:intermediate representation
509:syntax-directed translation
97:Intermediate representation
10:
5308:
4892:Human–computer interaction
4862:Intrusion detection system
4774:Social information systems
4759:Database management system
4086:Terry, Patrick D. (1997).
4016:Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
3968:McKeeman, William Marshall
3861:Calingaert, Peter (1979).
3798:Cambridge University Press
3770:Cambridge University Press
3744:Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
3434:(5): 48–51. Archived from
3393:10.1002/9781118112762.ch12
2503:The Science of Programming
2031:Source-to-source compilers
1793:
1328:(IR). It also manages the
1170:statically typed languages
547:
543:
465:source-to-source compilers
36:
29:
5221:
5158:Computational engineering
5133:Computational mathematics
5110:
5057:
5019:
4966:
4928:
4890:
4832:
4749:
4695:
4657:
4602:
4539:
4472:
4436:
4393:
4357:
4290:
4279:
4193:Basics of Compiler Design
3342:. Switzerland: Springer.
3114:The Multics PL/1 Compiler
2916:(Jan.-Feb. 2015): 62–64.
2580:. John Wiley & Sons.
2540:10.1007/978-3-642-18631-8
2534:. pp. 45, 104, 105.
2460:Communications of the ACM
1649:automatic parallelization
456:Related software include
5168:Computational healthcare
5163:Differentiable computing
5082:Graphics processing unit
4501:Domain-specific language
4370:Computational complexity
3553:"XST Synthesis Overview"
2620:10.1002/zamm.19510310820
1956:
1920:just-in-time compilation
5143:Computational chemistry
5077:Photograph manipulation
4968:Artificial intelligence
4784:Decision support system
3277:Lattner, Chris (2017).
2393:10.1145/2931037.2931074
2223:Abstract interpretation
2065:Bytecode compilers for
2060:Warren Abstract Machine
2035:automatic parallelizing
1924:bytecode interpretation
1439:conditional compilation
1243:GNU Compiler Collection
1193:) or unreachable code (
1067:more precise citations.
1003:GNU Compiler Collection
657:Between 1949 and 1951,
628:Between 1942 and 1945,
321:GNU Compiler Collection
246:Common Language Runtime
5292:Utility software types
5208:Educational technology
5039:Reinforcement learning
4789:Process control system
4687:Computational geometry
4677:Algorithmic efficiency
4672:Analysis of algorithms
4320:Systems on Chip (SoCs)
4226:Let's Build a Compiler
3917:Engineering a compiler
3381:"S1-A Simple Compiler"
2876:10.1145/800025.1198341
2576:A Programming Language
2462:3 (May 1960), 299–314.
2253:Program transformation
2079:Just-in-time compilers
1805:language specification
1779:Sethi–Ullman algorithm
1747:peephole optimizations
1672:peephole optimizations
1495:finite state automaton
1341:separation of concerns
1321:
1255:Amsterdam Compiler Kit
1215:instruction scheduling
1157:
800:structured programming
744:compiler developed by
738:1952, before September
642:
634:
559:
176:Compilation strategies
41:. For other uses, see
5178:Electronic publishing
5148:Computational biology
5138:Computational physics
5034:Unsupervised learning
4948:Distributed computing
4824:Information retrieval
4731:Mathematical analysis
4721:Mathematical software
4604:Theory of computation
4569:Software construction
4559:Requirements analysis
4437:Software organization
4365:Computer architecture
4335:Hardware acceleration
4300:Printed circuit board
4113:Compiler Construction
3610:www.sciencedirect.com
3578:Altera Staff (2017).
3551:Xilinx Staff (2009).
3513:10.1145/275107.275134
3471:10.1145/857076.857077
2826:10.1145/800259.808980
2793:10.1145/609784.609818
2497:Gries, David (2012).
2476:. Walter de Gruyter.
2277:Stoneman requirements
2233:Compile and go system
2139:(FPGA) or structured
1637:dead-code elimination
1487:programming languages
1357:context-free grammars
1268:
1195:reachability analysis
1191:dead-code elimination
1155:
1029:Compiler construction
959:programming languages
790:was the precursor to
621:concepts by linguist
557:
201:Compile and go system
4938:Concurrent computing
4910:Ubiquitous computing
4882:Application security
4877:Information security
4706:Discrete mathematics
4682:Randomized algorithm
4634:Computability theory
4612:Model of computation
4584:Software maintenance
4579:Software engineering
4541:Software development
4491:Programming language
4486:Programming paradigm
4403:Network architecture
3982:Englewood Cliffs, NJ
3977:A Compiler Generator
3829:Macmillan Publishing
3788:Appel, Andrew Wilson
3762:Appel, Andrew Wilson
3507:. pp. 140–149.
3438:on 13 September 2022
3125:Dennis M. Ritchie, "
2786:. pp. 243–249.
2474:Syntactic Structures
2260:Notes and references
1895:interpreted language
1847:improve this section
1801:Compiler correctness
1796:Compiler correctness
1790:Compiler correctness
1641:constant propagation
1379:but these are rare.
1369:abstract syntax tree
1365:concrete syntax tree
1199:constant propagation
1122:multi-pass compilers
619:context-free grammar
530:compiler correctness
392:programming language
274:Java virtual machine
196:Tracing just-in-time
5272:American inventions
5213:Document management
5203:Operations research
5128:Enterprise software
5044:Multi-task learning
5029:Supervised learning
4751:Information systems
4574:Software deployment
4531:Software repository
4385:Real-time computing
4140:on 17 February 2017
3911:(2+xiv+270+6 pages)
3727:10.1147/rd.255.0535
3580:"Spectra-Q™ Engine"
3208:W. Wulf, K. Nori, "
2922:10.1109/MITP.2015.6
2275:(18 February 1980)
1947:evaluation function
1765:and memory and the
1661:loop transformation
1657:dependence analysis
1645:loop transformation
1603:dependence analysis
1559:definite assignment
1507:scannerless parsing
1497:constructed from a
1423:Line Reconstruction
1389:Line reconstruction
1373:line reconstruction
1211:register allocation
643:Planfertigungsgerät
90:Optimizing compiler
5282:Computer libraries
4996:Search methodology
4943:Parallel computing
4900:Interaction design
4809:Computing platform
4736:Numerical analysis
4726:Information theory
4511:Software framework
4474:Software notations
4413:Network components
4310:Integrated circuit
4228:, by Jack Crenshaw
4159:LLVM Documentation
4034:Scott, Michael Lee
3679:Ullman, Jeffrey D.
3586:on 10 October 2016
2962:Edsger W. Dijkstra
2602:Rutishauser, Heinz
2118:Hardware compilers
1619:control-flow graph
1595:data-flow analysis
1499:regular expression
1361:attribute grammars
1337:scannerless parser
1322:
1158:
1023:parallel computing
667:Friedrich L. Bauer
648:punched film stock
560:
485:compiler-compilers
450:bootstrap compiler
5259:
5258:
5188:Electronic voting
5118:Quantum Computing
5111:Applied computing
5097:Image compression
4867:Hardware security
4857:Security services
4814:Digital marketing
4594:Open-source model
4506:Modeling language
4418:Network scheduler
4130:978-0-201-40353-4
4099:978-1-85032-298-6
4078:978-0-8493-1240-3
4053:978-0-12-633951-2
4025:978-1-55860-320-2
3995:978-0-13-155077-3
3972:Horning, James J.
3838:978-0-333-21732-0
3807:978-0-521-58274-2
3779:978-0-521-82060-8
3753:978-1-55860-286-1
3707:Allen, Frances E.
3402:978-1-118-11276-2
3075:. Multicians.org.
3015:. The MIT Press.
2864:"Keynote Address"
2658:978-3-88579-426-4
2587:978-0-471430-14-8
2549:978-3-540-00217-8
2483:978-3-11-017279-9
2243:List of compilers
2228:Bottom-up parsing
2186:assembly language
2175:binary recompiler
2133:computer hardware
1891:compiled language
1883:
1882:
1875:
1599:use-define chains
1597:is used to build
1538:Semantic analysis
1437:substitution and
1403:recursive-descent
1353:semantic analysis
1093:
1092:
1085:
997:Ada development.
900:) and was led by
806:definitions with
750:Manchester Mark I
659:Heinz Rutishauser
517:code optimization
505:semantic analysis
416:assembly language
372:
371:
54:Program execution
39:Compile (company)
18:Compiler frontend
16:(Redirected from
5299:
5249:
5248:
5239:
5238:
5229:
5228:
5049:Cross-validation
5021:Machine learning
4905:Social computing
4872:Network security
4667:Algorithm design
4589:Programming team
4549:Control variable
4526:Software library
4464:Software quality
4459:Operating system
4408:Network protocol
4273:Computer science
4266:
4259:
4252:
4243:
4242:
4217:
4205:
4169:
4167:
4165:
4153:LLVM community.
4149:
4147:
4145:
4139:
4133:. Archived from
4118:
4103:
4082:
4057:
4042:(2nd ed.).
4029:
4013:
4004:Muchnick, Steven
3999:
3963:
3938:
3926:978-0-12088478-0
3910:
3908:
3906:
3872:
3857:
3855:
3853:
3847:
3841:. Archived from
3826:
3811:
3783:
3768:(2nd ed.).
3757:
3730:
3702:
3687:(1st ed.).
3656:
3653:
3647:
3646:
3644:
3642:
3636:embedjournal.com
3627:
3621:
3620:
3618:
3616:
3602:
3596:
3595:
3593:
3591:
3575:
3569:
3568:
3566:
3564:
3548:
3542:
3541:
3539:
3503:. Monterey, CA:
3498:
3489:
3483:
3482:
3459:ACM Comput. Surv
3454:
3448:
3447:
3445:
3443:
3419:
3413:
3412:
3411:
3409:
3377:
3371:
3368:
3362:
3361:
3349:978-3-31934019-7
3335:
3326:
3323:
3317:
3314:
3308:
3305:
3299:
3298:
3296:
3294:
3274:
3268:
3265:
3259:
3256:
3250:
3247:
3241:
3238:
3232:
3229:
3223:
3219:
3213:
3206:
3200:
3197:
3191:
3180:
3174:
3171:
3165:
3158:
3152:
3145:
3139:
3136:
3130:
3123:
3117:
3110:
3104:
3101:
3095:
3092:
3086:
3083:
3077:
3076:
3064:
3058:
3055:
3049:
3046:
3040:
3033:
3027:
3026:
3022:978-0-26213011-0
3006:
3000:
2993:
2987:
2986:
2984:
2982:
2971:
2965:
2959:
2957:
2950:
2941:
2935:
2932:
2926:
2925:
2901:
2895:
2894:
2886:
2880:
2879:
2859:
2853:
2852:
2845:
2839:
2838:
2828:
2819:. pp. 1–5.
2812:
2806:
2805:
2795:
2779:
2773:
2763:
2757:
2753:
2747:
2744:
2738:
2737:
2731:
2727:
2725:
2717:
2715:
2704:
2695:
2689:
2685:
2683:
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2675:
2646:
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2624:
2623:
2598:
2592:
2591:
2579:
2569:
2563:
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2523:
2517:
2516:
2494:
2488:
2487:
2469:
2463:
2456:
2450:
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2441:
2440:
2438:
2436:
2421:
2415:
2414:
2376:
2370:
2369:
2340:
2334:
2328:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2314:
2300:
2288:
2285:
2279:
2270:
2216:
2211:
2210:
2055:implementations
2044:
2017:
1985:embedded systems
1967:target platform.
1912:machine language
1878:
1871:
1867:
1864:
1858:
1827:
1819:
1775:addressing modes
1759:machine language
1703:Sun Microsystems
1633:inline expansion
1611:pointer analysis
1601:, together with
1503:lexical analyzer
1491:regular language
1481:and an optional
1450:Lexical analysis
1391:
1390:
1345:lexical analysis
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1283:
1221:busy by filling
1088:
1081:
1077:
1074:
1068:
1063:this section by
1054:inline citations
1041:
1040:
1033:
902:Fernando CorbatĂł
894:General Electric
794:. It introduced
758:: A team led by
645:
639:
607:Backus–Naur form
574:formal languages
497:lexical analysis
445:operating system
384:computer program
364:
357:
350:
226:Notable runtimes
213:Transcompilation
60:General concepts
50:
49:
32:Compiler (manga)
21:
5307:
5306:
5302:
5301:
5300:
5298:
5297:
5296:
5262:
5261:
5260:
5255:
5246:
5217:
5198:Word processing
5106:
5092:Virtual reality
5053:
5015:
4986:Computer vision
4962:
4958:Multiprocessing
4924:
4886:
4852:Security hacker
4828:
4804:Digital library
4745:
4696:Mathematics of
4691:
4653:
4629:Automata theory
4624:Formal language
4598:
4564:Software design
4535:
4468:
4454:Virtual machine
4432:
4428:Network service
4389:
4380:Embedded system
4353:
4286:
4275:
4270:
4236:Wayback Machine
4215:
4204:Short animation
4203:
4197:Wayback Machine
4183:
4178:
4163:
4161:
4143:
4141:
4137:
4131:
4116:
4100:
4079:
4054:
4044:Morgan Kaufmann
4026:
3996:
3957:
3927:
3904:
3902:
3884:
3863:Horowitz, Ellis
3851:
3849:
3848:on 15 June 2007
3845:
3839:
3824:
3816:Bornat, Richard
3808:
3780:
3754:
3699:
3665:
3663:Further reading
3660:
3659:
3654:
3650:
3640:
3638:
3628:
3624:
3614:
3612:
3604:
3603:
3599:
3589:
3587:
3576:
3572:
3562:
3560:
3555:. Xilinx, Inc.
3549:
3545:
3537:
3523:
3496:
3490:
3486:
3455:
3451:
3441:
3439:
3420:
3416:
3407:
3405:
3403:
3379:
3378:
3374:
3369:
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3350:
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3329:
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3315:
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3292:
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3275:
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3266:
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3159:
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3146:
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3120:
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3107:
3102:
3098:
3093:
3089:
3084:
3080:
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3061:
3056:
3052:
3047:
3043:
3034:
3030:
3023:
3007:
3003:
2994:
2990:
2980:
2978:
2972:
2968:
2955:
2948:
2942:
2938:
2933:
2929:
2910:IT Professional
2902:
2898:
2887:
2883:
2862:Hopper, Grace.
2860:
2856:
2847:
2846:
2842:
2813:
2809:
2780:
2776:
2764:
2760:
2754:
2750:
2745:
2741:
2729:
2728:
2719:
2718:
2713:
2702:
2696:
2692:
2679:
2677:
2673:
2659:
2644:
2631:
2627:
2599:
2595:
2588:
2570:
2566:
2562:(xii+514 pages)
2550:
2532:Springer-Verlag
2524:
2520:
2513:
2495:
2491:
2484:
2470:
2466:
2457:
2453:
2448:
2444:
2434:
2432:
2422:
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2403:
2377:
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2341:
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2329:
2322:
2312:
2310:
2302:
2301:
2297:
2292:
2291:
2286:
2282:
2271:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2248:Metacompilation
2212:
2205:
2202:
2042:
2015:
1992:virtual machine
1959:
1951:runtime library
1879:
1868:
1862:
1859:
1844:
1828:
1817:
1798:
1792:
1754:Code generation
1731:code generation
1727:
1659:is crucial for
1615:escape analysis
1576:
1567:code generation
1545:and builds the
1517:(also known as
1514:Syntax analysis
1453:(also known as
1388:
1387:
1349:syntax analysis
1320:, respectively.
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1281:
1263:
1219:execution units
1156:Compiler design
1150:
1110:
1089:
1078:
1072:
1069:
1059:Please help to
1058:
1042:
1038:
1031:
869:Martin Richards
804:nested function
552:
546:
525:transformations
426:) to create an
368:
248:(CLR) and
234:Android Runtime
130:Virtual machine
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5305:
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5102:Solid modeling
5099:
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5084:
5079:
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5069:
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5025:
5023:
5017:
5016:
5014:
5013:
5008:
5003:
5001:Control method
4998:
4993:
4988:
4983:
4978:
4972:
4970:
4964:
4963:
4961:
4960:
4955:
4953:Multithreading
4950:
4945:
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4926:
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4912:
4907:
4902:
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4894:
4888:
4887:
4885:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4847:Formal methods
4844:
4838:
4836:
4830:
4829:
4827:
4826:
4821:
4819:World Wide Web
4816:
4811:
4806:
4801:
4796:
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4786:
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4776:
4771:
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4755:
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4261:
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4229:
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4212:
4200:
4190:
4182:
4181:External links
4179:
4177:
4176:
4170:
4150:
4129:
4121:Addison-Wesley
4108:Wirth, Niklaus
4104:
4098:
4083:
4077:
4058:
4052:
4030:
4024:
4000:
3994:
3964:
3955:
3939:
3925:
3912:
3882:
3858:
3837:
3812:
3806:
3784:
3778:
3758:
3752:
3734:Allen, Randy;
3731:
3703:
3697:
3689:Addison-Wesley
3671:Aho, Alfred V.
3666:
3664:
3661:
3658:
3657:
3648:
3622:
3597:
3570:
3543:
3522:978-0897919784
3521:
3484:
3449:
3414:
3401:
3372:
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3001:
2988:
2966:
2951:. p. 27.
2936:
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2896:
2881:
2854:
2840:
2807:
2774:
2758:
2748:
2739:
2730:|website=
2698:Backus, John.
2690:
2657:
2625:
2593:
2586:
2564:
2548:
2518:
2512:978-1461259831
2511:
2489:
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2442:
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2225:
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2217:
2201:
2198:
2179:
2178:
2171:
2168:cross compiler
2164:
2157:
2156:
2155:
2152:
2115:
2114:
2113:
2076:
2075:
2074:
2063:
2046:
1981:cross compiler
1958:
1955:
1881:
1880:
1831:
1829:
1822:
1816:
1813:
1809:formal methods
1794:Main article:
1791:
1788:
1787:
1786:
1750:
1726:
1723:
1653:
1652:
1626:
1607:alias analysis
1575:
1572:
1571:
1570:
1555:object binding
1534:
1531:formal grammar
1510:
1463:lexical tokens
1446:
1426:
1407:Atlas Autocode
1377:preprocessing,
1298:number literal
1262:
1259:
1235:
1234:
1202:
1182:
1149:
1146:
1109:
1106:
1091:
1090:
1045:
1043:
1036:
1030:
1027:
918:Dennis Ritchie
842:
841:
823:
810:. It included
781:
771:
753:
735:
724:Remington Rand
705:
704:
698:
684:
671:Klaus Samelson
601:
600:
594:
588:
548:Main article:
545:
542:
436:cross-compiler
370:
369:
367:
366:
359:
352:
344:
341:
340:
339:
338:
333:
324:
315:
314:
310:
309:
308:
307:
301:
292:
282:
277:
271:
261:
252:
243:
237:
228:
227:
223:
222:
221:
220:
215:
210:
208:Precompilation
205:
204:
203:
198:
187:
178:
177:
173:
172:
171:
170:
165:
160:
155:
150:
142:
141:
137:
136:
135:
134:
133:
132:
127:
122:
117:
116:
115:
108:Runtime system
100:
94:
93:
92:
87:
86:
85:
70:
62:
61:
57:
56:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5304:
5293:
5290:
5288:
5285:
5283:
5280:
5278:
5275:
5273:
5270:
5269:
5267:
5252:
5244:
5242:
5234:
5232:
5224:
5223:
5220:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5206:
5204:
5201:
5199:
5196:
5194:
5191:
5189:
5186:
5184:
5181:
5179:
5176:
5174:
5171:
5169:
5166:
5164:
5161:
5159:
5156:
5154:
5151:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5129:
5126:
5124:
5121:
5119:
5116:
5115:
5113:
5109:
5103:
5100:
5098:
5095:
5093:
5090:
5088:
5087:Mixed reality
5085:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5075:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5064:
5062:
5060:
5056:
5050:
5047:
5045:
5042:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5026:
5024:
5022:
5018:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4973:
4971:
4969:
4965:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4935:
4933:
4931:
4927:
4921:
4920:Accessibility
4918:
4916:
4915:Visualization
4913:
4911:
4908:
4906:
4903:
4901:
4898:
4897:
4895:
4893:
4889:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4839:
4837:
4835:
4831:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4817:
4815:
4812:
4810:
4807:
4805:
4802:
4800:
4797:
4795:
4792:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4782:
4780:
4777:
4775:
4772:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4760:
4757:
4756:
4754:
4752:
4748:
4742:
4739:
4737:
4734:
4732:
4729:
4727:
4724:
4722:
4719:
4717:
4714:
4712:
4709:
4707:
4704:
4703:
4701:
4699:
4694:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4664:
4662:
4660:
4656:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4618:
4615:
4614:
4613:
4610:
4609:
4607:
4605:
4601:
4595:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4546:
4544:
4542:
4538:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4504:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4483:
4481:
4479:
4475:
4471:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4441:
4439:
4435:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4400:
4398:
4396:
4392:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4375:Dependability
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4362:
4360:
4356:
4350:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4338:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4297:
4295:
4293:
4289:
4284:
4278:
4274:
4267:
4262:
4260:
4255:
4253:
4248:
4247:
4244:
4237:
4233:
4230:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4218:
4213:
4210:
4206:
4201:
4198:
4194:
4191:
4188:
4185:
4184:
4174:
4171:
4160:
4156:
4151:
4136:
4132:
4126:
4122:
4115:
4114:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4095:
4091:
4090:
4084:
4080:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4065:
4059:
4055:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4040:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4021:
4017:
4012:
4011:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3991:
3987:
3986:Prentice-Hall
3983:
3979:
3978:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3962:
3958:
3956:0-471-32776-X
3952:
3948:
3944:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3922:
3918:
3913:
3901:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3883:0-914894-23-4
3879:
3876:
3871:
3870:
3864:
3859:
3844:
3840:
3834:
3830:
3823:
3822:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3794:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3698:9780201100884
3694:
3690:
3686:
3685:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3667:
3652:
3637:
3633:
3626:
3611:
3607:
3601:
3585:
3581:
3574:
3558:
3554:
3547:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3495:
3488:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3465:(2): 93–113.
3464:
3460:
3453:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3418:
3404:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3376:
3367:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3345:
3341:
3334:
3332:
3322:
3313:
3304:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3273:
3264:
3255:
3246:
3237:
3228:
3218:
3211:
3205:
3196:
3189:
3188:0-8493-3135-8
3185:
3179:
3170:
3163:
3157:
3150:
3144:
3135:
3128:
3122:
3115:
3109:
3100:
3091:
3082:
3074:
3070:
3063:
3054:
3045:
3038:
3032:
3024:
3018:
3014:
3013:
3005:
2998:
2992:
2977:
2970:
2963:
2954:
2947:
2940:
2931:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2900:
2892:
2885:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2858:
2850:
2844:
2836:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2818:
2811:
2803:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2785:
2778:
2772:
2771:0-321-48681-1
2768:
2762:
2752:
2743:
2735:
2723:
2712:
2708:
2701:
2694:
2687:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2654:
2650:
2642:
2638:
2637:
2629:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2610:(in German).
2609:
2608:
2603:
2597:
2589:
2583:
2578:
2577:
2568:
2559:
2558:3-540-00217-0
2555:
2551:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2522:
2514:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2493:
2485:
2479:
2475:
2468:
2461:
2455:
2446:
2431:
2427:
2420:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2402:9781450343909
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2375:
2368:
2364:
2362:9781558607026
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2339:
2332:
2327:
2325:
2309:
2305:
2299:
2295:
2284:
2278:
2274:
2269:
2265:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2220:
2215:
2209:
2204:
2197:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2176:
2172:
2169:
2165:
2162:
2158:
2153:
2150:
2149:lookup tables
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2129:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2116:
2111:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2077:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2061:
2057:
2056:
2054:
2050:
2047:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2029:
2028:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2018:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1995:
1993:
1988:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1969:
1968:
1964:
1954:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1927:
1925:
1921:
1915:
1913:
1907:
1905:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1877:
1874:
1866:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1842:
1841:
1837:
1832:This section
1830:
1826:
1821:
1820:
1812:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1755:
1751:
1748:
1744:
1741:
1740:
1739:
1736:
1735:
1732:
1722:
1718:
1716:
1711:
1708:
1707:free software
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1664:
1662:
1658:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1627:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1589:
1588:
1587:
1584:
1581:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1551:type checking
1548:
1544:
1540:
1539:
1535:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1515:
1511:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1451:
1447:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1431:
1430:Preprocessing
1427:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1385:
1384:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1331:
1327:
1319:
1318:grammar for C
1316:parts of the
1315:
1312:and properly
1311:
1307:
1294:reserved word
1287:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1258:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1207:
1203:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1187:
1183:
1180:
1175:
1174:type checking
1171:
1167:
1163:
1162:
1161:
1154:
1145:
1141:
1138:
1137:optimizations
1133:
1129:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1114:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1087:
1084:
1076:
1073:December 2019
1066:
1062:
1056:
1055:
1049:
1044:
1035:
1034:
1026:
1024:
1019:
1015:
1013:
1008:
1004:
998:
995:
990:
985:
983:
977:
975:
970:
966:
962:
960:
955:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
934:
929:
927:
923:
919:
915:
910:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
877:
873:
870:
866:
862:
860:
856:
852:
848:
839:
835:
831:
830:John McCarthy
827:
824:
821:
817:
813:
809:
808:lexical scope
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
782:
779:
775:
772:
769:
765:
761:
757:
754:
751:
747:
746:Alick Glennie
743:
739:
736:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
714:
713:
712:
709:
702:
699:
696:
692:
688:
685:
682:
679:
678:
677:
674:
672:
668:
664:
660:
655:
653:
649:
644:
638:
637:
631:
626:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
598:
595:
592:
589:
586:
583:
582:
581:
579:
575:
569:
566:
556:
551:
541:
538:
533:
531:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
493:preprocessing
489:
487:
486:
481:
477:
476:
471:
467:
466:
461:
460:
454:
452:
451:
446:
442:
438:
437:
431:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
365:
360:
358:
353:
351:
346:
345:
343:
342:
337:
334:
332:
328:
325:
322:
319:
318:
317:
316:
312:
311:
305:
302:
300:
296:
293:
290:
286:
283:
281:
278:
275:
272:
269:
265:
262:
260:
256:
253:
251:
247:
244:
241:
238:
235:
232:
231:
230:
229:
225:
224:
219:
218:Recompilation
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
202:
199:
197:
194:
193:
191:
188:
185:
184:Ahead-of-time
182:
181:
180:
179:
175:
174:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
154:
151:
149:
146:
145:
144:
143:
140:Types of code
139:
138:
131:
128:
126:
123:
121:
118:
114:
111:
110:
109:
106:
105:
104:
101:
98:
95:
91:
88:
84:
81:
80:
79:
76:
75:
74:
71:
69:
66:
65:
64:
63:
59:
58:
55:
52:
51:
48:
44:
40:
33:
19:
5183:Cyberwarfare
4842:Cryptography
4162:. Retrieved
4158:
4142:. Retrieved
4135:the original
4112:
4088:
4063:
4038:
4009:
3976:
3960:
3946:
3943:Gries, David
3916:
3903:. Retrieved
3868:
3850:. Retrieved
3843:the original
3820:
3792:
3765:
3739:
3736:Kennedy, Ken
3714:
3710:
3683:
3651:
3639:. Retrieved
3635:
3625:
3613:. Retrieved
3609:
3600:
3588:. Retrieved
3584:the original
3573:
3561:. Retrieved
3546:
3500:
3487:
3462:
3458:
3452:
3442:14 September
3440:. Retrieved
3436:the original
3431:
3427:
3417:
3406:, retrieved
3384:
3375:
3366:
3339:
3321:
3312:
3303:
3291:. Retrieved
3282:
3272:
3263:
3254:
3245:
3236:
3227:
3217:
3204:
3195:
3178:
3169:
3156:
3151:, MIT, 1974.
3143:
3134:
3121:
3108:
3099:
3090:
3081:
3072:
3062:
3053:
3044:
3031:
3011:
3004:
2991:
2979:. Retrieved
2969:
2939:
2930:
2913:
2909:
2899:
2884:
2867:
2857:
2843:
2816:
2810:
2783:
2777:
2761:
2751:
2742:
2706:
2693:
2678:. Retrieved
2640:
2635:
2628:
2611:
2605:
2596:
2575:
2567:
2527:
2521:
2502:
2492:
2473:
2467:
2459:
2454:
2445:
2433:. Retrieved
2429:
2419:
2384:
2374:
2366:
2344:
2338:
2311:. Retrieved
2307:
2298:
2283:
2268:
2238:Compile farm
2194:disassembler
2190:machine code
2181:
2180:
2097:, Microsoft
2025:
2011:indent style
1996:
1989:
1976:
1972:
1970:
1966:
1960:
1930:
1928:
1916:
1908:
1898:
1884:
1869:
1863:October 2018
1860:
1845:Please help
1833:
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1752:
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1737:
1733:
1728:
1719:
1680:
1665:
1654:
1629:Optimization
1585:
1579:
1577:
1547:symbol table
1536:
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1512:
1482:
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1466:
1462:
1459:tokenization
1458:
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1386:
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1376:
1372:
1334:
1330:symbol table
1323:
1314:context-free
1276:example for
1236:
1205:
1185:
1172:it performs
1165:
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1130:
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1098:
1094:
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1070:
1051:
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988:
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978:
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956:
938:
930:
922:Ken Thompson
911:
880:
874:
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843:
825:
783:
773:
755:
737:
731:
720:Grace Hopper
715:
710:
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675:
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627:
623:Noam Chomsky
605:
602:
596:
590:
584:
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534:
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432:
424:machine code
399:
395:
379:
373:
190:Just-in-time
163:Machine code
83:Compile time
77:
47:
5193:Video games
5173:Digital art
4930:Concurrency
4799:Data mining
4711:Probability
4444:Interpreter
3721:: 535–548.
3675:Sethi, Ravi
3590:28 February
3563:28 February
3293:28 February
3147:A. Snyder,
2756:Laboratory.
2182:Assemblers,
2145:transistors
1935:Common Lisp
1887:translation
1668:basic block
1521:) involves
1483:token value
1306:syntax tree
1223:delay slots
1118:single pass
1065:introducing
796:code blocks
760:John Backus
722:'s team at
630:Konrad Zuse
611:John Backus
537:interpreter
480:expressions
472:; language
470:transpilers
459:decompilers
420:object code
404:source code
304:Zend Engine
285:Objective-C
153:Object code
148:Source code
125:Interpreter
73:Translation
43:Compilation
5266:Categories
5251:Glossaries
5123:E-commerce
4716:Statistics
4659:Algorithms
4617:Stochastic
4449:Middleware
4305:Peripheral
2981:20 October
2688:(77 pages)
2161:decompiler
2087:JavaScript
1777:(see also
1771:scheduling
1623:call graph
1580:optimizer,
1574:Middle end
1543:parse tree
1527:parse tree
1479:token name
1475:evaluating
1290:identifier
1186:middle end
1048:references
820:Tony Hoare
766:developed
695:FLOW-MATIC
636:PlankalkĂĽl
428:executable
388:translates
120:Executable
5277:Compilers
5072:Rendering
5067:Animation
4698:computing
4649:Semantics
4340:Processor
4069:CRC Press
3935:714113472
3892:0888-2088
3358:951745657
2732:ignored (
2722:cite book
2667:1614-3213
2308:PCMag.com
2091:Smalltalk
2062:(or WAM).
2021:debugging
1834:does not
1783:debugging
1767:selection
1763:registers
1699:Microsoft
1647:and even
1433:supports
1261:Front end
1231:heuristic
1166:front end
898:Honeywell
890:Bell Labs
836:designed
826:1958–1962
812:recursion
784:1958–1960
756:1954–1957
663:Superplan
661:proposed
578:semantics
475:rewriters
430:program.
376:computing
329:and
297:and
287:and
257:and
168:Microcode
103:Execution
5231:Category
5059:Graphics
4834:Security
4496:Compiler
4395:Networks
4292:Hardware
4144:24 April
4110:(1996).
4036:(2005).
4006:(1997).
3945:(1971).
3905:20 March
3900:78-21905
3852:11 April
3818:(1979).
3790:(1998).
3764:(2002).
3738:(2001).
3681:(1986).
3557:Archived
3535:Archived
3479:15345671
3287:Archived
2953:Archived
2835:14878552
2802:10081016
2711:Archived
2680:12 April
2671:Archived
2200:See also
2049:Bytecode
1963:platform
1899:requires
1725:Back end
1591:Analysis
1467:scanning
1419:Coral 66
1399:top-down
1302:operator
1206:back end
994:STONEMAN
989:STONEMAN
987:The Ada
792:ALGOL 60
788:Algol 58
748:for the
742:Autocode
732:compiler
716:May 1952
615:Algol 60
597:Language
585:Alphabet
380:compiler
242:(Erlang)
158:Bytecode
78:Compiler
5241:Outline
4234:at the
4221:YouTube
4209:YouTube
4195:at the
4164:17 June
3865:(ed.).
3641:5 March
3615:12 June
3531:7128364
2614:: 255.
2435:10 July
2411:8339241
2188:to the
2126:netlist
1943:SNOBOL4
1855:removed
1840:sources
1563:parsing
1523:parsing
1519:parsing
1493:, so a
1471:lexemes
1310:regular
1227:NP-hard
1061:improve
896:(later
882:Multics
768:FORTRAN
681:FORTRAN
544:History
501:parsing
406:from a
299:Node.js
255:CPython
113:Runtime
4127:
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3408:17 May
3399:
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3279:"LLVM"
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2800:
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2430:Medium
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2313:2 July
2083:Python
2071:Python
2053:Prolog
2039:OpenMP
2003:Cfront
1977:hosted
1973:native
1715:Open64
1705:. The
1701:, and
1455:lexing
1443:Scheme
1425:phase.
1286:tokens
1274:parser
1126:Pascal
1050:, but
948:Simula
857:, and
591:String
565:memory
414:(e.g.
400:target
396:source
280:LuaJIT
192:(JIT)
4644:Logic
4478:tools
4138:(PDF)
4117:(PDF)
3846:(PDF)
3825:(PDF)
3717:(5).
3538:(PDF)
3527:S2CID
3497:(PDF)
3475:S2CID
2956:(PDF)
2949:(PDF)
2831:S2CID
2798:S2CID
2714:(PDF)
2703:(PDF)
2674:(PDF)
2645:(PDF)
2639:[
2407:S2CID
2043:DOALL
2016:#line
1957:Types
1904:BASIC
1695:Intel
1435:macro
1415:ALGOL
1395:strop
1300:, or
1270:Lexer
1247:Clang
965:DARPA
926:Unics
876:BLISS
851:BLISS
778:COBOL
740:: An
687:COBOL
422:, or
410:to a
394:(the
386:that
382:is a
331:Clang
323:(GCC)
306:(PHP)
289:Swift
276:(JVM)
236:(ART)
186:(AOT)
4476:and
4349:Form
4345:Size
4166:2016
4146:2012
4125:ISBN
4094:ISBN
4073:ISBN
4048:ISBN
4020:ISBN
3990:ISBN
3951:ISBN
3931:OCLC
3921:ISBN
3907:2020
3896:LCCN
3888:ISSN
3878:ISBN
3854:2007
3833:ISBN
3802:ISBN
3774:ISBN
3748:ISBN
3693:ISBN
3643:2023
3617:2022
3592:2017
3565:2017
3517:ISBN
3444:2022
3410:2023
3397:ISBN
3354:OCLC
3344:ISBN
3295:2017
3222:1979
3184:ISBN
3017:ISBN
2983:2009
2767:ISBN
2734:help
2682:2020
2663:ISSN
2653:ISBN
2582:ISBN
2554:ISBN
2544:ISBN
2507:ISBN
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2437:2024
2397:ISBN
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2315:2022
2099:.NET
2095:Java
2067:Java
1931:must
1922:and
1838:any
1836:cite
1769:and
1417:and
1409:and
1375:and
1272:and
1251:LLVM
1239:CPUs
1204:The
1184:The
1164:The
1007:GNAT
974:Yacc
969:PQCC
946:and
944:LISP
920:and
906:PL/I
865:BCPL
847:BCPL
838:LISP
774:1959
701:LISP
693:and
669:and
519:and
378:, a
336:MSVC
327:LLVM
264:crt0
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250:Mono
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4207:on
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