Language - Knowledge

3441: 2793:, which describes the way in which certain words refer to entities through their relation between a specific point in time and space when the word is uttered. Such words are, for example, the word, "I" (which designates the person speaking), "now" (which designates the moment of speaking), and "here" (which designates the position of speaking). Signs also change their meanings over time, as the conventions governing their usage gradually change. The study of how the meaning of linguistic expressions changes depending on context is called pragmatics. Deixis is an important part of the way that we use language to point out entities in the world. Pragmatics is concerned with the ways in which language use is patterned and how these patterns contribute to meaning. For example, in all languages, linguistic expressions can be used not just to transmit information, but to perform actions. Certain actions are made only through language, but nonetheless have tangible effects, e.g. the act of "naming", which creates a new name for some entity, or the act of "pronouncing someone man and wife", which creates a social contract of marriage. These types of acts are called 73: 846: 2718: 4526:"Functional grammar analyzes grammatical structure, as do formal and structural grammar; but it also analyzes the entire communicative situation: the purpose of the speech event, its participants, its discourse context. Functionalists maintain that the communicative situation motivates, constrains, explains, or otherwise determines grammatical structure, and that a structural or formal approach is not merely limited to an artificially restricted data base, but is inadequate even as a structural account. Functional grammar, then, differs from formal and structural grammar in that it purports not to model but to explain; and the explanation is grounded in the communicative situation". 1015: 1393:. The condition affects both spoken and written language. Those with this aphasia also exhibit ungrammatical speech and show inability to use syntactic information to determine the meaning of sentences. Both expressive and receptive aphasia also affect the use of sign language, in analogous ways to how they affect speech, with expressive aphasia causing signers to sign slowly and with incorrect grammar, whereas a signer with receptive aphasia will sign fluently, but make little sense to others and have difficulties comprehending others' signs. This shows that the impairment is specific to the ability to use language, not to the physiology used for speech production. 44: 3493:

simplified grammatical and phonological structure. The language comes to contain mostly the grammatical and phonological categories that exist in both languages. Pidgin languages are defined by not having any native speakers, but only being spoken by people who have another language as their first language. But if the Pidgin language becomes the main language of a speech community, then eventually children will grow up learning the Pidgin language as their first language. As the generation of child learners grows up, the pidgin will often be seen to change its structure and acquire a greater degree of complexity. This type of language is generally called a

2548: 2701:, Gamilaraay among them, distinguish instead between Agents and Patients. In ergative languages, the single participant in an intransitive sentence, such as "I run", is treated the same as the patient in a transitive sentence, giving the equivalent of "me run". Only in transitive sentences would the equivalent of the pronoun "I" be used. In this way the semantic roles can map onto the grammatical relations in different ways, grouping an intransitive subject either with Agents (accusative type) or Patients (ergative type) or even making each of the three roles differently, which is called the 3159: 3058: 2615:, that can occupy different places in a larger syntactic structure. Sentences can be described as consisting of phrases connected in a tree structure, connecting the phrases to each other at different levels. To the right is a graphic representation of the syntactic analysis of the English sentence "the cat sat on the mat". The sentence is analyzed as being constituted by a noun phrase, a verb, and a prepositional phrase; the prepositional phrase is further divided into a preposition and a noun phrase, and the noun phrases consist of an article and a noun. 1821:

structures are built by combining elements into larger structures that can be seen as layered, e.g. how sounds build words and words build phrases; the discreteness of the elements of language, meaning that the elements out of which linguistic signs are constructed are discrete units, e.g. sounds and words, that can be distinguished from each other and rearranged in different patterns; and the productivity of the linguistic system, meaning that the finite number of linguistic elements can be combined into a theoretically infinite number of combinations.

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meaningful, but "*love you I" is not. Syntactical rules determine how word order and sentence structure is constrained, and how those constraints contribute to meaning. For example, in English, the two sentences "the slaves were cursing the master" and "the master was cursing the slaves" mean different things, because the role of the grammatical subject is encoded by the noun being in front of the verb, and the role of object is encoded by the noun appearing after the verb. Conversely, in

2244:: words that describe properties or qualities of nouns, such as "red" or "big". Word classes can be "open" if new words can continuously be added to the class, or relatively "closed" if there is a fixed number of words in a class. In English, the class of pronouns is closed, whereas the class of adjectives is open, since an infinite number of adjectives can be constructed from verbs (e.g. "saddened") or nouns (e.g. with the -like suffix, as in "noun-like"). In other languages such as 756:, meaning that it allows humans to produce a vast range of utterances from a finite set of elements, and to create new words and sentences. This is possible because human language is based on a dual code, in which a finite number of elements which are meaningless in themselves (e.g. sounds, letters or gestures) can be combined to form an infinite number of larger units of meaning (words and sentences). However, one study has demonstrated that an Australian bird, the 878:

pre-linguistic systems among our pre-human ancestors. These theories can be called continuity-based theories. The opposite viewpoint is that language is such a unique human trait that it cannot be compared to anything found among non-humans and that it must therefore have appeared suddenly in the transition from pre-hominids to early man. These theories can be defined as discontinuity-based. Similarly, theories based on the generative view of language pioneered by

3356: 4167: 1806: 1300: 3409:, monolingualism was characteristic mainly of populations inhabiting small islands. But with the ideology that made one people, one state, and one language the most desirable political arrangement, monolingualism started to spread throughout the world. There are only 250 countries in the world corresponding to some 6,000 languages, which means that most countries are multilingual and most languages therefore exist in close contact with other languages. 4380: 4338: 4352: 1446: 4366: 4228: 3027:", or systems of signalling social distance through linguistic means. In English, social deixis is shown mostly through distinguishing between addressing some people by first name and others by surname, and in titles such as "Mrs.", "boy", "Doctor", or "Your Honor", but in other languages, such systems may be highly complex and codified in the entire grammar and vocabulary of the language. For instance, in languages of east Asia such as 1432: 118: 2386:, or analytic, because there is almost a full correspondence between a single word and a single aspect of meaning. Most languages have words consisting of several morphemes, but they vary in the degree to which morphemes are discrete units. In many languages, notably in most Indo-European languages, single morphemes may have several distinct meanings that cannot be analyzed into smaller segments. For example, in Latin, the word 8519: 2862: 1935: 547:. Proponents of the view that the drive to language acquisition is innate in humans argue that this is supported by the fact that all cognitively normal children raised in an environment where language is accessible will acquire language without formal instruction. Languages may even develop spontaneously in environments where people live or grow up together without a common language; for example, 648: 2619:

made to emphasize the location by moving forward the prepositional phrase: " on the mat, the cat sat". There are many different formalist and functionalist frameworks that propose theories for describing syntactic structures, based on different assumptions about what language is and how it should be described. Each of them would analyze a sentence such as this in a different manner.

1920: 779:. Similarly, many species of birds and whales learn their songs by imitating other members of their species. However, while some animals may acquire large numbers of words and symbols, none have been able to learn as many different signs as are generally known by an average 4 year old human, nor have any acquired anything resembling the complex grammar of human language. 1476: 526:

our experience of the objective world. This led to the question of whether philosophical problems are really firstly linguistic problems. The resurgence of the view that language plays a significant role in the creation and circulation of concepts, and that the study of philosophy is essentially the study of language, is associated with what has been called the

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different genres, styles, and registers in written and spoken language, and in some communities, writing traditionally takes place in an entirely different language than the one spoken. There is some evidence that the use of writing also has effects on the cognitive development of humans, perhaps because acquiring literacy generally requires explicit and

1953: 4140:, whereas New Guinea is home to a large number of small families and isolates, as well as a number of Austronesian languages. Due to its remoteness and geographical fragmentation, Papua New Guinea emerges in fact as the leading location worldwide for both species (8% of world total) and linguistic richness – with 830 living tongues (12% of world total). 943:

as analogous to what pre-human language must have been like. Early human fossils can be inspected for traces of physical adaptation to language use or pre-linguistic forms of symbolic behaviour. Among the signs in human fossils that may suggest linguistic abilities are: the size of the brain relative to body mass, the presence of a

2505:, or "good", is inflected to agree with a noun that is masculine gender, singular number, and nominative case. In many polysynthetic languages, verbs cross-reference their subjects and objects. In these types of languages, a single verb may include information that would require an entire sentence in English. For example, in the 1802:. Signs can be composed of sounds, gestures, letters, or symbols, depending on whether the language is spoken, signed, or written, and they can be combined into complex signs, such as words and phrases. When used in communication, a sign is encoded and transmitted by a sender through a channel to a receiver who decodes it. 4242:(UNESCO) operates with five levels of language endangerment: "safe", "vulnerable" (not spoken by children outside the home), "definitely endangered" (not spoken by children), "severely endangered" (only spoken by the oldest generations), and "critically endangered" (spoken by a few members of the oldest generation, often 2968:

language as a way of signalling identity with one cultural group as well as difference from others. Even among speakers of one language, several different ways of using the language exist, and each is used to signal affiliation with particular subgroups within a larger culture. Linguists and anthropologists, particularly

2135:), while others such as traditional Chinese writing use the vertical dimension (from top to bottom). A few writing systems use opposite directions for alternating lines, and others, such as the ancient Maya script, can be written in either direction and rely on graphic cues to show the reader the direction of reading. 1239:; for Chomsky, describing it is the primary objective of the discipline of linguistics. Thus, he considered that the grammars of individual languages are only of importance to linguistics insofar as they allow us to deduce the universal underlying rules from which the observable linguistic variability is generated. 615:, who has defined language as the construction of sentences that can be generated using transformational grammars. Chomsky considers these rules to be an innate feature of the human mind and to constitute the rudiments of what language is. By way of contrast, such transformational grammars are also commonly used in 1217: 2746:

and to solve a plethora of social tasks. Many aspects of language use can be seen to be adapted specifically to these purposes. Owing to the way in which language is transmitted between generations and within communities, language perpetually changes, diversifying into new languages or converging due

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Because all languages have a very large number of words, no purely logographic scripts are known to exist. Written language represents the way spoken sounds and words follow one after another by arranging symbols according to a pattern that follows a certain direction. The direction used in a writing

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Languages express meaning by relating a sign form to a meaning, or its content. Sign forms must be something that can be perceived, for example, in sounds, images, or gestures, and then related to a specific meaning by social convention. Because the basic relation of meaning for most linguistic signs

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seek to define the different elements of language and describe the way they relate to each other as systems of formal rules or operations, while functional theories seek to define the functions performed by language and then relate them to the linguistic elements that carry them out. The framework of

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held the opposite view. Around the turn of the 20th century, thinkers began to wonder about the role of language in shaping our experiences of the world – asking whether language simply reflects the objective structure of the world, or whether it creates concepts that in turn impose structure on

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defines a "living language" as "one that has at least one speaker for whom it is their first language". The exact number of known living languages varies from 6,000 to 7,000, depending on the precision of one's definition of "language", and in particular, on how one defines the distinction between a

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However, many languages also have grammatical conventions that signal the social position of the speaker in relation to others through the use of registers that are related to social hierarchies or divisions. In many languages, there are stylistic or even grammatical differences between the ways men

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Acquisition of second and additional languages can come at any age, through exposure in daily life or courses. Children learning a second language are more likely to achieve native-like fluency than adults, but in general, it is very rare for someone speaking a second language to pass completely for

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elements. The segmental elements are those that follow each other in sequences, which are usually represented by distinct letters in alphabetic scripts, such as the Roman script. In free flowing speech, there are no clear boundaries between one segment and the next, nor usually are there any audible

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The brain is the coordinating center of all linguistic activity; it controls both the production of linguistic cognition and of meaning and the mechanics of speech production. Nonetheless, our knowledge of the neurological bases for language is quite limited, though it has advanced considerably with

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Speaking is the default modality for language in all cultures. The production of spoken language depends on sophisticated capacities for controlling the lips, tongue and other components of the vocal apparatus, the ability to acoustically decode speech sounds, and the neurological apparatus required

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Researchers on the evolutionary origin of language generally find it plausible to suggest that language was invented only once, and that all modern spoken languages are thus in some way related, even if that relation can no longer be recovered ... because of limitations on the methods available

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in English, which is the reason that the spelling of English vowels do not correspond well to their current pronunciation. This is because the vowel shift brought the already established orthography out of synchronization with pronunciation. Another source of sound change is the erosion of words as

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are generally considered to be the earliest writing systems, both emerging out of their ancestral proto-literate symbol systems from 3400 to 3200 BC with the earliest coherent texts from about 2600 BC. It is generally agreed that Sumerian writing was an independent invention; however, it is debated

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The form of linguistic expression often does not correspond to the meaning that it actually has in a social context. For example, if at a dinner table a person asks, "Can you reach the salt?", that is, in fact, not a question about the length of the arms of the one being addressed, but a request to

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The reason sentences can be seen as being composed of phrases is because each phrase would be moved around as a single element if syntactic operations were carried out. For example, "the cat" is one phrase, and "on the mat" is another, because they would be treated as single units if a decision was

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Languages differ widely in how much they rely on morphological processes of word formation. In some languages, for example, Chinese, there are no morphological processes, and all grammatical information is encoded syntactically by forming strings of single words. This type of morpho-syntax is often

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into classes according to their functions and positions relative to other parts. All languages, for instance, make a basic distinction between a group of words that prototypically denotes things and concepts and a group of words that prototypically denotes actions and events. The first group, which

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of man, before the existence of any written records, its early development has left no historical traces, and it is believed that no comparable processes can be observed today. Theories that stress continuity often look at animals to see if, for example, primates display any traits that can be seen

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Some proponents of Saussure's view of language have advocated a formal approach which studies language structure by identifying its basic elements and then by presenting a formal account of the rules according to which the elements combine in order to form words and sentences. The main proponent of

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debated the relation between words, concepts and reality. Gorgias argued that language could represent neither the objective experience nor human experience, and that communication and truth were therefore impossible. Plato maintained that communication is possible because language represents ideas

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The more commonly spoken languages dominate the less commonly spoken languages, so the less commonly spoken languages eventually disappear from populations. Of the between 6,000 and 7,000 languages spoken as of 2010, between 50 and 90% of those are expected to have become extinct by the year 2100.

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When speakers of different languages interact closely, it is typical for their languages to influence each other. Through sustained language contact over long periods, linguistic traits diffuse between languages, and languages belonging to different families may converge to become more similar. In

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in Standard Spanish, but in Caribbean Spanish. The simple sound change has affected both morphology and syntax. Another common cause of grammatical change is the gradual petrification of idioms into new grammatical forms, for example, the way the English "going to" construction lost its aspect of

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Chomsky is one prominent proponent of a discontinuity-based theory of human language origins. He suggests that for scholars interested in the nature of language, "talk about the evolution of the language capacity is beside the point." Chomsky proposes that perhaps "some random mutation took place

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All languages change as speakers adopt or invent new ways of speaking and pass them on to other members of their speech community. Language change happens at all levels from the phonological level to the levels of vocabulary, morphology, syntax, and discourse. Even though language change is often

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Languages, understood as the particular set of speech norms of a particular community, are also a part of the larger culture of the community that speaks them. Languages differ not only in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar, but also through having different "cultures of speaking." Humans use

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Another way in which languages convey meaning is through the order of words within a sentence. The grammatical rules for how to produce new sentences from words that are already known is called syntax. The syntactical rules of a language determine why a sentence in English such as "I love you" is

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Early work in neurolinguistics involved the study of language in people with brain lesions, to see how lesions in specific areas affect language and speech. In this way, neuroscientists in the 19th century discovered that two areas in the brain are crucially implicated in language processing. The

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consisting of languages that can be shown to have common ancestry. Linguists recognize many hundreds of language families, although some of them can possibly be grouped into larger units as more evidence becomes available and in-depth studies are carried out. At present, there are also dozens of

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Because norms for language use are shared by members of a specific group, communicative style also becomes a way of displaying and constructing group identity. Linguistic differences may become salient markers of divisions between social groups, for example, speaking a language with a particular

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Grammar can be described as a system of categories and a set of rules that determine how categories combine to form different aspects of meaning. Languages differ widely in whether they are encoded through the use of categories or lexical units. However, several categories are so common as to be

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to statements, so that meaning is understood to be the process by which a predicate can be said to be true or false about an entity, e.g. "]" or "]". Recently, this model of semantics has been complemented with more dynamic models of meaning that incorporate shared knowledge about the context in

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regarding the definition of language and meaning, when used as a general concept, "language" may refer to the cognitive ability to learn and use systems of complex communication, or to describe the set of rules that makes up these systems, or the set of utterances that can be produced from those

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of predicates. In a sentence such as "Sally runs", the predicate is "runs", because it is the word that predicates a specific state about its argument "Sally". Some verbs such as "curse" can take two arguments, e.g. "Sally cursed John". A predicate that can only take a single argument is called

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has made language even more useful to humans. It makes it possible to store large amounts of information outside of the human body and retrieve it again, and it allows communication across physical distances and timespans that would otherwise be impossible. Many languages conventionally employ

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occurs when adult speakers of two different languages interact on a regular basis, but in a situation where neither group learns to speak the language of the other group fluently. In such a case, they will often construct a communication form that has traits of both languages, and that has a

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The shared features of languages which belong to the same typological class type may have arisen completely independently. Their co-occurrence might be due to universal laws governing the structure of natural languages, "language universals", or they might be the result of languages evolving

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differentiates the two words, which have different meanings. However, each language contrasts sounds in different ways. For example, in a language that does not distinguish between voiced and unvoiced consonants, the sounds and (if they both occur) could be considered a single phoneme, and

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Some of the properties that define human language as opposed to other communication systems are: the arbitrariness of the linguistic sign, meaning that there is no predictable connection between a linguistic sign and its meaning; the duality of the linguistic system, meaning that linguistic

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accent may imply membership of an ethnic minority or social class, one's area of origin, or status as a second language speaker. These kinds of differences are not part of the linguistic system, but are an important part of how people use language as a social tool for constructing groups.

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that allows humans to undertake linguistic behaviour: to learn languages and to produce and understand utterances. This definition stresses the universality of language to all humans, and it emphasizes the biological basis for the human capacity for language as a unique development of the

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Theories about the origin of language differ in regard to their basic assumptions about what language is. Some theories are based on the idea that language is so complex that one cannot imagine it simply appearing from nothing in its final form, but that it must have evolved from earlier

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Yet another definition sees language as a system of communication that enables humans to exchange verbal or symbolic utterances. This definition stresses the social functions of language and the fact that humans use it to express themselves and to manipulate objects in their environment.

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and it reorganized the brain, implanting a language organ in an otherwise primate brain." Though cautioning against taking this story literally, Chomsky insists that "it may be closer to reality than many other fairy tales that are told about evolutionary processes, including language."

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are inserted in the middle of a root. Affixes serve to modify or elaborate the meaning of the root. Some languages change the meaning of words by changing the phonological structure of a word, for example, the English word "run", which in the past tense is "ran". This process is called

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Human language is unusual in being able to refer to abstract concepts and to imagined or hypothetical events as well as events that took place in the past or may happen in the future. This ability to refer to events that are not at the same time or place as the speech event is called

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language through social interaction in early childhood, and children generally speak fluently by approximately three years old. Language and culture are codependent. Therefore, in addition to its strictly communicative uses, language has social uses such as signifying group

296:. This development is sometimes thought to have coincided with an increase in brain volume, and many linguists see the structures of language as having evolved to serve specific communicative and social functions. Language is processed in many different locations in the 495:

When speaking of language as a general concept, definitions can be used which stress different aspects of the phenomenon. These definitions also entail different approaches and understandings of language, and they also inform different and often incompatible schools of

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Languages can be classified in relation to their grammatical types. Languages that belong to different families nonetheless often have features in common, and these shared features tend to correlate. For example, languages can be classified on the basis of their basic

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Vowels are those sounds that have no audible friction caused by the narrowing or obstruction of some part of the upper vocal tract. They vary in quality according to the degree of lip aperture and the placement of the tongue within the oral cavity. Vowels are called

1479: 2607:, which exists in many languages. This rule explains why when in English, the phrase "John is talking to Lucy" is turned into a question, it becomes "Who is John talking to?", and not "John is talking to who?". The latter example may be used as a way of placing 1187:

analyses of language, he laid the foundation of the modern discipline of linguistics. Saussure also introduced several basic dimensions of linguistic analysis that are still fundamental in many contemporary linguistic theories, such as the distinctions between

3789:, for instance, may in some areas be more different than languages with names, e.g. Swedish and Norwegian. A complex social process of "language making" underlies these assignments of status and in some cases even linguistic experts may not agree (e.g. the 3332:

Language change may be motivated by "language internal" factors, such as changes in pronunciation motivated by certain sounds being difficult to distinguish aurally or to produce, or through patterns of change that cause some rare types of constructions to

2115:(and those on which it is based or that have been derived from it) was originally based on the representation of single sounds, so that words were constructed from letters that generally denote a single consonant or vowel in the structure of the word. In 2378:, which creates a new word from an existing one. In English, the verb "sing" has the inflectional forms "singing" and "sung", which are both verbs, and the derivational form "singer", which is a noun derived from the verb with the agentive suffix "-er". 1591:

Consonants are those sounds that have audible friction or closure at some point within the upper vocal tract. Consonant sounds vary by place of articulation, i.e. the place in the vocal tract where the airflow is obstructed, commonly at the lips, teeth,

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interprets language in terms of the concepts (which are sometimes universal, and sometimes specific to a particular language) which underlie its forms. Cognitive linguistics is primarily concerned with how the mind creates meaning through language.

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By using these speech organs, humans can produce hundreds of distinct sounds: some appear very often in the world's languages, whereas others are much more common in certain language families, language areas, or even specific to a single language.

2805:. These social rules for which ways of using language are considered appropriate in certain situations and how utterances are to be understood in relation to their context vary between communities, and learning them is a large part of acquiring 1579:

when the lips are relatively open, as in the vowel (English "ah"). If the tongue is located towards the back of the mouth, the quality changes, creating vowels such as (English "oo"). The quality also changes depending on whether the lips are

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is based on social convention, linguistic signs can be considered arbitrary, in the sense that the convention is established socially and historically, rather than by means of a natural relation between a specific sign form and its meaning.

4092:, and South-Asia, contain hundreds of small language families. These areas together account for the majority of the world's languages, though not the majority of speakers. In the Americas, some of the largest language families include the 2914:(literally "whole-sentences"), utterances that use just one word to communicate some idea. Several months after a child begins producing words, the child will produce two-word utterances, and within a few more months will begin to produce 1973:

Depending on modality, language structure can be based on systems of sounds (speech), gestures (sign languages), or graphic or tactile symbols (writing). The ways in which languages use sounds or signs to construct meaning are studied in

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explain grammatical structures by their communicative functions, and understand the grammatical structures of language to be the result of an adaptive process by which grammar was "tailored" to serve the communicative needs of its users.

790:: for example, a noun phrase can contain another noun phrase (as in "'s lips]") or a clause can contain another clause (as in "]"). Human language is the only known natural communication system whose adaptability may be referred to as 2839:

human beings learn to use language. Children acquire the language or languages used around them: whichever languages they receive sufficient exposure to during childhood. The development is essentially the same for children acquiring

4033:. The Austronesian languages are considered to have originated in Taiwan around 3000 BC and spread through the Oceanic region through island-hopping, based on an advanced nautical technology. Other populous language families are the 2880:

First language acquisition proceeds in a fairly regular sequence, though there is a wide degree of variation in the timing of particular stages among normally developing infants. Studies published in 2013 have indicated that unborn

3039:, different words are used according to whether a speaker is addressing someone of higher or lower rank than oneself in a ranking system with animals and children ranking the lowest and gods and members of royalty as the highest. 1517:

pauses between them. Segments therefore are distinguished by their distinct sounds which are a result of their different articulations, and can be either vowels or consonants. Suprasegmental phenomena encompass such elements as

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a native speaker. An important difference between first language acquisition and additional language acquisition is that the process of additional language acquisition is influenced by languages that the learner already knows.

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argued that language had originated in the instinctive expression of emotions, and that it was originally closer to music and poetry than to the logical expression of rational thought. Rationalist philosophers such as Kant and

3698:, 389 languages (nearly 6%) have more than a million speakers. These languages together account for 94% of the world's population, whereas 94% of the world's languages account for the remaining 6% of the global population. 1709:. In addition, some language communities use both modes to convey lexical or grammatical meaning, each mode complementing the other. Such bimodal use of language is especially common in genres such as story-telling (with 1726:, for example, 'he went out for fish using a torch' is spoken as simply "he-hunted fish torch", but the word for 'torch' is accompanied by a gesture indicating that it was held. In another example, the ritual language 4224:, those spoken by more than 50 million speakers each, are spoken by 50% of the world's population, whereas many of the other languages are spoken by smaller communities, most of them with less than 10,000 speakers. 2885:

are capable of language acquisition to some degree. From birth, newborns respond more readily to human speech than to other sounds. Around one month of age, babies appear to be able to distinguish between different

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suffixes that provide details about the instrument used to perform an action. Others lack such grammatical precision in the oral mode, but supplement it with gesture to convey that information in the sign mode. In

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A spectrogram showing the sound of the spoken English word "man", which is written phonetically as . In flowing speech, there is no clear division between segments, only a smooth transition as the vocal apparatus

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complex than adult speech, but that do show regular syntactic structure. From roughly the age of three to five years, a child's ability to speak or sign is refined to the point that it resembles adult language.

683:. Functionalist theories tend to study grammar as dynamic phenomena, as structures that are always in the process of changing as they are employed by their speakers. This view places importance on the study of 344:

modern languages to determine which traits their ancestral languages must have had in order for the later developmental stages to occur. A group of languages that descend from a common ancestor is known as a

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word typology: in English transitive clauses, the subjects of both intransitive sentences ("I run") and transitive sentences ("I love you") are treated in the same way, shown here by the nominative pronoun

1235:. According to this theory, the most basic form of language is a set of syntactic rules that is universal for all humans and which underlies the grammars of all human languages. This set of rules is called 171:, which enable the creation of an infinite number of sentences, and the ability to refer to objects, events, and ideas that are not immediately present in the discourse. The use of human language relies on 6928: 3768:

are now often treated as separate languages and employ different writing systems. In other words, the distinction may hinge on political considerations as much as on cultural differences as on distinctive

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When studying the way in which words and signs are used, it is often the case that words have different meanings, depending on the social context of use. An important example of this is the process called

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had a heavily reduced oral vocabulary of only a few hundred words, each of which was very general in meaning, but which were supplemented by gesture for greater precision (e.g., the single word for fish,

2669:. Word order type is relevant as a typological parameter, because basic word order type corresponds with other syntactic parameters, such as the relative order of nouns and adjectives, or of the use of 1509:), and the upper vocal tract – the throat, the mouth, and the nose. By controlling the different parts of the speech apparatus, the airstream can be manipulated to produce different speech sounds. 1478: 1770:– convey the secondary mode of writing in a different medium. For some extinct languages that are maintained for ritual or liturgical purposes, writing may be the primary mode, with speech secondary. 6056:

sentence is one that is impossible in a given language, one that a native speaker of that variety would never utter naturally. (Remember that ungrammatical sentences are marked with an asterisk, *.

3200:, which means that it is expected to apply mechanically whenever its structural conditions are met, irrespective of any non-phonological factors. On the other hand, sound changes can sometimes be 1832:. The division of language into separate but connected systems of sign and meaning goes back to the first linguistic studies of de Saussure and is now used in almost all branches of linguistics. 7659: 1152:

developed the idea that the grammars of all languages were a reflection of the universal basics of thought, and therefore that grammar was universal. In the 18th century, the first use of the

1067:

The academic study of language is conducted within many different disciplinary areas and from different theoretical angles, all of which inform modern approaches to linguistics. For example,

3337:

towards more common types. Other causes of language change are social, such as when certain pronunciations become emblematic of membership in certain groups, such as social classes, or with

882:

see language mostly as an innate faculty that is largely genetically encoded, whereas functionalist theories see it as a system that is largely cultural, learned through social interaction.

3440: 3023:, a married man must use a special set of words to refer to everyday items when speaking in the presence of his mother-in-law. Some cultures, for example, have elaborate systems of "social 163:. Human language is characterized by its cultural and historical diversity, with significant variations observed between cultures and across time. Human languages possess the properties of 8178: 691:

tend to follow trajectories that are partly dependent on typology. In the philosophy of language, the view of pragmatics as being central to language and meaning is often associated with

2734:

While humans have the ability to learn any language, they only do so if they grow up in an environment in which language exists and is used by others. Language is therefore dependent on

2603:

Latin uses morphology to express the distinction between subject and object, whereas English uses word order. Another example of how syntactic rules contribute to meaning is the rule of

1985:. Phonemes are abstract units of sound, defined as the smallest units in a language that can serve to distinguish between the meaning of a pair of minimally different words, a so-called 8509: 6582: 178:

Estimates of the number of human languages in the world vary between 5,000 and 7,000. Precise estimates depend on an arbitrary distinction (dichotomy) established between languages and

5419: 885:

Continuity-based theories are held by a majority of scholars, but they vary in how they envision this development. Those who see language as being mostly innate, such as psychologist

764:

have demonstrated the ability to generate two functionally distinct vocalisations composed of the same sound type, which can only be distinguished by the number of repeated elements.

6875: 530:

and philosophers such as Wittgenstein in 20th-century philosophy. These debates about language in relation to meaning and reference, cognition and consciousness remain active today.

4291:. A minority of linguists have argued that language loss is a natural process that should not be counteracted and that documenting endangered languages for posterity is sufficient. 3304:. This frequently happens when words or morphemes erode and the grammatical system is unconsciously rearranged to compensate for the lost element. For example, in some varieties of 2611:

on "who", thereby slightly altering the meaning of the question. Syntax also includes the rules for how complex sentences are structured by grouping words together in units, called

4264:, that linguistic diversity causes political conflict, but many of the world's major episodes of violence have taken place in situations with low linguistic diversity, such as the 3341:, and therefore are adopted by those who wish to identify with those groups or ideas. In this way, issues of identity and politics can have profound effects on language structure. 1087:

builds on theoretical and descriptive linguistics to construct computational models of language often aimed at processing natural language or at testing linguistic hypotheses, and

5164: 394: 9211: 3177:

initially evaluated negatively by speakers of the language who often consider changes to be "decay" or a sign of slipping norms of language usage, it is natural and inevitable.

794:. This means that it can be used not only for communication through one channel or medium, but through several. For example, spoken language uses the auditive modality, whereas 8507: 4208:. While languages have always gone extinct throughout human history, they have been disappearing at an accelerated rate in the 20th and 21st centuries due to the processes of 3484:(the replacement of much of the native vocabulary with that of another language). In situations of extreme and sustained language contact, it may lead to the formation of new 6635: 72: 2042:, the same difference in pronunciation distinguishes between the words 'crouch' and 'eight' (the accent above the á means that the vowel is pronounced with a high tone). 627:. In the philosophy of language, the view of linguistic meaning as residing in the logical relations between propositions and reality was developed by philosophers such as 2770:

or languages as children, or learning new languages as they grow up. Because of the increased language contact in the globalizing world, many small languages are becoming

2688:

All languages structure sentences into Subject, Verb, and Object, but languages differ in the way they classify the relations between actors and actions. English uses the

2848:. This learning process is referred to as first-language acquisition, since unlike many other kinds of learning, it requires no direct teaching or specialized study. In 2105:) are defined by the basic elements of gestures, such as hand shape, orientation, location, and motion, which correspond to manners of articulation in spoken language. 2499:. For example, in many Indo-European languages, adjectives must cross-reference the noun they modify in terms of number, case, and gender, so that the Latin adjective 2180:. The way in which meaningful elements can be combined within a language is governed by rules. The study of the rules for the internal structure of words are called 2131:

system is entirely arbitrary and established by convention. Some writing systems use the horizontal axis (left to right as the Latin script or right to left as the

6906: 3007:. Linguistic anthropologists and sociologists of language define communicative style as the ways that language is used and understood within a particular culture. 1876:. Not all meanings in a language are represented by single words. Often, semantic concepts are embedded in the morphology or syntax of the language in the form of 5410:"The 1.6 million-year-old discovery that changes what we know about human evolution - New research suggests language is eight times older than previously thought" 365:

may have not existed at all. Academic consensus holds that between 50% and 90% of languages spoken at the beginning of the 21st century will probably have become

6294: 3172:

in the early medieval period (800–1100 AD). Although Old English is the direct ancestor of modern English, it is unintelligible to contemporary English speakers.

1887:: a structure that predicates a property, state, or action. Traditionally, semantics has been understood to be the study of how speakers and interpreters assign 752:

are closed systems that consist of a finite, usually very limited, number of possible ideas that can be expressed. In contrast, human language is open-ended and

6760:

Heggarty, P.; Anderson, C.; Scarborough, M.; King, B.; Bouckaert, R.; Jocz, L.; Kümmel, M.J.; Jügel, T.; Irslinger, B.; Pooth, R.; Liljegren, H (28 July 2023).

4256:, there is a consensus that the loss of languages harms the cultural diversity of the world. It is a common belief, going back to the biblical narrative of the 2291:

like "splash" that mimic the sound of some event. Some languages have positionals that describe the spatial position of an event or entity. Many languages have

8508: 6235:

Bonvillian, John D.; Michael D. Orlansky; Leslie Lazin Novack (December 1983). "Developmental milestones: Sign language acquisition and motor development".

2850: 816:

that can communicate the location of sources of nectar that are out of sight), the degree to which it is used in human language is also considered unique.

4629: 1059:. Modern linguistics is a science that concerns itself with all aspects of language, examining it from all of the theoretical viewpoints described above. 3732:". For example, national boundaries frequently override linguistic difference in determining whether two linguistic varieties are languages or dialects. 3192:

by another, the complete loss of the affected sound, or even the introduction of a new sound in a place where there had been none. Sound changes can be

1091:

relies on grammatical and lexical descriptions of languages to trace their individual histories and reconstruct trees of language families by using the

7678: 5322:

Clark, Gary; Henneberg, Maciej (2017). "Ardipithecus ramidus and the evolution of language and singing: An early origin for hominin vocal capability".

591:

of signs governed by grammatical rules of combination to communicate meaning. This definition stresses that human languages can be described as closed

4608:"The History of the Normative Opposition of 'Language versus Dialect': From Its Graeco-Latin Origin to Central Europe's Ethnolinguistic Nation-States" 2418:

which construct words by stringing morphemes together in chains, but with each morpheme as a discrete semantic unit. An example of such a language is

1705:) and manual (sign and gesture). For example, it is common for oral language to be accompanied by gesture, and for sign language to be accompanied by 2061:. As well as segments such as consonants and vowels, some languages also use sound in other ways to convey meaning. Many languages, for example, use 1373:, a condition in which there is a major impairment of language comprehension, while speech retains a natural-sounding rhythm and a relatively normal 8584: 5409: 4307: 8039: 901:

in primates: either gestural or vocal communication to assist in cooperation. Other continuity-based models see language as having developed from

8162: 4513:, and understands 2000 words of spoken English. There are some doubts about whether her use of signs is based on complex understanding or simple 3825: 1646:, depending on whether the vocal cords are set in vibration by airflow during the production of the sound. Voicing is what separates English in 1717:

used alongside oral language, for example), but also occurs in mundane conversation. For instance, many Australian languages have a rich set of

1079:

studies how languages are used for social purposes informing in turn the study of the social functions of language and grammatical description,

4221: 6578: 5017: 3278:

pronunciation gradually becomes increasingly indistinct and shortens words, leaving out syllables or sounds. This kind of change caused Latin

2203:

nearly universal. Such universal categories include the encoding of the grammatical relations of participants and predicates by grammatically

4589:

Nicholas Evans & Stephen Levinson (2009) 'The Myth of Language Universals: Language Diversity and Its Importance for Cognitive Science'.

3729: 3538: 786:, such as noun and verb, present and past, which may be used to express exceedingly complex meanings. It is distinguished by the property of 2006:

consequently, the two pronunciations would have the same meaning. Similarly, the English language does not distinguish phonemically between

760:, is capable of using the same acoustic elements in different arrangements to create two functionally distinct vocalizations. Additionally, 273:(1889–1951) argued that philosophy is really the study of language itself. Major figures in contemporary linguistics of these times include 7872: 6871: 4306:

revitalisation programme, as they deem Welsh to be the world's leading example for the survival of languages. In 2019, Hawaiian TV company

2801:

pass the salt across the table. This meaning is implied by the context in which it is spoken; these kinds of effects of meaning are called

3417:

in which unrelated languages share a number of linguistic features. A number of such language areas have been documented, among them, the

2762:

However, languages differ from biological organisms in that they readily incorporate elements from other languages through the process of

7994: 2774:

as their speakers shift to other languages that afford the possibility to participate in larger and more influential speech communities.

1353:

the use of modern imaging techniques. The discipline of linguistics dedicated to studying the neurological aspects of language is called

5125: 1075:

develops theories on how best to conceptualize and define the nature of language based on data from the various extant human languages,

9513: 9301: 6039: 845: 7622:

Hauser, Marc D.; Chomsky, Noam; Fitch, W. Tecumseh (2002). "The Faculty of Language: What Is It, Who Has It, and How Did It Evolve?".

1246:

propose that since language is fundamentally a tool, its structures are best analyzed and understood by reference to their functions.

9439: 9401: 4685: 3465: 516:

and its debates about human origins, it became fashionable to speculate about the origin of language. Thinkers such as Rousseau and

464:

As an object of linguistic study, "language" has two primary meanings: an abstract concept, and a specific linguistic system, e.g. "

9163: 6643: 4180: These areas are the most linguistically diverse in the world, and the locations of most of the world's endangered languages. 3196:

in which case a sound is changed only if it occurs in the vicinity of certain other sounds. Sound change is usually assumed to be

2742:

from their elders and peers and themselves transmit language to their own children. Languages are used by those who speak them to

2717: 2338:. For instance, the English word "unexpected" can be analyzed as being composed of the three morphemes "un-", "expect" and "-ed". 970:

some 2.5 million years ago. Some scholars assume the development of primitive language-like systems (proto-language) as early as

2127:

scripts, each sign represents an entire word, and will generally bear no relation to the sound of that word in spoken language.

8552:

World Atlas of Language Structures: a large database of structural (phonological, grammatical, lexical) properties of languages

8091: 4283:

endangered languages and promoting education and literacy in minority languages. Across the world, many countries have enacted

9406: 8297: 8275: 8256: 8172: 8101: 8033: 7977: 7945: 7923: 7904: 7832: 7721: 7571: 7387: 7355: 7298: 7279: 7236: 7196: 7124: 7082: 7051: 7020: 6033: 3077:

Throughout history a number of different ways of representing language in graphic media have been invented. These are called

2766:, as speakers of different languages come into contact. Humans also frequently speak more than one language, acquiring their 1397: 1396:

With technological advances in the late 20th century, neurolinguists have also incorporated non-invasive techniques such as

767:

Several species of animals have proved to be able to acquire forms of communication through social learning: for instance a

269:(1724–1804) have argued that languages originated from rational and logical thought. Twentieth century philosophers such as 8577: 6579:"Primer estudio conjunto del Instituto Cervantes y el British Council sobre el peso internacional del español y del inglés" 3433:, Europe, and Southeast Asia have sometimes been considered language areas because of the widespread diffusion of specific 2484:

with the meanings, "reindeer-hunt-future-say-negation-again-third.person.singular.indicative", and except for the morpheme

2330:

In linguistics, the study of the internal structure of complex words and the processes by which words are formed is called

1714: 1665:

Some speech sounds, both vowels and consonants, involve release of air flow through the nasal cavity, and these are called

1269:

bases for human language is at an early stage: the only gene that has definitely been implicated in language production is

3204:, affecting only one particular word or a few words, without any seeming regularity. Sometimes a simple change triggers a 1551:, which in turn combine to form utterances; these can be distinguished phonetically as the space between two inhalations. 1176:

introduced the idea of language as a static system of interconnected units, defined through the oppositions between them.

9528: 6743: 5811:

Studies in linguistics: Occasional papers (No. 8). Buffalo: Dept. of Anthropology and Linguistics, University of Buffalo.

3966:. Speakers of the Niger-Congo languages account for 6.9% of the world's population. A similar number of people speak the 2034:

are considered to be merely different ways of pronouncing the same phoneme (such variants of a single phoneme are called

1145:

grammar around 1900 BC. Subsequent grammatical traditions developed in all of the ancient cultures that adopted writing.

6898: 3683:

that most scholars consider a single language with several dialects is classified as two distinct languages (Danish and

1584:

as opposed to unrounded, creating distinctions such as that between (unrounded front vowel such as English "ee") and (

7705: 3019:, just as some languages employ different words depending on who is listening. For example, in the Australian language 2689: 1505:. This ability depends on the physiology of the human speech organs. These organs consist of the lungs, the voice box ( 350: 3744:

are, for example, often classified as "dialects" of Chinese, even though they are more different from each other than

2991:" to refer to the different ways of speaking a language. This term includes geographically or socioculturally defined 472:, who defined the modern discipline of linguistics, first explicitly formulated the distinction using the French word 9673: 8059: 3823:

Principal language families of the world (and in some cases geographic groups of families). For greater detail, see

206:-independent, but written or signed language is the way to inscribe or encode the natural human speech or gestures. 8610: 7478:"First Impressions: We start to pick up words, food preferences and hand-eye coordination long before being born". 4556:

The prefixed asterisk * conventionally indicates that the sentence is ungrammatical, i.e. syntactically incorrect.

4441: 1294: 341: 6612: 9396: 8570: 2655: 2478:, which means "He had not yet said again that he was going to hunt reindeer", the word consists of the morphemes 2248:, the situation is the opposite, and new pronouns can be constructed, whereas the number of adjectives is fixed. 2139: 2077:

to distinguish meaning. Because these phenomena operate outside of the level of single segments, they are called

555:. This view, which can be traced back to the philosophers Kant and Descartes, understands language to be largely 2654:(subject–verb–object): "The snake(S) bit(V) the man(O)", whereas for example, the corresponding sentence in the 1892:

which a sign is interpreted into the production of meaning. Such models of meaning are explored in the field of

9376: 9241: 5073:

Engesser, Sabrina; Crane, Jodie M. S.; Savage, James L.; Russel, Andrew F.; Townsend, Simon W. (29 June 2015).

2295:

that identify countable nouns as belonging to a particular type or having a particular shape. For instance, in

2219:

governing reference to and distinction between speakers and addressees and those about whom they are speaking.

2142:, designed to represent all of the discrete sounds that are known to contribute to meaning in human languages. 2111:

represent language using visual symbols, which may or may not correspond to the sounds of spoken language. The

1701:

Human languages display considerable plasticity in their deployment of two fundamental modes: oral (speech and

1274: 1243: 745: 660: 4607: 1828:

or grammar. The meaning that is connected to individual signs, morphemes, words, phrases, and texts is called

1612:. Each place of articulation produces a different set of consonant sounds, which are further distinguished by 9622: 9432: 9122: 8901: 8863: 8813: 8246: 7710:

Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet

4486: 4476: 3936:

are spoken by 20% of the world's population and include many of the languages of East Asia, including Hakka,

3066: 1006:

In March 2024, researchers reported that the beginnings of human language began about 1.6 million years ago.

6999:

Allerton, D.J. (1989). "Language as Form and Pattern: Grammar and its Categories". In Collinge, N.E. (ed.).

6302: 3924:, which brought the Indo-European languages to a politically and often numerically dominant position in the 2551:

In addition to word classes, a sentence can be analyzed in terms of grammatical functions: "The cat" is the

1563:

of the recorded sound wave. Formants are the amplitude peaks in the frequency spectrum of a specific sound.

960: 9709: 9699: 9523: 9371: 9271: 3760:

was generally considered a single language with two normative variants, but due to sociopolitical reasons,

3449: 3129: 2212: 1862:

of signs related to specific meaning. The English sign "dog" denotes, for example, a member of the species

1677:

sounds. Other sounds are defined by the way the tongue moves within the mouth such as the l-sounds (called

852: 734: 500:. Debates about the nature and origin of language go back to the ancient world. Greek philosophers such as 388: 3393:

of linguistic traits between languages. Language contact occurs when speakers of two or more languages or

2027: 2019: 2002: 1998: 9112: 9062: 4456: 3434: 2996: 2973: 2836: 2822: 2651: 1710: 1161: 1051:, has been developing into a science since the first grammatical descriptions of particular languages in 1018: 976:(2.3 million years ago) while others place the development of primitive symbolic communication only with 964:

challenges this belief. Scholarly opinions vary as to the developments since the appearance of the genus

571:'s extreme innatist theory. These kinds of definitions are often applied in studies of language within a 8393: 6762:"Language trees with sampled ancestors support a hybrid model for the origin of Indo-European languages" 5126:"Element repetition rates encode functionally distinct information in pied babbler 'clucks' and 'purrs'" 3679:, and therefore often includes more categories than more conservative classifications. For example, the 3316:

subject "you" in verbs, the Caribbean varieties now have to express the second person using the pronoun

2251:

Word classes also carry out differing functions in grammar. Prototypically, verbs are used to construct

9457: 9251: 8991: 8871: 8602: 8023: 7713: 7042:

Austin, Peter K; Sallabank, Julia (2011). "Introduction". In Austin, Peter K; Sallabank, Julia (eds.).

4466: 4451: 3422: 2802: 2414:, because several meanings may be fused into a single morpheme. The opposite of fusional languages are 989: 808: 753: 168: 164: 1083:

studies how language is processed in the human brain and allows the experimental testing of theories,

9668: 9336: 8936: 8843: 8683: 8543: 7559: 7426: 3951: 3814: 3790: 2730:

in Paris: "I love you" in 250 languages, by calligraphist Fédéric Baron and artist Claire Kito (2000)

2204: 1084: 624: 314: 284:

Language is thought to have gradually diverged from earlier primate communication systems when early

20: 5239:

Shanahan, D. (2011). Language, feeling, and the brain: The evocative vector. Transaction Publishers.

2468:

with the meanings, "negation.understand.past.I.it". As another example with more complexity, in the

1738:

Secondary modes of language, by which a fundamental mode is conveyed in a different medium, include

1014: 9425: 9261: 8368:

Ulbaek, Ib (1998). "The Origin of Language and Cognition". In J. R. Hurford & C. Knight (ed.).

7329: 7317: 5021: 4394: 3910: 3842:: languages that cannot be shown to be related to any other languages in the world. Among them are 3782: 3488:

that cannot be considered to belong to a single language family. One type of mixed language called

3390: 3383: 2806: 2493:

Many languages use morphology to cross-reference words within a sentence. This is sometimes called

2375: 2331: 2292: 2181: 2138:

In order to represent the sounds of the world's languages in writing, linguists have developed the

2007: 1659: 1534: 1130: 893:, whereas those who see language as a socially learned tool of communication, such as psychologist 857: 757: 552: 43: 4084:

The areas of the world in which there is the greatest linguistic diversity, such as the Americas,

2547: 2442:. They may express the equivalent of an entire English sentence in a single word. For example, in 1501:, which is a longitudinal wave propagated through the air at a frequency capable of vibrating the 9581: 9561: 9538: 9507: 9481: 8906: 8833: 8688: 4280: 4070: 4062: 4006: 3874: 3757: 3426: 2977: 2495: 2439: 2415: 1747: 1366: 1345: 1165: 1072: 1068: 910: 812:, and while some animal communication systems can use displacement (such as the communication of 708: 680: 517: 7868: 3777:. The latter is, in fact, a rather unreliable criterion to discriminate languages and dialects. 2709:

convergent solutions to the recurring communicative problems that humans use language to solve.

245:. Critical examinations of languages, such as philosophy of language, the relationships between 9152: 8996: 8931: 8593: 7666: 4510: 4471: 4137: 4109: 4101: 3998: 3933: 3921: 3810: 3774: 3676: 3506: 2898:

of the languages used around them. Words appear around the age of 12 to 18 months; the average

2874: 2647: 2261: 2256: 1963: 1779: 1613: 1421: 1382: 1232: 1184: 1180: 1088: 1042: 1030: 947:

capable of advanced sound production and the nature of tools and other manufactured artifacts.

783: 652: 612: 592: 337: 210: 107: 7435:"The myth of language universals: Language diversity and its importance for cognitive science" 7188: 3325:

movement and in some varieties of English has almost become a full-fledged future tense (e.g.

3117:

whether Egyptian writing was developed completely independently of Sumerian, or was a case of

1573:

when the lips are relatively closed, as in the pronunciation of the vowel (English "ee"), or

1168:. The scientific study of language was broadened from Indo-European to language in general by 9127: 9107: 9042: 8926: 8708: 8377: 8242: 8198: 7988: 7888: 7061: 5824: 5809:

Sign Language Structure: An Outline of the Visual Communication Systems of the American Deaf,

4404: 4295: 4105: 3967: 3778: 3394: 3096:

The invention of the first writing systems is roughly contemporary with the beginning of the

2988: 2678: 2276: 1849: 1636: 1530: 1513: 1252: 1193: 1173: 1107: 906: 761: 672: 600: 469: 358: 318: 274: 223: 195: 6023: 3855: 3405:

and most people in the modern world are multilingual. Before the rise of the concept of the

2098: 1369:

in the dominant cerebral hemisphere. People with a lesion in this area of the brain develop

9704: 9518: 9291: 9201: 9000: 8961: 8693: 8539: 7955:

MacMahon, M.K.C. (1989). "Language as available sound:Phonetics". In Collinge, N.E. (ed.).

7509: 7345: 7213: 6971: 4731: 4514: 4129: 3877:, spoken by 46% of the world's population. This family includes major world languages like 3473: 3418: 3158: 3113: 3062: 3057: 2818: 2739: 2632: 2341:

Morphemes can be classified according to whether they are independent morphemes, so-called

2197: 2062: 1959: 1877: 1868:. In a language, the array of arbitrary signs connected to specific meanings is called the 1518: 1189: 1169: 996: 984: 914: 898: 835: 513: 434: 430: 309: 246: 203: 191: 27: 7518: 7461: 4682: 2345:, or whether they can only co-occur attached to other morphemes. These bound morphemes or 929:

states that the age of spoken languages is estimated at 60,000 to 100,000 years and that:

349:; in contrast, a language that has been demonstrated not to have any living or non-living 8: 9341: 9331: 9181: 9137: 8971: 8748: 8663: 8430: 8132:

Olson, David R. (1996). "Language and Literacy: what writing does to Language and Mind".

7851: 7842:

Lesser, Ruth (1989). "Language in the Brain: Neurolinguistics". In Collinge, N.E. (ed.).

7480: 7430: 7397:

Duranti, Alessandro (2003). "Language as Culture in U.S. Anthropology: Three Paradigms".

7146:(2002). "Areal linguistics". In Bernard Comrie, Neil J. Smelser and Paul B. Balte (ed.). 7092:

Bett, R. (2010). "Plato and his Predecessors". In Alex Barber; Robert J Stainton (eds.).

7008: 6872:"University of Waikato Launches a Strategic Partnership with Cardiff University in Wales" 6761: 4399: 4185: 4149: 4125: 4034: 3898: 3863: 3713: 3586: 3334: 3189: 3181: 2771: 2702: 2682: 2666: 2658: 2628: 2608: 2560: 2334:. In most languages, it is possible to construct complex words that are built of several 2252: 1884: 1787: 1585: 1318: 926: 863: 692: 684: 270: 238:

system that governs how words and morphemes are combined to form phrases and utterances.

103: 8124: 4735: 2438:. The languages that rely on morphology to the greatest extent are traditionally called 9627: 9476: 9191: 9087: 9082: 9006: 8981: 8783: 8768: 8733: 8474: 8389: 8226: 8149: 8055: 8019: 7893: 7808: 7689: 7414: 7101: 6252: 5156: 5101: 5074: 4763: 4461: 4357: 4269: 4093: 4030: 3753: 3749: 3534: 3375: 3313: 3209: 3153: 3118: 3109: 2915: 2830: 2410: 2383: 2342: 2216: 1616:, or the kind of friction, whether full closure, in which case the consonant is called 1386: 1362: 1336: 1153: 1149: 1092: 825: 749: 724: 688: 687:, or the classification of languages according to structural features, as processes of 620: 497: 446: 416: 378: 305: 219: 7162:(2nd ed.). Edinburgh and Cambridge, MA: Edinburgh University Press and MIT Press. 3819: 2936: 2086: 9694: 9157: 9077: 8916: 8798: 8524: 8293: 8285: 8271: 8252: 8168: 8153: 8097: 8029: 7973: 7941: 7919: 7900: 7828: 7812: 7717: 7655: 7639: 7593: 7567: 7535: 7523: 7466: 7418: 7383: 7376: 7351: 7294: 7275: 7232: 7192: 7181: 7120: 7078: 7047: 7016: 6830: 6791: 6298: 6260: 6029: 5828: 5339: 5148: 5106: 4755: 4747: 4481: 4446: 4323: 4246:). Despite claims that the world would be better off if most adopted a single common 4174: Together, these eight countries contain more than 50% of the world's languages. 4121: 4014: 3971: 3761: 3707: 3684: 3646: 3636: 3472:

Language contact may also lead to a variety of other linguistic phenomena, including

3338: 3305: 3274: 3105: 3101: 2887: 2870: 2756: 2552: 2296: 2280: 2208: 2090: 1767: 1751: 1679: 1642: 1413: 1401: 1370: 1236: 1197: 1142: 1138: 951: 894: 572: 564: 481: 362: 172: 8288:(1996). "The Cultural Roots of Language". In B. Velichkovsky and D. Rumbaugh (ed.). 7105: 5160: 4767: 4303: 4018: 2685:

type have postpositions rather than prepositions, and have adjectives before nouns.

522: 9652: 9491: 9221: 9132: 8956: 8951: 8753: 8466: 8442: 8320: 8141: 8120: 7800: 7693: 7631: 7581: 7547: 7513: 7505: 7456: 7446: 7406: 6781: 6773: 6696: 6686: 6244: 5331: 5140: 5096: 5086: 4739: 4619: 4603: 4288: 4273: 4204: 4188:

occurs when a language is at risk of falling out of use as its speakers die out or

4097: 4085: 4058: 4054: 4042: 3987: 3955: 3937: 3894: 3882: 3878: 3839: 3765: 3745: 3741: 3626: 3616: 3576: 3566: 3556: 3502: 3413:

areas where many languages are in close contact, this may lead to the formation of

3371: 3350: 3309: 3235: 3090: 3032: 3020: 2981: 2969: 2949: 2940: 2748: 2735: 2589: 2443: 2419: 2170:. If they are free to be moved around within an utterance, they are usually called 2082: 2039: 1864: 1791: 1783: 1723: 1718: 1354: 1290: 1103: 1080: 1076: 890: 829: 676: 632: 576: 548: 454: 354: 183: 82: 7635: 1683:, because the air flows along both sides of the tongue), and the r-sounds (called 776: 265:(1712–1778) have argued that language originated from emotions, while others like 9366: 9281: 9037: 9016: 8966: 8946: 8886: 8853: 8808: 8803: 8763: 8648: 8210: 8087: 7820: 7788: 7731: 7489: 7341: 7225: 7170:(2001). "The History of Linguistics". In Mark Aronoff; Janie Rees-Miller (eds.). 6747: 5414: 5091: 4689: 4568:

figure is based on numbers from before 1995. A more recent figure is 420 million.

4536: 4385: 4343: 4284: 4213: 4113: 4050: 4022: 3979: 3975: 3963: 3890: 3886: 3843: 3834: 3802: 3680: 3596: 3518: 3494: 3453: 3445: 3398: 3379: 3359: 3301: 3283: 3149: 3078: 2866: 2826: 2597: 2585: 2556: 2506: 2267: 2245: 2228: 2011: 1667: 1390: 1378: 1327: 870:

is one such account; other cultures have different stories of how language arose.

787: 738: 730: 720: 527: 465: 438: 346: 333: 322: 301: 156: 86: 6234: 3781:, which are languages with more than one standard variety, are a case in point. 2945: 9591: 9576: 9448: 9117: 9072: 8896: 8828: 8698: 8454: 8397: 8332: 8316: 7856: 7670: 7493: 7267: 6987: 6015: 5820: 5688: 5335: 4506: 4371: 4315: 4311: 4299: 4257: 4189: 4161: 4157: 4074: 4066: 4046: 3991: 3959: 3770: 3658: 3510: 3485: 3481: 3461: 3213: 3122: 3000: 2855: 2767: 2569: 2469: 2112: 2108: 2078: 2074: 1810: 1624: 1593: 1259: 1247: 954:

did not have communication systems significantly different from those found in

918: 867: 366: 293: 289: 258: 160: 127: 97: 8703: 8145: 8010:

Nerlich, Brigitte (2010). "History of pragmatics". In Cummings, Louise (ed.).

7451: 7434: 6740: 5144: 3296:

Change also happens in the grammar of languages as discourse patterns such as

2521:(similar to English "do") agrees with both the subject (you) expressed by the 1824:

The rules by which signs can be combined to form words and phrases are called

603:, and his structuralism remains foundational for many approaches to language. 595:

consisting of rules that relate particular signs to particular meanings. This

405: 9688: 9617: 9361: 8976: 8881: 8876: 8838: 8758: 8738: 8713: 8678: 8417: 8380:(2001). "Functional Linguistics". In Mark Aronoff; Janie Rees-Miller (eds.). 8222: 8194: 7933: 7770: 7752: 7167: 7155: 7143: 6676: 4751: 4434: 4409: 4265: 4261: 4248: 4243: 4209: 4198: 4193: 4153: 4133: 4078: 3859: 3847: 3733: 3725: 3522: 3402: 3234:

became /f/. The same process applied to all stop consonants and explains why

3126: 3028: 2845: 2841: 2755:, where the process of descent with modification leads to the formation of a 2674: 2284: 2132: 2094: 2046: 1309: 1111: 1056: 922: 886: 862:

Humans have speculated about the origins of language throughout history. The

795: 782:

Human languages differ from animal communication systems in that they employ

628: 596: 588: 326: 266: 230:

system that governs how symbols are used to form sequences known as words or

140: 61: 6980:

Areal diffusion and genetic inheritance: problems in comparative linguistics

6777: 4743: 3950:

is home to a large number of language families, the largest of which is the

1123: 9647: 9102: 9097: 9052: 9011: 8921: 8823: 8778: 8773: 8743: 8728: 8723: 8230: 7643: 7606: 7527: 7470: 7260:

Sources of semiotic: readings with commentary from antiquity to the present

7246: 7209: 7030: 6994:(3rd ed.). Cambridge, New York, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. 6975: 6795: 6701: 6691: 6678: 5343: 5152: 5110: 4759: 3806: 3793:). The language making process is dynamic and subject to change over time. 3406: 3185: 3036: 3016: 2722: 2670: 2162:

within a language can be combined into utterances. Morphemes can either be

2070: 2066: 1986: 1755: 1673: 1228: 1220: 978: 972: 879: 696: 636: 616: 608: 560: 278: 7804: 7692:(1960). "Logical considerations in the study of animal communication". In 7496:(2003). "Deciphering the Genetic Basis of Speech and Language Disorders". 6264: 3208:

in which the entire phonological system is affected. This happened in the

2533:

suffix. The sentence could be directly transliterated as "see you-did-me"

2184:. The rules of the internal structure of phrases and sentences are called 9346: 9311: 9231: 9057: 8848: 8788: 8673: 8658: 8562: 8356: 8344: 8068: 7651: 6019: 5124:

Engesser, Sabrina; Ridley, Amanda R.; Townsend, Simon W. (20 July 2017).

5075:"Experimental Evidence for Phonemic Contrasts in a Nonhuman Vocal System" 4624: 4319: 4117: 4089: 3205: 3169: 3137: 2911: 2797:, although they can also be carried out through writing or hand signing. 2743: 2604: 2124: 1888: 1601: 1581: 1569: 1560: 1451: 1157: 1048: 1038: 704: 568: 544: 458: 450: 297: 249:, how words represent experience, etc., have been debated at least since 242: 50: 8527:

was created from a revision of this article dated 19 July 2005

6786: 3355: 3216:

affected all the stop consonants in the system. The original consonant *

26:"Spoken words" redirects here. For the album by Indecent Obsession, see 9632: 9351: 9142: 8986: 8941: 8818: 8793: 8718: 8653: 8559:

is a comprehensive catalog of all of the world's known living languages

6677:

Krämer, Philipp; Vogl, Ulrike; Kolehmainen, Leena; et al. (2022).

6604: 6316:

O'Grady, William; Cho, Sook Whan (2001). "First language acquisition".

6256: 4540: 4166: 4038: 4002: 3851: 3786: 3430: 3414: 3097: 3004: 2899: 2794: 2783: 2727: 2698: 2639: 2405: 2371: 2349:

can be classified according to their position in relation to the root:

2288: 2054: 2035: 1893: 1859: 1805: 1798:, how signs and meanings are combined, used, and interpreted is called 1763: 1575: 1216: 939: 700: 668: 411: 148: 8478: 8446: 8213:(2001). "Multilingualism". In Mark Aronoff; Janie Rees-Miller (eds.). 4216:, where the economically powerful languages dominate other languages. 2321:(三本の木) lit. "3 classifier-for-long-objects of tree" – three trees 1385:

of the dominant hemisphere. People with a lesion to this area develop

1223:

is one of the most important linguistic theorists of the 20th century.

9601: 9596: 9586: 9383: 9092: 9032: 8911: 8891: 8643: 8638: 8618: 8431:"Languoid, doculect and glossonym: Formalizing the notion 'language'" 4419: 4253: 4026: 3941: 3737: 3498: 3073:

developed by Christian missionaries for Indigenous Canadian languages

2907: 2895: 2763: 2752: 2241: 2176:, and if they are bound to other words or morphemes, they are called 2120: 2116: 1975: 1905: 1845: 1841: 1829: 1814: 1799: 1759: 1630: 1618: 1552: 1540: 1522: 1417: 1299: 988:(0.6 million years ago), and the development of language proper with 955: 227: 78: 19:

This article is about human language in general. For other uses, see

6248: 4196:

occurs when the language has no more native speakers, and becomes a

3521:, a mixed language of Canada, based on the Native American language 2232:

includes English words such as "dog" and "song", are usually called

1445: 1118:

The formal study of language is often considered to have started in

9571: 9566: 9556: 9486: 9356: 8668: 8628: 8470: 7410: 7367:

Language and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Language

5695:, Journal of the Australian Academy of the Humanities, vol 8, p 39. 4429: 4379: 4351: 4337: 4227: 3925: 3873:

The language family of the world that has the most speakers is the

3867: 3721: 3477: 3367: 3052: 2891: 2335: 2303:(人), and it is used for counting humans, whatever they are called: 2158: 2058: 1982: 1795: 1706: 1702: 1651: 1548: 1502: 1487: 1431: 1278: 1266: 1127: 1026: 556: 336:

and diversify over time, and the history of their evolution can be

262: 231: 215: 9417: 7704: 7586:

Language Universals: With Special Reference to Feature Hierarchies

7272:

Language universals and linguistic typology: Syntax and morphology

5795: 5768: 5641: 4539:; and while oral speech is usually an aural medium, there is also 4365: 2861: 2490:("reindeer") none of the other morphemes can appear in isolation. 2310:(三人の学生) lit. "3 human-classifier of student" – three students 1794:

connecting signs with their meanings. The study of the process of

667:

This view of language is associated with the study of language in

509:

and concepts that exist independently of, and prior to, language.

117: 9551: 9067: 8623: 7660:"What are the uniquely human components of the language faculty?" 5833:

A dictionary of American sign languages on linguistic principles.

4424: 4202:. If eventually no one speaks the language at all, it becomes an 4010: 3717: 3664: 3489: 3164: 3085: 3070: 3048: 2992: 2919: 2858:

called this process "an instinctive tendency to acquire an art".

2151: 2102: 1909: 1869: 1743: 1739: 1685: 1609: 1556: 1404:

to study language processing in individuals without impairments.

799: 501: 285: 250: 199: 179: 144: 123: 8290:

Communicating Meaning: The Evolution and Development of Language

7347:

The Symbolic Species: The Co-evolution of Language and the Brain

4240:

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

9637: 9212:

An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language

9147: 7969: 7332:(2001). "Typology". In Mark Aronoff; Janie Rees-Miller (eds.). 7077:(2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. 6759: 4544: 4239: 4231: 3983: 3947: 3929: 3024: 2980:

have specialized in studying how ways of speaking vary between

2790: 2612: 2542: 2370:. Furthermore, morphology distinguishes between the process of 2366: 2356: 2351: 2050: 1941: 1873: 1825: 1782:, language is traditionally seen as consisting of three parts: 1597: 1526: 1506: 1374: 1242:

In opposition to the formal theories of the generative school,

944: 768: 442: 426: 414: 235: 187: 7183:

Feral Children and Clever Animals: Reflections on Human Nature

7094:

Concise Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Language and Linguistics

4001:

are spoken by 5.5% of the world's population and stretch from

3909:). The Indo-European family spread first through hypothesized 2275:

Many other word classes exist in different languages, such as

1735:, was accompanied by a gesture to indicate the kind of fish). 1126:, the 5th century BC grammarian who formulated 3,959 rules of 737:

set human language apart from communication used by non-human

9546: 8633: 8556: 7966:

The Mixed Language Debate: Theoretical and Empirical Advances

7310:

Writing Systems: An Introduction to Their Linguistic Analysis

7064:(2001). "Syntax". In Mark Aronoff; Janie Rees-Miller (eds.). 6899:"Council investing £6.4m in the future of the Welsh language" 4722:

Graddol, David (27 February 2004). "The Future of Language".

4414: 3902: 3606: 3514: 3457: 3363: 3297: 3133: 2882: 2374:, which modifies or elaborates on a word, and the process of 2360: 2346: 2177: 2089:

with 11 and 10 phonemes respectively, whereas languages like

2015: 1727: 1605: 1544: 1498: 1270: 1204:), from language as a concrete manifestation of this system ( 1134: 1119: 1052: 1022: 902: 772: 647: 505: 400: 254: 152: 89:

predates writing by at least many tens of thousands of years.

8251:. Translated by Roy Harris. La Salle, Illinois: Open Court. 7566:. Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics. Blackwell Publishers. 7148:

International Encyclopedia of Social and Behavioral Sciences

2681:. For example, most (but not all) languages that are of the 2236:. The second, which includes "think" and "sing", are called 1934: 1497:

Spoken language relies on human physical ability to produce

1260:

Physiological and neural architecture of language and speech

695:

later works and with ordinary language philosophers such as

9642: 8111:

Nichols, Johanna (1984). "Functional Theories of Grammar".

7562:(1995). "Phonological Theory". In John A. Goldsmith (ed.). 3906: 3389:

One source of language change is contact and the resulting

2903: 2643: 2237: 2233: 2172: 2010:

pronunciations of consonants, as many other languages like

966: 539: 492:

for the concrete usage of speech in a particular language.

422: 6874:(Press release). University of Waikato. 10 November 2021. 4837: 3505:, which originally arose as a Pidgin based on English and 3140:) are generally believed to have had independent origins. 2712: 2266:, while a predicate that can take two arguments is called 1919: 1555:, these different segments are characterized by different 1537:, all of which may have effects across multiple segments. 1512:

The sound of speech can be analyzed into a combination of

6085: 5072: 2404:, which indicates masculine gender, singular number, and 1952: 813: 714: 391: 5362: 5303: 5267: 4783:

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language

4136:. In Australia, most indigenous languages belong to the 2081:. Some languages have only a few phonemes, for example, 194:

into secondary media using auditory, visual, or tactile

6831:"Silent Plains … the Fading Sounds of Native Languages" 5391: 5389: 4785:(3rd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 1992. 2580:

mean "the master was reprimanding the slaves", because

2485: 2479: 2473: 2156:

Grammar is the study of how meaningful elements called

1872:, and a single sign connected to a meaning is called a 1265:

for acquiring and producing language. The study of the

1055:

more than 2000 years ago, after the development of the

453:. This article specifically concerns the properties of 8325:

Language Contact, Creolization and Genetic Linguistics

5350: 5123: 4997: 3370:, written in the four official languages of the city: 3188:

can consist of the replacement of one speech sound or

2527:- prefix, and with the object (me) expressed by the – 1997:

form a minimal pair, in which the distinction between

921:. A prominent proponent of this view is archaeologist 729:

A number of features, many of which were described by

6636:"What's the difference between dialect and language?" 6102: 6100: 5374: 4535:

While sign is usually a visual medium, there is also

3320:. This means that the sentence "what's your name" is 2453: 2123:

syllabary, each sign represents a whole syllable. In

433:

such as formally defined computer languages used for

198: – for example, writing, whistling, signing, or 8551: 8201:

The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language

8164:

Describing morphosyntax: a guide for field linguists

6974:(2001). "Introduction". In Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald; 6929:"Hawaiian TV company seeks help to promote language" 6732: 6730: 6728: 6726: 5386: 4916: 4867: 4865: 4863: 4333: 4287:

to protect and stabilize the language of indigenous

3913:

that would have taken place some time in the period

3229: 3223: 3222:

became /b/ in the Germanic languages, the previous *

3217: 2428:, or "from your houses", consists of the morphemes, 2049:

have phonemes of at least two different categories,

744:

Communication systems used by other animals such as

533: 8245:(1983) . Bally, Charles; Sechehaye, Albert (eds.). 8221: 7484:. Vol. 313, no. 1. July 2015. p. 24. 7477: 6277: 5844: 5595: 4876: 3042: 551:and spontaneously developed sign languages such as 361:whose relationships have not been established, and 8402:The Multilingual Apple: Languages in New York City 7916:Continuum companion to second language acquisition 7892: 7871:(16th ed.). Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. 7855: 7819: 7621: 7375: 7224: 7180: 6683:International Journal of the Sociology of Language 6627: 6097: 5677: 5671: 4664: 4279:Many projects aim to prevent or slow this loss by 3675:establishes linguistic groups based on studies of 775:learned to express itself using a set of symbolic 7262:. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. 6982:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–26. 6809: 6807: 6805: 6723: 4860: 3796: 3256:, whereas Germanic languages, like English, have 3180:Changes may affect specific sounds or the entire 2515:, or "you saw me", the past tense auxiliary verb 1981:Sounds as part of a linguistic system are called 1454:of American English vowels showing the formants 1200:, distinguishing language as an abstract system ( 486:as a specific instance of a language system, and 9686: 8167:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 238–241. 7791:(1992). "Another view of endangered languages". 6397: 6395: 5742: 5740: 4825: 3015:and women speak, between age groups, or between 1883:All languages contain the semantic structure of 1137:scribes already studied the differences between 190:, signed, or both; however, any language can be 8315: 8014:. London/New York: Routledge. pp. 192–193. 7488: 7041: 6847: 6544: 5691:(2017) Listening Here: Ngûrrahmalkwonawoniyan. 5545: 4960: 4958: 4956: 4954: 4710: 3920:–1500 BCE, and subsequently through much later 2890:. Around six months of age, a child will begin 226:. Oral, manual and tactile languages contain a 7364: 7117:Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World 7029: 6896: 6802: 6562: 6560: 6315: 5963: 5321: 5256: 5247: 5245: 5198: 5196: 4843: 2646:, and its constituents in a normal indicative 538:One definition sees language primarily as the 431:artificially constructed communication systems 9433: 8578: 8372:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 30–43. 7425: 6392: 6320:(4th ed.). Boston: Bedford St. Martin's. 6295:"Babies Learn to Recognize Words in the Womb" 5737: 4981: 4813: 4660: 4658: 3730:a language is a dialect with an army and navy 3539:List of languages by total number of speakers 3513:, the French-based creole language spoken in 2463: 2447: 2429: 2423: 2279:like "and" that serve to join two sentences, 7963: 7552:Anthropological Linguistics: An Introduction 7114: 6817: 6552: 6347: 6132: 6130: 6014: 5622: 5620: 5618: 5616: 5555: 5553: 5401: 4951: 3671:cataloged 7,097 living human languages. The 2902:of an eighteen-month-old child is around 50 2528: 2522: 2516: 2510: 2299:, the general noun classifier for humans is 1628:, or different degrees of aperture creating 675:, and interactive frameworks, as well as in 487: 479: 473: 214:rules. All languages rely on the process of 7964:Matras, Yaron; Bakker, Peter, eds. (2003). 7650: 7115:Brown, Keith; Ogilvie, Sarah, eds. (2008). 6714: 6712: 6557: 6309: 5779: 5777: 5242: 5193: 4895: 4893: 4891: 4855: 3401:is likely to have been the norm throughout 3312:uses final /s/ in the morpheme marking the 2751:. The process is similar to the process of 2500: 2399: 2393: 2387: 1365:, which is in the posterior section of the 403: 241:The scientific study of language is called 9440: 9426: 9302:Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language 8592: 8585: 8571: 8428: 8361:Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts 8067:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Archived from 7993:(3rd ed.). Paris: UNESCO Publishing. 7600:. London: Arnold, Oxford University Press. 7592: 7316: 7136:Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction 7100: 7044:Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages 6970: 6581:. Instituto Cervantes (www.cervantes.es). 6533: 5979: 5867: 5865: 5703: 5701: 5521: 5474: 4801: 4706: 4704: 4702: 4700: 4698: 4655: 4025:, and many of the indigenous languages of 3833:The world's languages can be grouped into 2622: 1071:examines the grammar of single languages, 1029:, laying the ground for the discipline of 8376: 8306: 8284: 7787: 7677:. Oxford University Press. Archived from 7675:Language Evolution: The States of the Art 7580: 7558: 7517: 7460: 7450: 7382:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6986: 6859: 6785: 6700: 6690: 6452: 6424: 6324: 6318:Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction 6292: 6148: 6127: 6025:Linguistics for Everyone: An Introduction 5835:Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet College Press 5757: 5613: 5550: 5262: 5224: 5222: 5100: 5090: 5056: 5054: 4992: 4674: 4672: 4650: 4623: 4602: 4509:reportedly used as many as 1000 words in 3701: 3466:official languages of the Indian Republic 2215:relations on predicates, and a system of 2191: 798:and writing use the visual modality, and 642: 599:view of language was first introduced by 582: 437:. Unlike conventional human languages, a 421:. The word is sometimes used to refer to 8535:, and does not reflect subsequent edits. 8518: 8424:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 8388: 8331: 8241: 8096:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 8054: 8018: 7990:Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger 7954: 7862:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7850: 7742: 7617:(3, Language as a Human Problem): 47–57. 7542:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7378:The Dyirbal Language of North Queensland 7324:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7178: 7166: 7154: 7142: 7133: 7107:An introduction to the study of language 7007: 6998: 6709: 6548: 6522: 6498: 6464: 6440: 6330: 6222: 6210: 6198: 6187: 5906: 5796:International Phonetic Association (1999 5774: 5769:International Phonetic Association (1999 5746: 5665: 5653: 5642:International Phonetic Association (1999 5626: 5607: 5462: 5440: 5297: 5285: 5188: 4977: 4975: 4973: 4964: 4910: 4899: 4888: 4322:, to help find ways of preserving their 4226: 4165: 4143: 3818: 3497:. An example of such mixed languages is 3439: 3354: 3157: 3056: 2944: 2860: 2716: 2546: 1804: 1490:of a person speaking in Mandarin Chinese 1298: 1215: 1102: 1013: 950:It was mostly undisputed that pre-human 646: 159:forms, and may also be conveyed through 9512:Languages by writing system / 8453: 8435:Language Documentation and Conservation 8416: 8370:Approaches to the evolution of language 8337:Language Contact – An Introduction 8209: 8110: 8086: 8009: 7986: 7932: 7918:. London: Continuum. pp. 137–157. 7827:. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 329–330. 7730: 7698:Animals sounds and animal communication 7688: 7396: 7365:Devitt, Michael; Sterelny, Kim (1999). 7350:. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. 7307: 7245: 7222: 7208: 7187:. Oxford University Press US. pp. 7160:Historical Linguistics: an Introduction 6718: 6642:. College of Charleston. Archived from 6510: 6353: 6163: 6118: 5871: 5862: 5698: 5510: 5395: 5380: 5042: 5018:"The Problem of Universals in Language" 5015: 5003: 4934: 4721: 4695: 4678: 4585: 4583: 4234:'s five levels of language endangerment 3528: 2713:Social contexts of use and transmission 1021:discovered the family relation between 60:century) depicting a person emitting a 9687: 8422:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language 8367: 8292:. Psychology Press. pp. 275–308. 8193: 8093:Linguistic diversity in space and time 7913: 7841: 7605: 7510:10.1146/annurev.neuro.26.041002.131144 7340: 7288: 7266: 7257: 6828: 6813: 6585:from the original on 16 September 2017 6358: 6341: 6159: 6122: 5637: 5635: 5559: 5486: 5251: 5228: 5219: 5202: 5051: 5046: 4871: 4669: 3826:Distribution of languages in the world 3444:Multilingualism is also common in the 3228:in turn became /p/, and the previous * 3125:, which developed around 1200 BC. The 2481:tuntu-ssur-qatar-ni-ksaite-ngqiggte-uq 2205:distinguishing between their relations 938:Because language emerged in the early 715:Distinctive features of human language 587:Another definition sees language as a 457:as it is studied in the discipline of 9421: 8566: 8355: 8343: 8265: 8229:(2001). "Natural Sign Languages". In 8160: 8131: 8042:from the original on 31 December 2014 7887: 7866: 7769: 7751: 7546: 7534: 7373: 7328: 7150:. Oxford: Pergamon. pp. 729–733. 7072: 7060: 6909:from the original on 11 November 2021 6878:from the original on 24 November 2021 6736: 6664: 6633: 6566: 6487: 6476: 6428: 6413: 6401: 6386: 6364: 6175: 6136: 6106: 6091: 6079: 6067: 6002: 5990: 5975: 5952: 5940: 5928: 5917: 5894: 5882: 5856: 5783: 5731: 5719: 5707: 5583: 5571: 5533: 5498: 5451: 5368: 5356: 5309: 5273: 5213: 5060: 4970: 4945: 4922: 4882: 4819: 4807: 4795: 4789: 4632:from the original on 26 February 2020 3944:, and hundreds of smaller languages. 3308:the final /s/ has eroded away. Since 2559:phrase, and "sat" is the core of the 2093:may have as many as 141 phonemes. In 1989:. In English, for example, the words 1899: 1398:functional magnetic resonance imaging 1211: 1179:By introducing a distinction between 958:in general. However, a 2017 study on 8429:Cysouw, Michael; Good, Jeff (2013). 8134:Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 7869:"Ethnologue: Languages of the World" 7745:Introduction to Language Development 7091: 7013:Languages: A Very Short Introduction 6961: 6939:from the original on 5 December 2021 6375: 5407: 4831: 4580: 3448:. The signboard is displayed in the 2777: 1715:Australian Aboriginal sign languages 1407: 202:. In other words, human language is 9447: 8125:10.1146/annurev.an.13.100184.000525 8061:Language Form and Language Function 7997:from the original on 20 August 2014 7825:The sounds of the world's languages 7564:The Handbook of Phonological Theory 7274:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. 7110:. New York: Henry Holt and Company. 7015:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 6992:Language Change: Progress or Decay? 6897:Rhiannon James (10 November 2021). 6615:from the original on 8 January 2016 5632: 3954:, which includes such languages as 3300:or particular constructions become 2918:, or short sentences that are less 2448: 1148:In the 17th century AD, the French 802:writing uses the tactile modality. 784:grammatical and semantic categories 399:"tongue, speech, language" through 155:convey meaning, both in spoken and 151:. It is the primary means by which 13: 9519:Ancient languages corpuses by size 8557:Ethnologue: Languages of the World 8505: 8457:(1934). "The phonemic principle". 8410: 8392:(2002). "Spanish in New York". In 8181:from the original on 31 March 2021 7987:Moseley, Christopher, ed. (2010). 7706:International Phonetic Association 7253:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 7203:koko gorilla operant conditioning. 6829:Briand, Frederic (February 2013). 6609:Summary by world area | Ethnologue 6293:Skwarecki, Beth (26 August 2013). 5422:from the original on 25 March 2024 5170:from the original on 28 April 2019 4774: 4665:Hauser, Chomsky & Fitch (2002) 3708:Dialect § Dialect or language 3121:. A similar debate exists for the 2600:, showing that he is the subject. 2398:, meaning "good", and the suffix - 2392:, or "good", consists of the root 1559:structures, that are visible in a 897:, see it as having developed from 353:with another language is called a 175:and is acquired through learning. 64:from his mouth, symbolizing speech 16:Structured system of communication 14: 9721: 8486: 8351:(2nd ed.). Psychology Press. 8327:. University of California Press. 8268:Systems of Nominal Classification 8028:. Linguistic Society of America. 7875:from the original on 4 April 2012 7075:Introducing linguistic morphology 2894:, producing the speech sounds or 2869:, a school where English and the 2650:. In English, the basic order is 2555:of the phrase, "on the mat" is a 2408:case. These languages are called 2240:. Another common category is the 1062: 534:Mental faculty, organ or instinct 8517: 8359:(2007). Stockwell, Peter (ed.). 7179:Candland, Douglas Keith (1993). 6921: 6890: 6864: 6853: 6841: 6822: 6753: 6670: 6658: 6597: 6571: 6538: 6527: 6516: 6504: 6492: 6481: 6470: 6458: 6446: 6434: 6418: 6407: 6380: 6369: 6335: 6286: 6271: 6228: 6216: 6204: 6192: 6181: 6169: 6153: 6142: 6112: 6042:from the original on 22 May 2020 5845:Sandler & Lillo-Martin (2001 5678:Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996) 5596:Sandler & Lillo-Martin (2001 4559: 4442:International auxiliary language 4378: 4364: 4350: 4336: 4013:. It includes such languages as 3043:Writing, literacy and technology 2207:to a predicate, the encoding of 1951: 1933: 1918: 1640:. Consonants can also be either 1474: 1444: 1430: 1295:Language processing in the brain 1098: 844: 116: 96: 71: 42: 7776:Principles of Linguistic Change 7758:Principles of Linguistic Change 6073: 6061: 6028:. Cengage Learning. p. 9. 6008: 5996: 5984: 5969: 5957: 5946: 5934: 5922: 5911: 5900: 5888: 5876: 5850: 5838: 5814: 5801: 5789: 5762: 5751: 5725: 5713: 5682: 5659: 5647: 5601: 5589: 5577: 5565: 5546:Fisher, Lai & Monaco (2003) 5539: 5527: 5515: 5504: 5492: 5480: 5468: 5456: 5445: 5434: 5315: 5291: 5279: 5233: 5207: 5182: 5117: 5066: 5036: 5009: 4986: 4939: 4928: 4904: 4849: 4550: 4529: 4520: 4499: 4104:families of South America, the 3212:when the sound change known as 2677:. Such correlations are called 2605:inverse word order in questions 2222: 2140:International Phonetic Alphabet 2057:, that can be combined to form 1244:functional theories of language 288:acquired the ability to form a 9242:Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus 8384:. Blackwell. pp. 319–337. 8270:. Cambridge University Press. 8237:. Blackwell. pp. 533–563. 8217:. Blackwell. pp. 512–533. 7940:. Cambridge University Press. 7899:. Cambridge University Press. 7609:(1973). "The Curse of Babel". 7519:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-CB7D-6 7462:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-C29E-4 7068:. Blackwell. pp. 265–295. 7046:. Cambridge University Press. 6954: 4715: 4644: 4596: 4192:to speaking another language. 3797:Language families of the world 2812: 2422:, where for example, the word 1778:When described as a system of 1114:approach to studying language. 661:Functional theories of grammar 372: 1: 9123:Principle of compositionality 8339:. Edinburgh University Press. 8309:Origin of Human Communication 8248:Course in General Linguistics 8161:Payne, Thomas Edward (1997). 8113:Annual Review of Anthropology 7938:Understanding Language Change 7914:Macaro, Ernesto, ed. (2010). 7636:10.1126/science.298.5598.1569 7588:. The Hague: Mouton & Co. 7498:Annual Review of Neuroscience 7439:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7336:. Blackwell. pp. 81–105. 7312:. Cambridge University Press. 7289:Comrie, Bernard, ed. (2009). 7231:. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. 7174:. Blackwell. pp. 81–105. 7138:. Cambridge University press. 7096:. Elsevier. pp. 569–570. 6966:. Cambridge University Press. 6964:Language and Social Relations 6545:Thomason & Kaufman (1988) 5408:Keys, David (25 March 2024). 4711:Austin & Sallabank (2011) 4591:Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4574: 4477:Problem of religious language 3970:, which include the populous 3914: 3787:Standard RP (English) English 3429:. Also, larger areas such as 3397:interact on a regular basis. 3067:Canadian Aboriginal syllabics 2957: 2475:tuntussuqatarniksatengqiggtuq 2325: 1303:Language Areas of the brain. 1233:generative theory of language 1172:. Early in the 20th century, 999:less than 100,000 years ago. 905:, a view already espoused by 54: 9524:Undeciphered writing systems 9272:Philosophical Investigations 8233:; Janie Rees-Miller (eds.). 7959:. London:NewYork: Routledge. 7867:Lewis, M. Paul, ed. (2009). 7846:. London:NewYork: Routledge. 7251:The Architecture of Language 7003:. London:NewYork: Routledge. 6848:Austin & Sallabank (2011 5092:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002171 5016:Hockett, Charles F. (1966). 3450:Imphal International Airport 3130:Mesoamerican writing systems 2642:, the relative order of the 2588:, showing that they are the 1858:Thus, languages must have a 1835: 1773: 1514:segmental and suprasegmental 1284: 1275:congenital language disorder 1273:, which may cause a kind of 1160:and expert on ancient India 997:Upper Paleolithic revolution 889:, hold the precedents to be 613:generative theory of grammar 7: 9529:Creators of writing systems 9113:Modality (natural language) 8382:The Handbook of Linguistics 8307:Tomasello, Michael (2008). 8266:Senft, Gunter, ed. (2008). 8235:The Handbook of Linguistics 8215:The Handbook of Linguistics 8012:The Pragmatics Encyclopedia 7957:An Encyclopedia of Language 7844:An Encyclopedia of Language 7374:Dixon, Robert M.W. (1972). 7334:The Handbook of Linguistics 7291:The World's Major Languages 7172:The Handbook of Linguistics 7066:The Handbook of Linguistics 7033:; Fudeman, Kirsten (2011). 7001:An Encyclopedia of Language 5964:Aronoff & Fudeman (2011 5807:Stokoe, William C. (1960). 4982:Evans & Levinson (2009) 4457:List of language regulators 4329: 3982:, and the languages of the 3952:Niger-Congo language family 3922:European colonial expansion 3720:, notwithstanding a famous 3501:, the official language of 3162:The first page of the poem 2823:Second-language acquisition 2803:conversational implicatures 2464: 2454: 2008:aspirated and non-aspirated 1758:. Tertiary modes – such as 1711:Plains Indian Sign Language 1696: 982:(1.8 million years ago) or 478:for language as a concept, 81:is the first known form of 10: 9726: 9458:Index of language articles 9252:Language, Truth, and Logic 8992:Theological noncognitivism 8877:Contrast theory of meaning 8872:Causal theory of reference 8603:Index of language articles 8363:(2nd ed.). Routledge. 8025:The History of Linguistics 7736:The Languages of the World 7714:Cambridge University Press 6818:Brown & Ogilvie (2008) 6741:Summary by language family 6679:"What is language making?" 6553:Matras & Bakker (2003) 5336:10.1016/j.jchb.2017.03.001 4844:Devitt & Sterelny 1999 4467:List of official languages 4452:Linguistic diversity index 4147: 3800: 3705: 3532: 3423:Mesoamerican language area 3348: 3344: 3230: 3224: 3218: 3147: 3046: 2978:linguistic anthropologists 2934: 2930: 2816: 2781: 2626: 2578:Servos vituperabat dominus 2574:Dominus servos vituperabat 2540: 2255:, while nouns are used as 2195: 2149: 2145: 2099:the equivalent to phonemes 1903: 1839: 1411: 1288: 1248:Formal theories of grammar 1036: 833: 823: 718: 567:, or American philosopher 449:for encoding and decoding 410:, "language; tongue", and 376: 259:ancient Greek civilization 211:philosophical perspectives 139:is a structured system of 25: 18: 9661: 9610: 9537: 9500: 9464: 9455: 9392: 9337:Philosophy of information 9324: 9173: 9025: 8937:Mediated reference theory 8862: 8609: 8600: 8146:10.1017/S0267190500001392 7823:; Maddieson, Ian (1996). 7743:Kennison, Shelia (2013). 7540:The Evolution of Language 7452:10.1017/s0140525x0999094x 7320:; Cruse, D. Alan (2004). 7308:Coulmas, Florian (2002). 7258:Clarke, David S. (1990). 5145:10.1007/s10071-017-1114-6 4856:Hauser & Fitch (2003) 4487:Speech–language pathology 4057:of Central Asia (such as 3815:List of language families 3791:One Standard German Axiom 3783:Standard American English 3716:between a language and a 3282:to eventually become the 3143: 2697:. Some languages, called 2596:, or "master", is in the 2584:, or "slaves", is in the 2536: 2227:Languages organize their 1940:The syllable "wi" in the 1547:segments combine to form 1198:Langue-parole distinction 1085:computational linguistics 819: 625:computational linguistics 21:Language (disambiguation) 9514:by first written account 9262:Two Dogmas of Empiricism 8378:Van Valin, Robert D. Jr. 7895:Language and Linguistics 7696:; W. N. Tavolga (eds.). 7598:Understanding morphology 7134:Clackson, James (2007). 7037:. John Wiley & Sons. 6640:The Five Minute Linguist 4493: 4395:Father tongue hypothesis 3911:Indo-European migrations 3132:(including among others 2987:Linguists use the term " 2807:communicative competence 2679:implicational universals 2663:d̪uyugu n̪ama d̪ayn yiːy 2462:consisting of morphemes 2314:For trees, it would be: 1009: 858:Pieter Bruegel the Elder 758:chestnut-crowned babbler 611:, the originator of the 553:Nicaraguan Sign Language 387:derives ultimately from 9482:History of the alphabet 9063:Use–mention distinction 8907:Direct reference theory 7293:. New York: Routledge. 6886:– via Scoop News. 6778:10.1126/science.abg0818 6605:"Ethnologue statistics" 5522:Croft & Cruse (2004 4744:10.1126/science.1096546 4007:maritime Southeast Asia 3875:Indo-European languages 3724:attributed to linguist 3427:Ethiopian language area 3273:Another example is the 2736:communities of speakers 2623:Typology and universals 2486: 2480: 2474: 2440:polysynthetic languages 2416:agglutinative languages 2283:that introduce a noun, 1748:manually coded language 1367:superior temporal gyrus 1346:Primary auditory cortex 1166:comparative linguistics 1073:theoretical linguistics 1069:descriptive linguistics 1047:The study of language, 681:linguistic anthropology 518:Johann Gottfried Herder 415: 393: 104:Children of deaf adults 8997:Theory of descriptions 8932:Linguistic determinism 8594:Philosophy of language 8513: 8493:Listen to this article 8357:Trask, Robert Lawrence 8345:Trask, Robert Lawrence 8243:Saussure, Ferdinand de 8056:Newmeyer, Frederick J. 8020:Newmeyer, Frederick J. 7738:. New York: Routledge. 7223:Chomsky, Noam (1972). 7073:Bauer, Laurie (2003). 6746:1 January 2016 at the 6692:10.1515/ijsl-2021-0016 4688:12 August 2014 at the 4511:American Sign Language 4472:Outline of linguistics 4235: 4182: 3999:Austronesian languages 3934:Sino-Tibetan languages 3830: 3811:Historical linguistics 3779:Pluricentric languages 3775:mutual intelligibility 3702:Languages and dialects 3677:mutual intelligibility 3507:Austronesian languages 3469: 3386: 3173: 3074: 2964: 2877: 2875:mediums of instruction 2731: 2564: 2529: 2523: 2517: 2511: 2501: 2460:I didn't understand it 2436:house-plural-your-from 2430: 2424: 2400: 2394: 2388: 2192:Grammatical categories 1964:Korean manual alphabet 1878:grammatical categories 1817: 1780:symbolic communication 1614:manner of articulation 1422:Articulatory phonetics 1383:inferior frontal gyrus 1349: 1224: 1150:Port-Royal Grammarians 1115: 1089:historical linguistics 1043:History of linguistics 1034: 1031:historical linguistics 936: 655: 653:American Sign Language 643:Tool for communication 583:Formal symbolic system 488: 480: 474: 468:". The Swiss linguist 455:natural human language 404: 359:unclassified languages 357:. There are also many 108:American Sign Language 9108:Mental representation 9043:Linguistic relativity 8927:Inquisitive semantics 8512: 7972:: Walter de Gruyter. 7805:10.1353/lan.1992.0013 7492:; Lai, Cecilia S.L.; 7322:Cognitive Linguistics 6972:Aikhenvald, Alexandra 5825:Dorothy C. Casterline 4612:Colloquia Humanistica 4405:Attitude (psychology) 4302:as a model for their 4296:University of Waikato 4252:, such as English or 4230: 4186:Language endangerment 4169: 4144:Language endangerment 4132:language families of 3968:Afroasiatic languages 3822: 3443: 3358: 3289:and American English 3161: 3060: 2948: 2864: 2720: 2690:nominative-accusative 2592:of the sentence, and 2550: 2359:follow the root, and 1958:The sign for "wi" in 1850:Meaning (linguistics) 1808: 1588:such as German "ü"). 1437:The human vocal tract 1377:. The second area is 1302: 1253:cognitive linguistics 1219: 1174:Ferdinand de Saussure 1108:Ferdinand de Saussure 1106: 1017: 931: 860:. Oil on board, 1563. 650: 601:Ferdinand de Saussure 470:Ferdinand de Saussure 429:, and other kinds of 321:, as well as use for 319:social stratification 275:Ferdinand de Saussure 263:Jean-Jacques Rousseau 9292:Naming and Necessity 9202:De Arte Combinatoria 9001:Definite description 8962:Semantic externalism 8544:More spoken articles 8404:. Walter de Gruyter. 8349:Language: The Basics 7852:Levinson, Stephen C. 7431:Levinson, Stephen C. 7399:Current Anthropology 7369:. Boston: MIT Press. 7218:. The Hague: Mouton. 7215:Syntactic Structures 7119:. Elsevier Science. 5693:Humanities Australia 4625:10.11649/ch.2016.011 4285:specific legislation 3986:region, such as the 3846:, spoken in Europe, 3529:Linguistic diversity 3474:language convergence 3419:Balkan language area 3407:ethno-national state 3114:Egyptian hieroglyphs 2819:Language acquisition 2633:Linguistic universal 2198:Grammatical category 2018:do: the unaspirated 1960:Korean Sign Language 1170:Wilhelm von Humboldt 1164:sparked the rise of 990:anatomically modern 985:Homo heidelbergensis 961:Ardipithecus ramidus 899:animal communication 836:Proto-Human language 792:modality independent 435:computer programming 300:, but especially in 247:language and thought 9710:Main topic articles 9700:Human communication 9342:Philosophical logic 9332:Analytic philosophy 9138:Sense and reference 9017:Verification theory 8972:Situation semantics 8390:Zentella, Ana Celia 8227:Lillo-Martin, Diane 8074:on 16 December 2011 7934:McMahon, April M.S. 7700:. pp. 392–430. 7690:Hockett, Charles F. 7630:(5598): 1569–1579. 7481:Scientific American 7102:Bloomfield, Leonard 6962:Agha, Asif (2006). 6835:National Geographic 6646:on 19 December 2010 6305:on 4 November 2015. 6279:Scientific American 6094:, pp. 269–270. 5371:, pp. 292–293. 5312:, pp. 250–292. 5276:, pp. 466–507. 5024:on 10 November 2012 4736:2004Sci...303.1329G 4730:(5662): 1329–1331. 4400:Human communication 4150:Endangered language 4138:Pama-Nyungan family 4071:Tai–Kadai languages 4035:Dravidian languages 3870:, and many others. 3238:such as Latin have 3182:phonological system 2837:normally developing 2656:Australian language 2629:Linguistic typology 2287:such as "wow!", or 1586:rounded front vowel 1381:, in the posterior 1319:Supramarginal gyrus 934:for reconstruction. 685:linguistic typology 441:in this sense is a 389:Proto-Indo-European 271:Ludwig Wittgenstein 261:. Thinkers such as 9623:Canadian syllabics 9492:Scripts in Unicode 9477:History of writing 9192:Port-Royal Grammar 9088:Family resemblance 9007:Theory of language 8982:Supposition theory 8514: 8333:Thomason, Sarah G. 8317:Thomason, Sarah G. 8286:Tomasello, Michael 7656:Fitch, W. Tecumseh 7594:Haspelmath, Martin 7536:Fitch, W. Tecumseh 7494:Monaco, Anthony P. 7035:What is Morphology 6935:. 20 August 2019. 6772:(6656): eabg0818. 5821:Stokoe, William C. 4462:Lists of languages 4358:Linguistics portal 4289:speech communities 4274:genocide of Rwanda 4270:American Civil War 4236: 4183: 3831: 3663:"language" and a " 3535:Lists of languages 3470: 3387: 3210:Germanic languages 3174: 3154:Grammaticalization 3119:cultural diffusion 3075: 3061:An inscription of 2982:speech communities 2965: 2916:telegraphic speech 2906:. A child's first 2878: 2851:The Descent of Man 2831:Language education 2738:in which children 2732: 2590:grammatical object 2565: 2434:with the meanings 2411:fusional languages 2355:precede the root, 2308:san-nin no gakusei 2217:grammatical person 2026:and the aspirated 1900:Sounds and symbols 1818: 1768:spelling alphabets 1643:voiced or unvoiced 1387:expressive aphasia 1375:sentence structure 1350: 1225: 1212:Modern linguistics 1154:comparative method 1116: 1093:comparative method 1035: 952:australopithecines 853:The Tower of Babel 826:Origin of language 725:Great ape language 689:grammaticalization 656: 651:A conversation in 621:formal linguistics 593:structural systems 559:, for example, in 379:Theory of language 369:by the year 2100. 363:spurious languages 9682: 9681: 9674:In Southeast Asia 9415: 9414: 8917:Dynamic semantics 8510: 8321:Kaufman, Terrence 8299:978-0-8058-2118-5 8277:978-0-521-06523-8 8258:978-0-8126-9023-1 8174:978-0-521-58805-8 8103:978-0-226-58057-9 8035:978-0-415-11553-7 7979:978-3-11-017776-3 7947:978-0-521-44119-3 7925:978-1-4411-9922-5 7906:978-0-521-29775-2 7834:978-0-631-19815-4 7723:978-0-521-65236-0 7684:on 8 August 2014. 7667:M.H. Christiansen 7582:Greenberg, Joseph 7573:978-1-4051-5768-1 7560:Goldsmith, John A 7548:Foley, William A. 7389:978-0-521-08510-6 7357:978-0-393-31754-1 7300:978-0-415-35339-7 7281:978-0-226-11433-0 7238:978-0-15-549257-8 7227:Language and Mind 7198:978-0-19-510284-0 7126:978-0-08-087774-7 7084:978-0-87840-343-1 7053:978-0-521-88215-6 7022:978-0-19-959059-9 7009:Anderson, Stephen 6534:Aikhenvald (2001) 6237:Child Development 6035:978-1-4130-1589-8 5980:Haspelmath (2002) 5829:Carl G. Croneberg 5359:, pp. 70–74. 4604:Kamusella, Tomasz 4482:Psycholinguistics 4447:Linguistic rights 3972:Semitic languages 3840:language isolates 3835:language families 3773:or the degree of 3714:clear distinction 3694:According to the 3655: 3654: 3362:sign outside the 3306:Caribbean Spanish 3275:Great Vowel Shift 3102:4th millennium BC 2871:Cherokee language 2778:Usage and meaning 2757:phylogenetic tree 2665:(snake man bit), 2465:na-fahm-id-am-esh 2101:(formerly called 1652:unvoiced sibilant 1481: 1414:Speech production 1408:Anatomy of speech 1402:electrophysiology 1371:receptive aphasia 1237:Universal Grammar 895:Michael Tomasello 623:, and in applied 607:such a theory is 575:framework and in 573:cognitive science 565:universal grammar 498:linguistic theory 383:The English word 184:Natural languages 173:social convention 143:that consists of 9717: 9611:Current examples 9592:Semi-syllabaries 9442: 9435: 9428: 9419: 9418: 9377:Formal semantics 9325:Related articles 9317: 9307: 9297: 9287: 9277: 9267: 9257: 9247: 9237: 9227: 9217: 9207: 9197: 9187: 8957:Relevance theory 8952:Phallogocentrism 8587: 8580: 8573: 8564: 8563: 8534: 8532: 8521: 8520: 8511: 8501: 8499: 8494: 8482: 8450: 8425: 8405: 8385: 8373: 8364: 8352: 8340: 8328: 8312: 8303: 8281: 8262: 8238: 8218: 8211:Romaine, Suzanne 8206: 8190: 8188: 8186: 8157: 8128: 8107: 8088:Nichols, Johanna 8083: 8081: 8079: 8073: 8066: 8051: 8049: 8047: 8015: 8006: 8004: 8002: 7983: 7960: 7951: 7929: 7910: 7898: 7884: 7882: 7880: 7863: 7861: 7847: 7838: 7821:Ladefoged, Peter 7816: 7789:Ladefoged, Peter 7784: 7766: 7762:Internal Factors 7748: 7739: 7732:Katzner, Kenneth 7727: 7701: 7685: 7683: 7664: 7647: 7618: 7601: 7589: 7577: 7555: 7543: 7531: 7521: 7490:Fisher, Simon E. 7485: 7474: 7464: 7454: 7422: 7393: 7381: 7370: 7361: 7342:Deacon, Terrence 7337: 7325: 7313: 7304: 7285: 7263: 7254: 7242: 7230: 7219: 7205: 7186: 7175: 7163: 7151: 7139: 7130: 7111: 7097: 7088: 7069: 7057: 7038: 7026: 7004: 6995: 6983: 6967: 6949: 6948: 6946: 6944: 6925: 6919: 6918: 6916: 6914: 6894: 6888: 6887: 6885: 6883: 6868: 6862: 6860:Ladefoged (1992) 6857: 6851: 6845: 6839: 6838: 6826: 6820: 6811: 6800: 6799: 6789: 6757: 6751: 6734: 6721: 6716: 6707: 6706: 6704: 6694: 6674: 6668: 6662: 6656: 6655: 6653: 6651: 6634:Rickerson, E.M. 6631: 6625: 6624: 6622: 6620: 6601: 6595: 6594: 6592: 6590: 6575: 6569: 6564: 6555: 6542: 6536: 6531: 6525: 6520: 6514: 6508: 6502: 6496: 6490: 6485: 6479: 6474: 6468: 6462: 6456: 6450: 6444: 6438: 6432: 6425:Aitchison (2001) 6422: 6416: 6411: 6405: 6399: 6390: 6384: 6378: 6373: 6367: 6362: 6356: 6351: 6345: 6339: 6333: 6328: 6322: 6321: 6313: 6307: 6306: 6301:. Archived from 6290: 6284: 6275: 6269: 6268: 6243:(6): 1435–1445. 6232: 6226: 6220: 6214: 6208: 6202: 6196: 6190: 6185: 6179: 6173: 6167: 6157: 6151: 6149:Greenberg (1966) 6146: 6140: 6134: 6125: 6116: 6110: 6104: 6095: 6089: 6083: 6077: 6071: 6065: 6059: 6058: 6049: 6047: 6012: 6006: 6000: 5994: 5988: 5982: 5973: 5967: 5961: 5955: 5950: 5944: 5938: 5932: 5926: 5920: 5915: 5909: 5904: 5898: 5892: 5886: 5880: 5874: 5869: 5860: 5854: 5848: 5842: 5836: 5818: 5812: 5805: 5799: 5793: 5787: 5781: 5772: 5766: 5760: 5758:Goldsmith (1995) 5755: 5749: 5744: 5735: 5729: 5723: 5717: 5711: 5705: 5696: 5686: 5680: 5675: 5669: 5663: 5657: 5651: 5645: 5639: 5630: 5624: 5611: 5605: 5599: 5593: 5587: 5581: 5575: 5569: 5563: 5557: 5548: 5543: 5537: 5536::11–14, 105–113) 5531: 5525: 5519: 5513: 5508: 5502: 5496: 5490: 5484: 5478: 5472: 5466: 5460: 5454: 5449: 5443: 5438: 5432: 5431: 5429: 5427: 5405: 5399: 5393: 5384: 5378: 5372: 5366: 5360: 5354: 5348: 5347: 5319: 5313: 5307: 5301: 5295: 5289: 5283: 5277: 5271: 5265: 5263:Tomasello (2008) 5260: 5254: 5249: 5240: 5237: 5231: 5226: 5217: 5211: 5205: 5200: 5191: 5186: 5180: 5179: 5177: 5175: 5169: 5133:Animal Cognition 5130: 5121: 5115: 5114: 5104: 5094: 5070: 5064: 5058: 5049: 5040: 5034: 5033: 5031: 5029: 5020:. Archived from 5013: 5007: 5001: 4995: 4993:Van Valin (2001) 4990: 4984: 4979: 4968: 4962: 4949: 4943: 4937: 4932: 4926: 4920: 4914: 4908: 4902: 4897: 4886: 4880: 4874: 4869: 4858: 4853: 4847: 4841: 4835: 4829: 4823: 4817: 4811: 4805: 4799: 4793: 4787: 4786: 4778: 4772: 4771: 4719: 4713: 4708: 4693: 4676: 4667: 4662: 4653: 4651:Tomasello (1996) 4648: 4642: 4641: 4639: 4637: 4627: 4600: 4594: 4587: 4569: 4563: 4557: 4554: 4548: 4533: 4527: 4524: 4518: 4503: 4388: 4383: 4382: 4374: 4369: 4368: 4360: 4355: 4354: 4346: 4341: 4340: 4222:top 20 languages 4205:extinct language 4179: 4173: 4086:Papua New Guinea 4055:Turkic languages 3988:Berber languages 3938:Mandarin Chinese 3919: 3916: 3543: 3542: 3503:Papua New Guinea 3351:Language contact 3322:¿como te llamas? 3310:Standard Spanish 3236:Italic languages 3233: 3232: 3227: 3226: 3221: 3220: 3190:phonetic feature 3110:cuneiform script 3091:formal education 2962: 2959: 2954:The Conversation 2950:Arnold Lakhovsky 2941:Speech community 2749:language contact 2609:special emphasis 2532: 2526: 2520: 2514: 2504: 2489: 2483: 2477: 2467: 2457: 2451: 2450: 2446:the single word 2433: 2427: 2403: 2397: 2391: 2117:syllabic scripts 2047:spoken languages 2040:Mandarin Chinese 2029: 2021: 2004: 2000: 1955: 1937: 1922: 1865:Canis familiaris 1483: 1482: 1448: 1434: 1355:neurolinguistics 1343: 1334: 1325: 1316: 1307: 1291:Neurolinguistics 1081:neurolinguistics 1077:sociolinguistics 927:Stephen Anderson 891:animal cognition 848: 830:Origin of speech 677:sociolinguistics 637:formal logicians 633:Bertrand Russell 577:neurolinguistics 549:creole languages 491: 485: 477: 420: 409: 398: 355:language isolate 306:Wernicke's areas 120: 100: 83:written language 75: 59: 56: 46: 9725: 9724: 9720: 9719: 9718: 9716: 9715: 9714: 9685: 9684: 9683: 9678: 9657: 9606: 9533: 9508:Writing systems 9496: 9460: 9451: 9449:Writing systems 9446: 9416: 9411: 9388: 9367:School of Names 9320: 9315: 9305: 9295: 9285: 9282:Of Grammatology 9275: 9265: 9255: 9245: 9235: 9225: 9215: 9205: 9195: 9185: 9169: 9021: 8967:Semantic holism 8947:Non-cognitivism 8887:Conventionalism 8858: 8605: 8596: 8591: 8548: 8547: 8536: 8530: 8528: 8525:This audio file 8522: 8515: 8506: 8503: 8497: 8496: 8492: 8489: 8455:Swadesh, Morris 8413: 8411:Further reading 8408: 8398:Fishman, Joshua 8300: 8278: 8259: 8184: 8182: 8175: 8104: 8077: 8075: 8071: 8064: 8045: 8043: 8036: 8000: 7998: 7980: 7948: 7926: 7907: 7878: 7876: 7835: 7724: 7681: 7662: 7652:Hauser, Marc D. 7574: 7427:Evans, Nicholas 7390: 7358: 7301: 7282: 7268:Comrie, Bernard 7239: 7199: 7127: 7085: 7054: 7023: 6988:Aitchison, Jean 6957: 6952: 6942: 6940: 6927: 6926: 6922: 6912: 6910: 6895: 6891: 6881: 6879: 6870: 6869: 6865: 6858: 6854: 6846: 6842: 6827: 6823: 6812: 6803: 6758: 6754: 6748:Wayback Machine 6735: 6724: 6717: 6710: 6702:1854/LU-8745135 6675: 6671: 6663: 6659: 6649: 6647: 6632: 6628: 6618: 6616: 6603: 6602: 6598: 6588: 6586: 6577: 6576: 6572: 6565: 6558: 6549:Thomason (2001) 6543: 6539: 6532: 6528: 6523:Campbell (2002) 6521: 6517: 6509: 6505: 6497: 6493: 6486: 6482: 6475: 6471: 6463: 6459: 6453:Aitchison (2001 6451: 6447: 6439: 6435: 6423: 6419: 6412: 6408: 6400: 6393: 6385: 6381: 6374: 6370: 6363: 6359: 6352: 6348: 6340: 6336: 6331:Kennison (2013) 6329: 6325: 6314: 6310: 6291: 6287: 6276: 6272: 6249:10.2307/1129806 6233: 6229: 6221: 6217: 6209: 6205: 6197: 6193: 6188:Campbell (2004) 6186: 6182: 6174: 6170: 6158: 6154: 6147: 6143: 6135: 6128: 6117: 6113: 6105: 6098: 6090: 6086: 6078: 6074: 6066: 6062: 6045: 6043: 6036: 6016:Denham, Kristin 6013: 6009: 6001: 5997: 5989: 5985: 5974: 5970: 5962: 5958: 5951: 5947: 5939: 5935: 5927: 5923: 5916: 5912: 5907:Allerton (1989) 5905: 5901: 5893: 5889: 5881: 5877: 5870: 5863: 5855: 5851: 5843: 5839: 5819: 5815: 5806: 5802: 5794: 5790: 5782: 5775: 5767: 5763: 5756: 5752: 5747:Levinson (1983) 5745: 5738: 5730: 5726: 5718: 5714: 5706: 5699: 5687: 5683: 5676: 5672: 5664: 5660: 5652: 5648: 5640: 5633: 5625: 5614: 5606: 5602: 5594: 5590: 5582: 5578: 5570: 5566: 5558: 5551: 5544: 5540: 5532: 5528: 5520: 5516: 5509: 5505: 5497: 5493: 5485: 5481: 5475:Bloomfield 1914 5473: 5469: 5461: 5457: 5450: 5446: 5441:Newmeyer (2005) 5439: 5435: 5425: 5423: 5415:The Independent 5406: 5402: 5394: 5387: 5379: 5375: 5367: 5363: 5355: 5351: 5320: 5316: 5308: 5304: 5296: 5292: 5284: 5280: 5272: 5268: 5261: 5257: 5250: 5243: 5238: 5234: 5227: 5220: 5212: 5208: 5201: 5194: 5189:Candland (1993) 5187: 5183: 5173: 5171: 5167: 5128: 5122: 5118: 5085:(6): e1002171. 5071: 5067: 5059: 5052: 5041: 5037: 5027: 5025: 5014: 5010: 5002: 4998: 4991: 4987: 4980: 4971: 4963: 4952: 4944: 4940: 4933: 4929: 4921: 4917: 4909: 4905: 4900:Saussure (1983) 4898: 4889: 4881: 4877: 4870: 4861: 4854: 4850: 4842: 4838: 4830: 4826: 4818: 4814: 4806: 4802: 4794: 4790: 4780: 4779: 4775: 4720: 4716: 4709: 4696: 4690:Wayback Machine 4677: 4670: 4663: 4656: 4649: 4645: 4635: 4633: 4601: 4597: 4588: 4581: 4577: 4572: 4564: 4560: 4555: 4551: 4537:tactile signing 4534: 4530: 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As of 2016, 3550: 3549:Native speakers 3541: 3531: 3495:creole language 3486:mixed languages 3446:Indian Republic 3399:Multilingualism 3384:Pannonian Rusyn 3353: 3347: 3302:grammaticalized 3156: 3150:Language change 3148:Main articles: 3146: 3079:writing systems 3055: 3047:Main articles: 3045: 2995:as well as the 2960: 2943: 2933: 2867:Kituwah Academy 2833: 2827:Second language 2817:Main articles: 2815: 2809:in a language. 2786: 2780: 2715: 2703:tripartite type 2635: 2627:Main articles: 2625: 2598:nominative case 2586:accusative case 2545: 2539: 2431:ev-ler-iniz-den 2328: 2229:parts of speech 2225: 2200: 2194: 2154: 2148: 2109:Writing systems 2087:Pirahã language 1971: 1970: 1969: 1968: 1967: 1956: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1938: 1929: 1928: 1927: 1923: 1912: 1904:Main articles: 1902: 1852: 1840:Main articles: 1838: 1813:inscription at 1776: 1699: 1660:voiced sibilant 1495: 1494: 1493: 1492: 1491: 1484: 1475: 1470: 1469: 1468: 1467: 1460: 1449: 1440: 1439: 1438: 1435: 1424: 1412:Main articles: 1410: 1391:word repetition 1363:Wernicke's area 1348: 1341: 1339: 1337:Wernicke's area 1332: 1330: 1323: 1321: 1314: 1312: 1305: 1297: 1289:Main articles: 1287: 1277:if affected by 1262: 1231:formulated the 1214: 1101: 1065: 1045: 1037:Main articles: 1012: 875: 874: 873: 872: 871: 861: 849: 838: 832: 824:Main articles: 822: 735:design features 731:Charles Hockett 727: 721:Animal language 719:Main articles: 717: 645: 585: 536: 528:linguistic turn 439:formal language 381: 375: 347:language family 323:social grooming 134: 133: 132: 131: 130: 121: 112: 111: 110: 101: 92: 91: 90: 87:spoken language 76: 67: 66: 65: 57: 47: 34: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 9723: 9713: 9712: 9707: 9702: 9697: 9680: 9679: 9677: 9676: 9671: 9665: 9663: 9662:Related topics 9659: 9658: 9656: 9655: 9650: 9645: 9640: 9635: 9630: 9625: 9620: 9614: 9612: 9608: 9607: 9605: 9604: 9599: 9594: 9589: 9584: 9579: 9574: 9569: 9564: 9559: 9554: 9549: 9543: 9541: 9535: 9534: 9532: 9531: 9526: 9521: 9516: 9510: 9504: 9502: 9498: 9497: 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8706: 8701: 8696: 8691: 8686: 8681: 8676: 8671: 8666: 8661: 8656: 8651: 8646: 8641: 8636: 8631: 8626: 8621: 8615: 8613: 8607: 8606: 8601: 8598: 8597: 8590: 8589: 8582: 8575: 8567: 8561: 8560: 8554: 8537: 8523: 8516: 8504: 8491: 8490: 8488: 8487:External links 8485: 8484: 8483: 8471:10.2307/409603 8465:(2): 117–129. 8451: 8426: 8418:Crystal, David 8412: 8409: 8407: 8406: 8394:García, Ofelia 8386: 8374: 8365: 8353: 8341: 8329: 8313: 8304: 8298: 8282: 8276: 8263: 8257: 8239: 8223:Sandler, Wendy 8219: 8207: 8195:Pinker, Steven 8191: 8173: 8158: 8129: 8108: 8102: 8084: 8052: 8034: 8016: 8007: 7984: 7978: 7961: 7952: 7946: 7930: 7924: 7911: 7905: 7885: 7864: 7848: 7839: 7833: 7817: 7799:(4): 809–811. 7785: 7780:Social Factors 7771:Labov, William 7767: 7753:Labov, William 7749: 7740: 7728: 7722: 7702: 7686: 7648: 7619: 7603: 7590: 7578: 7572: 7556: 7544: 7532: 7486: 7475: 7445:(5): 429–492. 7423: 7411:10.1086/368118 7405:(3): 323–348. 7394: 7388: 7371: 7362: 7356: 7338: 7330:Croft, William 7326: 7318:Croft, William 7314: 7305: 7299: 7286: 7280: 7264: 7255: 7243: 7237: 7220: 7206: 7197: 7176: 7168:Campbell, Lyle 7164: 7156:Campbell, Lyle 7152: 7144:Campbell, Lyle 7140: 7131: 7125: 7112: 7098: 7089: 7083: 7070: 7062:Baker, Mark C. 7058: 7052: 7039: 7027: 7021: 7005: 6996: 6984: 6968: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6951: 6950: 6920: 6889: 6863: 6852: 6840: 6821: 6801: 6752: 6722: 6719:Katzner (1999) 6708: 6669: 6657: 6626: 6596: 6570: 6556: 6537: 6526: 6515: 6503: 6499:Thomason (2001 6491: 6480: 6469: 6465:Zentella (2002 6457: 6445: 6441:Clackson (2007 6433: 6417: 6406: 6391: 6379: 6368: 6357: 6354:Duranti (2003) 6346: 6334: 6323: 6308: 6285: 6270: 6227: 6223:Levinson (1983 6215: 6211:Levinson (1983 6203: 6199:Levinson (1983 6191: 6180: 6168: 6152: 6141: 6126: 6119:Nichols (1992) 6111: 6096: 6084: 6072: 6060: 6034: 6007: 5995: 5983: 5968: 5956: 5945: 5933: 5921: 5910: 5899: 5887: 5875: 5872:Coulmas (2002) 5861: 5849: 5837: 5813: 5800: 5788: 5773: 5761: 5750: 5736: 5724: 5712: 5697: 5689:Nicholas Evans 5681: 5670: 5666:MacMahon (1989 5658: 5654:MacMahon (1989 5646: 5631: 5627:MacMahon (1989 5612: 5608:MacMahon (1989 5600: 5588: 5576: 5564: 5549: 5538: 5526: 5514: 5511:Nichols (1984) 5503: 5491: 5479: 5467: 5463:Campbell (2001 5455: 5444: 5433: 5400: 5385: 5373: 5361: 5349: 5330:(2): 101–121. 5314: 5302: 5298:Anderson (2012 5290: 5286:Anderson (2012 5278: 5266: 5255: 5241: 5232: 5218: 5206: 5192: 5181: 5139:(5): 953–960. 5116: 5065: 5050: 5043:Hockett (1960) 5035: 5008: 5006:, p. 192. 4996: 4985: 4969: 4965:Newmeyer (1998 4950: 4938: 4935:Chomsky (1957) 4927: 4925:, p. 130. 4915: 4911:Campbell (2001 4903: 4887: 4875: 4859: 4848: 4836: 4824: 4812: 4800: 4788: 4773: 4714: 4694: 4679:Moseley (2010) 4668: 4654: 4643: 4618:(5): 189–198. 4595: 4578: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4570: 4558: 4549: 4528: 4519: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4489: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4459: 4454: 4449: 4444: 4439: 4438: 4437: 4432: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4397: 4391: 4390: 4389: 4375: 4372:Society portal 4361: 4347: 4331: 4328: 4316:Nant Gwrtheyrn 4312:Welsh language 4304:Māori language 4300:Welsh language 4258:tower of Babel 4176: 4170: 4162:Language death 4158:Language shift 4145: 4142: 4075:Southeast Asia 3798: 3795: 3758:Serbo-Croatian 3706:Main article: 3703: 3700: 3659:SIL Ethnologue 3653: 3652: 3649: 3643: 3642: 3639: 3633: 3632: 3629: 3623: 3622: 3619: 3613: 3612: 3609: 3603: 3602: 3599: 3593: 3592: 3589: 3583: 3582: 3579: 3573: 3572: 3569: 3563: 3562: 3559: 3553: 3552: 3547: 3530: 3527: 3511:Kreyòl ayisyen 3482:relexification 3464:, some of the 3435:areal features 3415:language areas 3349:Main article: 3346: 3343: 3242:in words like 3145: 3142: 3123:Chinese script 3044: 3041: 3017:social classes 2974:ethnolinguists 2970:sociolinguists 2932: 2929: 2856:Charles Darwin 2846:oral languages 2814: 2811: 2782:Main article: 2779: 2776: 2768:first language 2740:learn language 2714: 2711: 2624: 2621: 2541:Main article: 2538: 2535: 2327: 2324: 2323: 2322: 2312: 2311: 2224: 2221: 2196:Main article: 2193: 2190: 2150:Main article: 2147: 2144: 2119:, such as the 2113:Latin alphabet 2095:sign languages 2079:suprasegmental 2038:), whereas in 1957: 1950: 1949: 1948: 1939: 1932: 1931: 1930: 1924: 1917: 1916: 1915: 1914: 1913: 1901: 1898: 1837: 1834: 1775: 1772: 1698: 1695: 1594:alveolar ridge 1485: 1473: 1472: 1471: 1465: 1458: 1450: 1443: 1442: 1441: 1436: 1429: 1428: 1427: 1426: 1425: 1409: 1406: 1361:first area is 1340: 1331: 1322: 1313: 1304: 1286: 1283: 1261: 1258: 1227:In the 1960s, 1213: 1210: 1110:developed the 1100: 1097: 1064: 1063:Subdisciplines 1061: 1011: 1008: 919:Charles Darwin 868:Tower of Babel 850: 843: 842: 841: 840: 839: 821: 818: 796:sign languages 716: 713: 693:Wittgenstein's 644: 641: 584: 581: 540:mental faculty 535: 532: 523:René Descartes 377:Main article: 374: 371: 294:intentionality 290:theory of mind 222:to particular 128:writing system 122: 115: 114: 113: 102: 95: 94: 93: 77: 70: 69: 68: 48: 41: 40: 39: 38: 37: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9722: 9711: 9708: 9706: 9703: 9701: 9698: 9696: 9693: 9692: 9690: 9675: 9672: 9670: 9667: 9666: 9664: 9660: 9654: 9651: 9649: 9646: 9644: 9641: 9639: 9636: 9634: 9631: 9629: 9626: 9624: 9621: 9619: 9616: 9615: 9613: 9609: 9603: 9600: 9598: 9595: 9593: 9590: 9588: 9585: 9583: 9580: 9578: 9575: 9573: 9570: 9568: 9565: 9563: 9560: 9558: 9555: 9553: 9550: 9548: 9545: 9544: 9542: 9540: 9536: 9530: 9527: 9525: 9522: 9520: 9517: 9515: 9511: 9509: 9506: 9505: 9503: 9499: 9493: 9490: 9488: 9485: 9483: 9480: 9478: 9475: 9473: 9470: 9469: 9467: 9463: 9459: 9454: 9450: 9443: 9438: 9436: 9431: 9429: 9424: 9423: 9420: 9408: 9405: 9403: 9400: 9398: 9395: 9394: 9391: 9385: 9382: 9378: 9375: 9374: 9373: 9370: 9368: 9365: 9363: 9362:Scholasticism 9360: 9358: 9355: 9353: 9350: 9348: 9345: 9343: 9340: 9338: 9335: 9333: 9330: 9329: 9327: 9323: 9314: 9313: 9309: 9304: 9303: 9299: 9294: 9293: 9289: 9284: 9283: 9279: 9274: 9273: 9269: 9264: 9263: 9259: 9254: 9253: 9249: 9244: 9243: 9239: 9233: 9229: 9224: 9223: 9219: 9214: 9213: 9209: 9204: 9203: 9199: 9194: 9193: 9189: 9184: 9183: 9179: 9178: 9176: 9172: 9166: 9165: 9161: 9159: 9156: 9154: 9151: 9149: 9146: 9144: 9141: 9139: 9136: 9134: 9131: 9129: 9126: 9124: 9121: 9119: 9116: 9114: 9111: 9109: 9106: 9104: 9101: 9099: 9096: 9094: 9091: 9089: 9086: 9084: 9081: 9079: 9076: 9074: 9071: 9069: 9066: 9064: 9061: 9059: 9056: 9054: 9051: 9049: 9046: 9044: 9041: 9039: 9036: 9034: 9031: 9030: 9028: 9024: 9018: 9015: 9013: 9010: 9008: 9005: 9002: 8998: 8995: 8993: 8990: 8988: 8985: 8983: 8980: 8978: 8977:Structuralism 8975: 8973: 8970: 8968: 8965: 8963: 8960: 8958: 8955: 8953: 8950: 8948: 8945: 8943: 8940: 8938: 8935: 8933: 8930: 8928: 8925: 8923: 8920: 8918: 8915: 8913: 8910: 8908: 8905: 8903: 8902:Descriptivism 8900: 8898: 8895: 8893: 8890: 8888: 8885: 8883: 8882:Contrastivism 8880: 8878: 8875: 8873: 8870: 8869: 8867: 8865: 8861: 8855: 8852: 8850: 8847: 8845: 8842: 8840: 8837: 8835: 8832: 8830: 8827: 8825: 8822: 8820: 8817: 8815: 8812: 8810: 8807: 8805: 8802: 8800: 8797: 8795: 8792: 8790: 8787: 8785: 8782: 8780: 8777: 8775: 8772: 8770: 8767: 8765: 8762: 8760: 8757: 8755: 8752: 8750: 8747: 8745: 8742: 8740: 8737: 8735: 8732: 8730: 8727: 8725: 8722: 8720: 8717: 8715: 8712: 8710: 8707: 8705: 8702: 8700: 8697: 8695: 8692: 8690: 8687: 8685: 8682: 8680: 8677: 8675: 8672: 8670: 8667: 8665: 8662: 8660: 8657: 8655: 8652: 8650: 8647: 8645: 8642: 8640: 8637: 8635: 8632: 8630: 8627: 8625: 8622: 8620: 8617: 8616: 8614: 8612: 8608: 8604: 8599: 8595: 8588: 8583: 8581: 8576: 8574: 8569: 8568: 8565: 8558: 8555: 8553: 8550: 8549: 8545: 8541: 8526: 8480: 8476: 8472: 8468: 8464: 8460: 8456: 8452: 8448: 8444: 8440: 8436: 8432: 8427: 8423: 8419: 8415: 8414: 8403: 8399: 8395: 8391: 8387: 8383: 8379: 8375: 8371: 8366: 8362: 8358: 8354: 8350: 8346: 8342: 8338: 8334: 8330: 8326: 8322: 8318: 8314: 8310: 8305: 8301: 8295: 8291: 8287: 8283: 8279: 8273: 8269: 8264: 8260: 8254: 8250: 8249: 8244: 8240: 8236: 8232: 8228: 8224: 8220: 8216: 8212: 8208: 8204: 8203: 8200: 8196: 8192: 8180: 8176: 8170: 8166: 8165: 8159: 8155: 8151: 8147: 8143: 8139: 8135: 8130: 8126: 8122: 8118: 8114: 8109: 8105: 8099: 8095: 8094: 8089: 8085: 8070: 8063: 8062: 8057: 8053: 8041: 8037: 8031: 8027: 8026: 8021: 8017: 8013: 8008: 7996: 7992: 7991: 7985: 7981: 7975: 7971: 7967: 7962: 7958: 7953: 7949: 7943: 7939: 7935: 7931: 7927: 7921: 7917: 7912: 7908: 7902: 7897: 7896: 7890: 7886: 7874: 7870: 7865: 7860: 7859: 7853: 7849: 7845: 7840: 7836: 7830: 7826: 7822: 7818: 7814: 7810: 7806: 7802: 7798: 7794: 7790: 7786: 7782: 7779: 7775: 7772: 7768: 7764: 7761: 7757: 7754: 7750: 7746: 7741: 7737: 7733: 7729: 7725: 7719: 7715: 7712:. Cambridge: 7711: 7707: 7703: 7699: 7695: 7691: 7687: 7680: 7676: 7672: 7668: 7661: 7657: 7653: 7649: 7645: 7641: 7637: 7633: 7629: 7625: 7620: 7616: 7612: 7608: 7607:Haugen, Einar 7604: 7599: 7595: 7591: 7587: 7583: 7579: 7575: 7569: 7565: 7561: 7557: 7553: 7549: 7545: 7541: 7537: 7533: 7529: 7525: 7520: 7515: 7511: 7507: 7503: 7499: 7495: 7491: 7487: 7483: 7482: 7476: 7472: 7468: 7463: 7458: 7453: 7448: 7444: 7440: 7436: 7432: 7428: 7424: 7420: 7416: 7412: 7408: 7404: 7400: 7395: 7391: 7385: 7380: 7379: 7372: 7368: 7363: 7359: 7353: 7349: 7348: 7343: 7339: 7335: 7331: 7327: 7323: 7319: 7315: 7311: 7306: 7302: 7296: 7292: 7287: 7283: 7277: 7273: 7269: 7265: 7261: 7256: 7252: 7248: 7247:Chomsky, Noam 7244: 7240: 7234: 7229: 7228: 7221: 7217: 7216: 7211: 7210:Chomsky, Noam 7207: 7204: 7200: 7194: 7190: 7185: 7184: 7177: 7173: 7169: 7165: 7161: 7157: 7153: 7149: 7145: 7141: 7137: 7132: 7128: 7122: 7118: 7113: 7109: 7108: 7103: 7099: 7095: 7090: 7086: 7080: 7076: 7071: 7067: 7063: 7059: 7055: 7049: 7045: 7040: 7036: 7032: 7031:Aronoff, Mark 7028: 7024: 7018: 7014: 7010: 7006: 7002: 6997: 6993: 6989: 6985: 6981: 6977: 6973: 6969: 6965: 6960: 6959: 6938: 6934: 6933:Cambrian News 6930: 6924: 6908: 6904: 6900: 6893: 6877: 6873: 6867: 6861: 6856: 6849: 6844: 6836: 6832: 6825: 6819: 6815: 6814:Comrie (2009) 6810: 6808: 6806: 6797: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6779: 6775: 6771: 6767: 6763: 6756: 6749: 6745: 6742: 6738: 6733: 6731: 6729: 6727: 6720: 6715: 6713: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6688: 6685:(274): 1–27. 6684: 6680: 6673: 6666: 6661: 6645: 6641: 6637: 6630: 6614: 6610: 6606: 6600: 6584: 6580: 6574: 6568: 6563: 6561: 6554: 6550: 6546: 6541: 6535: 6530: 6524: 6519: 6512: 6511:Romaine (2001 6507: 6500: 6495: 6489: 6484: 6478: 6473: 6466: 6461: 6454: 6449: 6442: 6437: 6430: 6426: 6421: 6415: 6410: 6403: 6398: 6396: 6388: 6383: 6377: 6372: 6366: 6361: 6355: 6350: 6343: 6338: 6332: 6327: 6319: 6312: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6289: 6282: 6280: 6274: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6231: 6224: 6219: 6212: 6207: 6200: 6195: 6189: 6184: 6177: 6172: 6165: 6164:McMahon (1994 6161: 6156: 6150: 6145: 6138: 6133: 6131: 6124: 6123:Comrie (1989) 6120: 6115: 6108: 6103: 6101: 6093: 6088: 6081: 6076: 6069: 6064: 6057: 6055: 6054:ungrammatical 6041: 6037: 6031: 6027: 6026: 6021: 6017: 6011: 6004: 5999: 5992: 5987: 5981: 5977: 5972: 5965: 5960: 5954: 5949: 5942: 5937: 5930: 5925: 5919: 5914: 5908: 5903: 5896: 5891: 5884: 5879: 5873: 5868: 5866: 5858: 5853: 5846: 5841: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5822: 5817: 5810: 5804: 5797: 5792: 5785: 5780: 5778: 5770: 5765: 5759: 5754: 5748: 5743: 5741: 5733: 5728: 5721: 5716: 5709: 5704: 5702: 5694: 5690: 5685: 5679: 5674: 5667: 5662: 5655: 5650: 5643: 5638: 5636: 5628: 5623: 5621: 5619: 5617: 5609: 5604: 5597: 5592: 5585: 5580: 5573: 5568: 5561: 5556: 5554: 5547: 5542: 5535: 5530: 5523: 5518: 5512: 5507: 5500: 5495: 5488: 5483: 5477:, p. 310 5476: 5471: 5464: 5459: 5453: 5448: 5442: 5437: 5421: 5417: 5416: 5411: 5404: 5397: 5392: 5390: 5383:, p. 86. 5382: 5377: 5370: 5365: 5358: 5353: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5318: 5311: 5306: 5299: 5294: 5287: 5282: 5275: 5270: 5264: 5259: 5253: 5252:Ulbaek (1998) 5248: 5246: 5236: 5230: 5229:Haugen (1973) 5225: 5223: 5215: 5210: 5204: 5203:Deacon (1997) 5199: 5197: 5190: 5185: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5134: 5127: 5120: 5112: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5069: 5062: 5057: 5055: 5048: 5047:Deacon (1997) 5044: 5039: 5023: 5019: 5012: 5005: 5000: 4994: 4989: 4983: 4978: 4976: 4974: 4966: 4961: 4959: 4957: 4955: 4947: 4942: 4936: 4931: 4924: 4919: 4912: 4907: 4901: 4896: 4894: 4892: 4885:, p. 93. 4884: 4879: 4873: 4872:Pinker (1994) 4868: 4866: 4864: 4857: 4852: 4845: 4840: 4833: 4828: 4821: 4816: 4809: 4804: 4797: 4792: 4784: 4777: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4718: 4712: 4707: 4705: 4703: 4701: 4699: 4691: 4687: 4684: 4680: 4675: 4673: 4666: 4661: 4659: 4652: 4647: 4631: 4626: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4599: 4592: 4586: 4584: 4579: 4567: 4562: 4553: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4532: 4523: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4502: 4498: 4488: 4485: 4483: 4480: 4478: 4475: 4473: 4470: 4468: 4465: 4463: 4460: 4458: 4455: 4453: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4443: 4440: 4436: 4435:Social skills 4433: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4410:Body language 4408: 4406: 4403: 4402: 4401: 4398: 4396: 4393: 4392: 4387: 4381: 4376: 4373: 4367: 4362: 4359: 4353: 4348: 4345: 4339: 4334: 4327: 4325: 4324:Ōlelo Hawaiʻi 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4298:is using the 4297: 4292: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4277: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4262:Old Testament 4259: 4255: 4251: 4250: 4249:lingua franca 4245: 4244:semi-speakers 4241: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4223: 4217: 4215: 4211: 4210:globalization 4207: 4206: 4201: 4200: 4199:dead language 4195: 4194:Language loss 4191: 4187: 4168: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4154:Language loss 4151: 4141: 4139: 4135: 4134:North America 4131: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4082: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4063:Austroasiatic 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3995: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3871: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3836: 3828: 3827: 3821: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3794: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3754:Yugoslav Wars 3752:. Before the 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3726:Max Weinreich 3723: 3719: 3715: 3709: 3699: 3697: 3692: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3661: 3660: 3650: 3648: 3645: 3644: 3640: 3638: 3635: 3634: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3624: 3620: 3618: 3615: 3614: 3610: 3608: 3605: 3604: 3600: 3598: 3595: 3594: 3590: 3588: 3585: 3584: 3580: 3578: 3575: 3574: 3570: 3568: 3565: 3564: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3554: 3548: 3545: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3526: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3509:; others are 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3442: 3438: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3410: 3408: 3404: 3403:human history 3400: 3396: 3392: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3366:'s office in 3365: 3361: 3357: 3352: 3342: 3340: 3336: 3330: 3328: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3314:second person 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3294: 3292: 3288: 3285: 3281: 3276: 3271: 3269: 3267: 3262: 3260: 3255: 3253: 3248: 3246: 3241: 3237: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3178: 3171: 3168:, written in 3167: 3166: 3160: 3155: 3151: 3141: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3128: 3127:pre-Columbian 3124: 3120: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3094: 3092: 3087: 3082: 3080: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3059: 3054: 3050: 3040: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3012: 3008: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2985: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2942: 2938: 2928: 2924: 2921: 2920:grammatically 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2889: 2888:speech sounds 2884: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2863: 2859: 2857: 2854:, naturalist 2853: 2852: 2847: 2843: 2838: 2835:All healthy, 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2810: 2808: 2804: 2798: 2796: 2792: 2785: 2775: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2760: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2729: 2725: 2724: 2719: 2710: 2706: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2691: 2686: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2675:postpositions 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2634: 2630: 2620: 2616: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2601: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2549: 2544: 2534: 2531: 2525: 2519: 2513: 2508: 2503: 2498: 2497: 2491: 2488: 2482: 2476: 2471: 2466: 2461: 2456: 2455:nafahmidamesh 2445: 2441: 2437: 2432: 2426: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2412: 2407: 2402: 2396: 2390: 2385: 2379: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2368: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2353: 2348: 2344: 2339: 2337: 2333: 2320: 2319:san-bon no ki 2317: 2316: 2315: 2309: 2306: 2305: 2304: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2285:interjections 2282: 2278: 2273: 2271: 2270: 2265: 2264: 2258: 2254: 2249: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2230: 2220: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2199: 2189: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2174: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2160: 2153: 2143: 2141: 2136: 2134: 2133:Arabic script 2128: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2043: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2025: 2017: 2013: 2009: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1979: 1977: 1965: 1961: 1954: 1943: 1936: 1921: 1911: 1907: 1897: 1895: 1890: 1886: 1881: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1866: 1861: 1856: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1833: 1831: 1827: 1822: 1816: 1812: 1807: 1803: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1771: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1736: 1734: 1729: 1725: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1694: 1690: 1688: 1687: 1682: 1681: 1676: 1675: 1670: 1669: 1663: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1644: 1639: 1638: 1633: 1632: 1627: 1626: 1621: 1620: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1589: 1587: 1583: 1578: 1577: 1572: 1571: 1564: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1515: 1510: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1489: 1464: 1457: 1453: 1447: 1433: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1405: 1403: 1399: 1394: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1358: 1356: 1347: 1338: 1329: 1320: 1311: 1310:Angular gyrus 1301: 1296: 1292: 1282: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1257: 1254: 1249: 1245: 1240: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1222: 1218: 1209: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1186: 1182: 1177: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1162:William Jones 1159: 1155: 1151: 1146: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1113: 1112:structuralist 1109: 1105: 1099:Early history 1096: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1060: 1058: 1057:Brahmi script 1054: 1050: 1044: 1040: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1019:William Jones 1016: 1007: 1004: 1000: 998: 994: 993: 987: 986: 981: 980: 975: 974: 969: 968: 963: 962: 957: 953: 948: 946: 941: 935: 930: 928: 924: 923:Steven Mithen 920: 916: 912: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 887:Steven Pinker 883: 881: 869: 865: 864:Biblical myth 859: 855: 854: 847: 837: 831: 827: 817: 815: 811: 810: 803: 801: 797: 793: 789: 785: 780: 778: 774: 770: 765: 763: 762:pied babblers 759: 755: 751: 747: 742: 740: 736: 732: 726: 722: 712: 710: 706: 702: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 665: 662: 654: 649: 640: 638: 634: 630: 629:Alfred Tarski 626: 622: 618: 614: 610: 604: 602: 598: 597:structuralist 594: 590: 589:formal system 580: 578: 574: 570: 566: 563:'s theory of 562: 558: 554: 550: 546: 541: 531: 529: 524: 519: 515: 514:Enlightenment 510: 507: 503: 499: 493: 490: 484: 483: 476: 471: 467: 462: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 419: 418: 413: 408: 407: 402: 397: 396: 390: 386: 380: 370: 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 343: 339: 338:reconstructed 335: 330: 328: 327:entertainment 324: 320: 316: 311: 307: 303: 299: 295: 291: 287: 282: 280: 276: 272: 268: 267:Immanuel Kant 264: 260: 256: 252: 248: 244: 239: 237: 233: 229: 225: 221: 217: 212: 209:Depending on 207: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 185: 181: 176: 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 141:communication 138: 129: 125: 119: 109: 105: 99: 88: 84: 80: 74: 63: 62:speech scroll 52: 45: 36: 32: 30: 22: 9587:Pictographic 9582:Phonogrammic 9471: 9310: 9300: 9290: 9280: 9270: 9260: 9250: 9240: 9220: 9210: 9200: 9190: 9180: 9162: 9103:Metalanguage 9098:Logical form 9053:Truth-bearer 9047: 9012:Unilalianism 8922:Expressivism 8749:Wittgenstein 8694:von Humboldt 8611:Philosophers 8462: 8458: 8438: 8434: 8421: 8401: 8381: 8369: 8360: 8348: 8336: 8324: 8311:. MIT Press. 8308: 8289: 8267: 8247: 8234: 8231:Mark Aronoff 8214: 8205:. Perennial. 8202: 8199: 8183:. Retrieved 8163: 8137: 8133: 8116: 8112: 8092: 8076:. Retrieved 8069:the original 8060: 8046:18 September 8044:. Retrieved 8024: 8011: 7999:. Retrieved 7989: 7965: 7956: 7937: 7915: 7894: 7877:. Retrieved 7857: 7843: 7824: 7796: 7792: 7783:. Blackwell. 7781: 7777: 7774: 7765:. Blackwell. 7763: 7759: 7756: 7744: 7735: 7709: 7697: 7694:W. E. Lanyon 7679:the original 7674: 7627: 7623: 7614: 7610: 7597: 7585: 7563: 7554:. Blackwell. 7551: 7539: 7501: 7497: 7479: 7442: 7438: 7402: 7398: 7377: 7366: 7346: 7333: 7321: 7309: 7290: 7271: 7259: 7250: 7226: 7214: 7202: 7182: 7171: 7159: 7147: 7135: 7116: 7106: 7093: 7074: 7065: 7043: 7034: 7012: 7000: 6991: 6979: 6976:R.M.W. Dixon 6963: 6941:. Retrieved 6932: 6923: 6911:. Retrieved 6903:Nation Cymru 6902: 6892: 6880:. Retrieved 6866: 6855: 6843: 6834: 6824: 6787:10234/204329 6769: 6765: 6755: 6737:Lewis (2009) 6682: 6672: 6660: 6648:. Retrieved 6644:the original 6639: 6629: 6619:11 September 6617:. Retrieved 6608: 6599: 6589:17 September 6587:. Retrieved 6573: 6567:Lewis (2009) 6540: 6529: 6518: 6506: 6494: 6488:Labov (2001) 6483: 6477:Labov (1994) 6472: 6460: 6448: 6436: 6420: 6414:Olson (1996) 6409: 6382: 6371: 6365:Foley (1997) 6360: 6349: 6342:Macaro (2010 6337: 6326: 6317: 6311: 6303:the original 6288: 6278: 6273: 6240: 6236: 6230: 6218: 6206: 6194: 6183: 6171: 6160:Comrie (2009 6155: 6144: 6114: 6087: 6075: 6063: 6053: 6051: 6044:. Retrieved 6024: 6020:Lobeck, Anne 6010: 5998: 5986: 5976:Bauer (2003) 5971: 5959: 5953:Senft (2008) 5948: 5936: 5924: 5918:Payne (1997) 5913: 5902: 5890: 5878: 5852: 5840: 5832: 5816: 5808: 5803: 5791: 5764: 5753: 5727: 5715: 5692: 5684: 5673: 5661: 5649: 5603: 5591: 5579: 5567: 5560:Lesser (1989 5541: 5529: 5517: 5506: 5494: 5487:Clarke (1990 5482: 5470: 5458: 5452:Trask (2007) 5447: 5436: 5424:. Retrieved 5413: 5403: 5398:, p. 4. 5396:Chomsky 2000 5381:Chomsky 1972 5376: 5364: 5352: 5327: 5323: 5317: 5305: 5293: 5281: 5269: 5258: 5235: 5209: 5184: 5172:. Retrieved 5136: 5132: 5119: 5082: 5079:PLOS Biology 5078: 5068: 5038: 5026:. Retrieved 5022:the original 5011: 5004:Nerlich 2010 4999: 4988: 4941: 4930: 4918: 4906: 4878: 4851: 4839: 4827: 4815: 4803: 4791: 4782: 4781:"language". 4776: 4727: 4723: 4717: 4646: 4634:. Retrieved 4615: 4611: 4598: 4593:32, 429–492. 4590: 4566:Ethnologue's 4565: 4561: 4552: 4531: 4522: 4515:conditioning 4505:The gorilla 4501: 4293: 4281:revitalizing 4278: 4247: 4237: 4218: 4203: 4197: 4184: 4110:Oto-Manguean 4102:Tupi-Guarani 4083: 4065:(among them 4041:(among them 3996: 3946: 3928:and much of 3872: 3832: 3824: 3807:Dialectology 3712:There is no 3711: 3695: 3693: 3688: 3672: 3668: 3657: 3656: 3525:and French. 3471: 3411: 3388: 3360:Multilingual 3331: 3326: 3321: 3317: 3295: 3290: 3286: 3279: 3272: 3265: 3264: 3258: 3257: 3251: 3250: 3244: 3243: 3239: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3186:Sound change 3179: 3175: 3163: 3138:Maya scripts 3100:in the late 3095: 3083: 3076: 3013: 3009: 2986: 2966: 2953: 2925: 2879: 2865:A lesson at 2849: 2834: 2799: 2787: 2761: 2733: 2723:Wall of Love 2721: 2707: 2694: 2687: 2671:prepositions 2662: 2636: 2617: 2602: 2593: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2566: 2494: 2492: 2459: 2435: 2425:evlerinizden 2409: 2380: 2365: 2350: 2340: 2329: 2318: 2313: 2307: 2300: 2277:conjunctions 2274: 2268: 2263:intransitive 2262: 2250: 2226: 2223:Word classes 2201: 2185: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2157: 2155: 2137: 2129: 2107: 2044: 2031: 2023: 1994: 1990: 1987:minimal pair 1980: 1972: 1889:truth values 1882: 1863: 1857: 1853: 1823: 1819: 1777: 1746:), sign (in 1737: 1732: 1700: 1691: 1684: 1678: 1672: 1666: 1664: 1655: 1647: 1641: 1637:approximants 1635: 1629: 1623: 1617: 1590: 1574: 1568: 1565: 1553:Acoustically 1539: 1525:type, voice 1511: 1496: 1462: 1455: 1395: 1379:Broca's area 1359: 1351: 1328:Broca's area 1263: 1241: 1229:Noam Chomsky 1226: 1221:Noam Chomsky 1205: 1201: 1178: 1147: 1117: 1066: 1046: 1005: 1001: 992:Homo sapiens 991: 983: 979:Homo erectus 977: 973:Homo habilis 971: 965: 959: 949: 937: 932: 884: 880:Noam Chomsky 876: 851: 809:displacement 807: 804: 791: 781: 766: 743: 728: 697:J. L. Austin 666: 657: 635:, and other 617:formal logic 609:Noam Chomsky 605: 586: 537: 511: 494: 463: 384: 382: 351:relationship 331: 283: 279:Noam Chomsky 240: 228:phonological 208: 177: 169:displacement 165:productivity 136: 135: 126:, a tactile 35: 29:Spoken Words 28: 9705:Linguistics 9602:Syllabaries 9572:Logographic 9567:Ideogrammic 9347:Linguistics 9312:Limited Inc 9232:On Denoting 9058:Proposition 8709:de Saussure 8674:Ibn Khaldun 8441:: 331–359. 8185:14 November 7889:Lyons, John 6955:Works cited 6913:21 December 6882:21 December 6665:Lyons (1981 6429:Trask (1999 6402:Foley (1997 6387:Dixon (1972 6376:Agha (2006) 6176:Croft (2001 6137:Croft (2001 6107:Trask (2007 6080:Trask (2007 6068:Baker (2001 6003:Trask (2007 5991:Payne (1997 5941:Trask (2007 5929:Trask (2007 5895:Lyons (1981 5883:Trask (2007 5857:Trask (2007 5784:Trask (2007 5732:Lyons (1981 5720:Trask (1999 5708:Lyons (1981 5584:Trask (1999 5572:Trask (1999 5534:Trask (1999 5499:Foley (1997 5214:Trask (2007 5061:Trask (1999 4946:Trask (2007 4820:Trask (2007 4808:Lyons (1981 4796:Lyons (1981 4320:North Wales 4118:Mesoamerica 4106:Uto-Aztecan 4090:West Africa 4077:(including 3918: 8000 3858:of Mexico, 3551:(millions) 3214:Grimm's law 3206:chain shift 3194:conditioned 3170:Old English 3084:The use of 3063:Swampy Cree 3005:subcultures 2961: 1935 2912:holophrases 2813:Acquisition 2795:speech acts 2744:communicate 2512:ikusi nauzu 2293:classifiers 2125:logographic 1885:predication 1742:(including 1654:) from in 1561:spectrogram 1452:Spectrogram 1400:(fMRI) and 1158:philologist 1156:by British 1133:. However, 1049:linguistics 1039:Linguistics 788:recursivity 733:and called 705:John Searle 569:Jerry Fodor 545:human brain 512:During the 459:linguistics 451:information 373:Definitions 298:human brain 292:and shared 243:linguistics 51:Teotihuacan 49:A mural in 9689:Categories 9633:Devanagari 9407:Discussion 9402:Task Force 9352:Pragmatics 9143:Speech act 9073:Categories 8987:Symbiosism 8942:Nominalism 8854:Watzlawick 8734:Bloomfield 8654:Chrysippus 8540:Audio help 8531:2005-07-19 8447:10125/4606 8119:: 97–117. 7858:Pragmatics 6092:Baker 2001 5369:Fitch 2010 5357:Foley 1997 5310:Fitch 2010 5274:Fitch 2010 5174:9 November 4923:Trask 2007 4883:Trask 2007 4683:Statistics 4636:9 February 4575:References 4541:lipreading 4326:language. 4314:centre in 4310:visited a 4130:Algonquian 4120:, and the 4039:South Asia 4003:Madagascar 3899:Hindustani 3864:Burushaski 3862:of Japan, 3852:New Mexico 3696:Ethnologue 3689:Ethnologue 3673:Ethnologue 3669:Ethnologue 3587:Portuguese 3533:See also: 3431:South Asia 3425:, and the 3339:ideologies 3280:mea domina 3098:Bronze Age 2935:See also: 2908:utterances 2900:vocabulary 2896:handshapes 2784:Pragmatics 2772:endangered 2728:Montmartre 2659:Gamilaraay 2640:word order 2406:nominative 2376:derivation 2372:inflection 2332:morphology 2326:Morphology 2289:ideophones 2269:transitive 2253:predicates 2182:morphology 2055:consonants 2036:allophones 1894:pragmatics 1860:vocabulary 1764:Morse code 1631:fricatives 1541:Consonants 1535:intonation 1486:Real time 1196:, and the 1185:synchronic 1181:diachronic 1131:morphology 956:great apes 940:prehistory 834:See also: 754:productive 709:W.O. 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