294:(1) having knowingly accessed a computer without authorization or exceeding authorized access, and by means of such conduct having obtained information that has been determined by the United States Government pursuant to an Executive order or statute to require protection against unauthorized disclosure for reasons of national defense or foreign relations, or any restricted data, as defined in paragraph y. of section 11 of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, with reason to believe that such information so obtained could be used to the injury of the United States, or to the advantage of any foreign nation willfully communicates, delivers, transmits, or causes to be communicated, delivered, or transmitted, or attempts to communicate, deliver, transmit or cause to be communicated, delivered, or transmitted the same to any person not entitled to receive it, or willfully retains the same and fails to deliver it to the officer or employee of the United States entitled to receive it;
764:, 2020. A police officer in Georgia was caught in an FBI sting operation using his authorized access to a license plate database to check the identity of a person for cash payment, an "improper purpose". The officer was convicted and sentenced to 18 months under CFAA §1030(a)(2). Though he appealed his conviction on the basis that the "improper purpose" was not "exceeding authorized access", the Eleventh Circuit upheld the conviction based on precedent. The Supreme Court ruled in June 2021 that under CFAA, that a person "exceeds authorized access" of a computer system they otherwise have access to when they access files and other content that are off-limits to the portions of the computer system they were authorized to access. Their opinion restricted CFAA from applying to cases where a person obtains information from areas they do have authorized access to, but uses that information for improper reasons.
29:
708:, 2011. Kramer was a court case where a cellphone was used to coerce a minor into engaging sex with an adult. Central to the case was whether a cellphone constituted a computer device. Ultimately, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit found that a cell phone can be considered a computer if "the phone perform arithmetic, logical, and storage functions", paving the way for harsher consequences for criminals engaging with minors over cellphones.
311:(3) intentionally, without authorization to access any nonpublic computer of a department or agency of the United States, accesses such a computer of that department or agency that is exclusively for the use of the Government of the United States or, in the case of a computer not exclusively for such use, is used by or for the Government of the United States and such conduct affects that use by or for the Government of the United States;
314:(4) knowingly and with intent to defraud, accesses a protected computer without authorization, or exceeds authorized access, and by means of such conduct furthers the intended fraud and obtains anything of value, unless the object of the fraud and the thing obtained consists only of the use of the computer and the value of such use is not more than $ 5,000 in any 1-year period;
815:, 2009 1030(a)(2), 1030(a)(4), in which LVRC sued Brekka for allegedly taking information about clients and using it to start his own competing business. The Ninth Circuit ruled that an employee accesses a company computer to gather information for his own purposes does not violate the CFAA merely because that personal use was adverse to the interests of the employer.
1007:
One such example regarding the harshness of the law was shown in United States vs. Tyler King, where King refused initial offers by the government for involvement in a conspiracy to "gain unauthorized access" to a computer system for a small company that an ex-girlfriend of King worked for. His role,
1042:
The government was able to bring such disproportionate charges against Aaron because of the broad scope of the
Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA) and the wire fraud statute. It looks like the government used the vague wording of those laws to claim that violating an online service's user agreement
1017:
Professor of Law Ric
Simmons notes that many provisions of the CFAA merely combine identical language to pre-existing federal laws with "the element of “access a protected computer without authorization, or exceed authorized access," meaning that "the CFAA merely provides an additional charge for
643:
to take a database of contacts from his previous employer for use in his own business, violating 1030(a)(4). This was a complex case with multiple trips to the Ninth
Circuit, which ruled that violating a website's terms of use is not a violation of the CFAA. He was convicted in 2013. In 2016, the
1025:
As per Star
Kashman, an expert in cybersecurity law, the CFAA presents some challenges in cases related to Search Engine Hacking (also known as Google Dorking). Although Kashman states that accessing publicly available information is legal under the CFAA, she also notes that in many cases Search
1021:
The CFAA increasingly presents real obstacles to journalists reporting stories important to the public’s interest. As data journalism increasingly becomes “a good way of getting to the truth of things . . . in this post-truth era,” as one data journalist told Google, the need for further clarity
300:(A) information contained in a financial record of a financial institution, or of a card issuer as defined in section 1602 (n) of title 15, or contained in a file of a consumer reporting agency on a consumer, as such terms are defined in the Fair Credit Reporting Act (15 U.S.C. 1681 et seq.);
777:, 2003 U.S. App. Lexis 17963, decided August 28, 2003 (U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit), holding that the use of a civil subpoena which is "patently unlawful," "in bad faith," or "at least gross negligence" to gain access to stored email is a breach of both the CFAA and the
700:. Prouty was an FBI and CIA agent who was prosecuted for having a fraudulent marriage to get US residency. She claims she was persecuted by a U.S. attorney who was trying to gain media coverage by calling her a terrorist agent and get himself promoted to a federal judgeship.
1049:
When our laws need to be modified, Congress has a responsibility to act. A simple way to correct this dangerous legal interpretation is to change the CFAA and the wire fraud statutes to exclude terms of service violations. I will introduce a bill that does exactly that.
348:(B) threat to obtain information from a protected computer without authorization or in excess of authorization or to impair the confidentiality of information obtained from a protected computer without authorization or by exceeding authorized access; or
1992:
1018:
prosecutors to bring if the defendant used a computer while committing the crime." Professor Joseph
Olivenbaum has similarly criticized the CFAA's "computer-specific approach," noting both the risk of redundancy and resultant definitional problems.
277:
which is used in or affecting interstate or foreign commerce or communication, including a computer located outside the United States that is used in a manner that affects interstate or foreign commerce or communication of the United States
1026:
Engine
Hacking is ultimately prosecuted under the CFAA. Kashman believes prosecuting cases of Google Dorking under the CFAA could render the CFAA void for vagueness by making it illegal to access publicly available information.
2174:
1155:
to criminalize not only explicit threats to cause damage to a computer, but also threats to (1) steal data on a victim's computer, (2) publicly disclose stolen data, or (3) not repair damage the offender already caused to the
847:". He also noted "Congress apparently knew how to restrict the reach of the CFAA to only certain kinds of information, and it appreciated the public v. nonpublic distinction—but contains no such restrictions or modifiers."
539:, its creator was convicted under the Act for causing damage and gaining unauthorized access to "federal interest" computers. The Act was amended in 1996, in part, to clarify language whose meaning was disputed in the case.
1103:) raised questions in the immediate aftermath of Swartz's death regarding the government's handling of the case. Polis called the charges "ridiculous and trumped up," referring to Swartz as a "martyr." Issa, chair of the
1008:
even while not directly involved, resulted in 6.5 years imprisonment. No financial motive was established. A non-profit was started to advocate against further harshness against others targeted under the broad law.
644:
Ninth
Circuit ruled that he had acted "without authorization" when he used the username and password of a current employee with their consent and affirmed his conviction. The Supreme Court declined to hear the case.
123:
The original 1984 bill was enacted in response to concern that computer-related crimes might go unpunished. The House
Committee Report to the original computer crime bill included a statement by a representative of
1411:. Vol. 4 (98th Congress—Second Session 1984 ed.). St. Paul, Minn.: West Publishing Co. 1984. pp. 3689–3710 (whole report), particularly pp. 3695–3696 (specific pages with statement from hearing).
956:
a public website without the approval of the website's owner is not a violation of the CFAA. LinkedIn petitioned for the
Supreme Court to review the decision and the court remanded the case based on its
1141:
Eliminated the requirement that information must have been stolen through an interstate or foreign communication, thereby expanding jurisdiction for cases involving theft of information from computers;
1812:
1144:
Eliminated the requirement that the defendant's action must result in a loss exceeding $ 5,000 and created a felony offense where the damage affects ten or more computers, closing a gap in the law;
740:) and because the sequence of button presses that triggered the bug were considered held to have "not exceed their authorized access." As of November 2013 the defendant still faces a regular
320:(A) knowingly causes the transmission of a program, information, code, or command, and as a result of such conduct, intentionally causes damage without authorization, to a protected computer;
212:, 2002, and in 2008 by the Identity Theft Enforcement and Restitution Act. With each amendment of the law, the types of conduct that fell within its reach were extended. In 2015, President
331:(6) knowingly and with intent to defraud traffics (as defined in section 1029) in any password or similar information through which a computer may be accessed without authorization, if—
513:
to anyone harmed by a violation of this law. These provisions have allowed private companies to sue disloyal employees for damages for the misappropriation of confidential information (
889:). Hotz denied liability and contested the Court's exercise of personal jurisdiction over him. The parties settled out of court. The settlement caused Geohot to be unable to legally
1104:
274:
or the United States
Government, or any computer, when the conduct constituting the offense affects the computer's use by or for the financial institution or the government; or
3161:
2420:
2688:
2281:
1422:
835:
its classified ads without consent. In August 2013, US federal judge found 3Taps's actions violated CFAA and that it faces civil damages for "unauthorized access". Judge
1202:
1965:
2946:
968:
1406:
627:. He was indicted for violating CFAA provisions (a)(2), (a)(4), (c)(2)(B)(iii), (a)(5)(B), and (c)(4)(A)(i)(I),(VI). The case was dismissed after Swartz committed
282:
In practice, any ordinary computer has come under the jurisdiction of the law, including cellphones, due to the interstate nature of most Internet communication.
2162:
576:
1227:
800:
351:(C) demand or request for money or other thing of value in relation to damage to a protected computer, where such damage was caused to facilitate the extortion
901:
753:
69:
3300:
1705:
342:(7) with intent to extort from any person any money or other thing of value, transmits in interstate or foreign commerce any communication containing any—
859:. The court found that breaching an employer's acceptable use policy was not "unauthorized access" under the act and, therefore, did not violate the CFAA.
3285:
2869:
863:
376:, with the notable addition being that it also covers information related to "Foreign Relations", not simply "National Defense" like the Espionage Act.
1170:
to the full extent of Congress's commerce power by including those computers used in or affecting interstate or foreign commerce or communication; and
910:
2328:
2203:
681:
code, allegedly in violation of 1030(a)(2)(c) and 1030(c)(2)(B)i–iii and 2. This charge was later dropped, and he was instead charged with theft of
1927:
855:, 2011. PMSI, Inc. sued former employee Lee for violating the CFAA by browsing Facebook and checking personal email in violation of the company's
785:
2229:
3181:
2608:
1261:
2637:
2255:
2482:
Kashman, Star (2023). "Google Dorking or Legal Hacking: From the CIA Compromise to Your Cameras at Home, We Are Not as Safe as We Think".
942:, 2016. The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that the CFAA was violated when Facebook's servers were accessed despite an IP block and
3305:
653:
1649:
1511:
756:
overturned a conviction against a police officer who had used a police database to look up information about women he knew personally.
2897:
240:
stated opposition to this on the grounds it would make many regular internet activities illegal. In 2021, the Supreme Court ruled in
323:(B) intentionally accesses a protected computer without authorization, and as a result of such conduct, recklessly causes damage; or
3191:
3166:
595:
signed a plea deal to charges of conspiring to disrupt access to the payment website PayPal in response to the payment shutdown to
2049:"Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals: Stored Communications Act and Computer Fraud and Abuse Act Provide Cause of Action for Plaintiff"
1877:
2932:
988:
violations. Many common and insignificant online acts, such as password-sharing and copyright infringement, can transform a CFAA
178:
113:
2696:
2384:
326:(C) intentionally accesses a protected computer without authorization, and as a result of such conduct, causes damage and loss.
2533:
3280:
3234:
2890:
2876:
2793:
2571:
1828:
1238:
1207:
1598:
3275:
3265:
3171:
485:
174:
3295:
3219:
3156:
2586:
2548:
1753:
936:
ruled that the LIUNA's instruction to call and email "intentionally caused damage," reversing the lower court's decision.
2505:
1423:"Securing Cyberspace – President Obama Announces New Cybersecurity Legislative Proposal and Other Cybersecurity Efforts"
2742:
2421:"The Failure of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act: Time to Take an Administrative Approach to Regulating Computer Crime"
2403:
2020:
1163:
1148:
877:
791:
704:
557:
476:
464:
452:
440:
428:
416:
404:
392:
380:
364:
258:
105:
48:
1686:
3176:
2665:
1076:
drafted a bill that would help "prevent what happened to Aaron from happening to other Internet users". Aaron's Law (
229:
1668:
1173:
Provided a mechanism for civil and criminal forfeiture of property used in or derived from section 1030 violations.
583:
employee had violated the CFAA when he used an SSA database to look up information about people he knew personally.
1046:
Using the law in this way could criminalize many everyday activities and allow for outlandishly severe penalties.
185:
are involved or where the crime itself is interstate in nature", but its broad definitions have spilled over into
3151:
2760:
656:, allegedly something that the CISCO employee who gave him an access password did not permit. Adekeye was CEO of
3270:
3229:
3209:
2918:
2065:
1552:
1483:
1394:
1196:
580:
527:
297:(2) intentionally accesses a computer without authorization or exceeds authorized access, and thereby obtains—
2177:
Sixth Circuit Decision in Pulte Homes Leaves Employers With Few Options In Response To Union High Tech Tactics
1325:
3260:
3186:
2842:
1584:
611:
2752:
807:
from his company computer before he quit, in order to conceal alleged bad behavior while he was an employee.
3214:
2939:
2904:
2838:
2822:
1910:
1840:
1788:
1709:
1233:
2457:
1771:
3224:
2846:
2834:
2826:
2818:
1993:"The Cybersecurity 202: There's finally a Supreme Court battle coming over the nation's main hacking law"
1721:
1706:
Aaron Swartz Case: U.S. DOJ Drops All Pending Charges Against The JSTOR Liberator, Days After His Suicide
1213:
1188:
1454:
1072:
terms of service allowed), lawmakers proposed amending the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. Representative
193:, the CFAA also criminalized additional computer-related acts. Provisions addressed the distribution of
3290:
2854:
2850:
2830:
2814:
2756:
1928:
No Expansion of CFAA Liability for Monetary Exploit of Software Bug | New Media and Technology Law Blog
1389:
House Committee on the Judiciary (July 24, 1984). House Report No. 98-894. pp. 10–11. Accompanies
1035:
958:
760:
543:
241:
60:
2151:
189:(see "Protected Computer", below). In addition to amending a number of the provisions in the original
2925:
2786:
1816:
1100:
778:
2077:
3239:
890:
198:
2190:
1966:"Second Circuit Adopts Narrow Construction of Federal Computer Fraud Statute, Joins Circuit Split"
1558:
1159:
Created a criminal offense for conspiring to commit a computer hacking offense under section 1030;
1735:
844:
811:
498:
2724:
2560:
1296:
1126:
1081:
2728:
2721:
2717:
2564:
2526:
2522:
2091:
1855:, U.S. District Court, Eastern District of Michigan, Southern Division. via debbieschlussel.com
1122:
1077:
925:
to the company, expressing their opinions. As a result of the increased traffic, the company's
748:
678:
648:
635:
600:
2112:
1390:
996:. The punishments are severe, similar to sentences for selling or importing drugs, and may be
1570:
1192:
1001:
997:
856:
712:
373:
271:
182:
73:
28:
2779:
2642:
1939:
1852:
1623:
1249:
949:
872:
624:
208:
Since then, the Act has been amended a number of times—in 1989, 1994, 1996, in 2001 by the
980:
There have been criminal convictions for CFAA violations in the context of civil law, for
843:" to bypass an IP block set up to enforce a banning communicated via personally-addressed
795:
619:
allegedly entered an MIT wiring closet and set up a laptop to mass-download articles from
65:
8:
3078:
1997:
1111:
1000:. Prosecutors have used the CFAA to protect private business interests and to intimidate
828:
819:
737:
170:
117:
2021:"Supreme Court sides with police officer who improperly searched license plate database"
1167:
1152:
881:
561:
158:—as "a realistic representation of the automatic dialing and access capabilities of the
2666:"Darrell Issa Probing Prosecution Of Aaron Swartz, Internet Pioneer Who Killed Himself"
1884:
1867:
Thursday, 13. October 2011. Interview with Prouty by Peter B. Collins and Sibel Edmonds
1864:
1398:
1367:
1256:
1115:
1088:
violations from the 1984 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act and from the wire fraud statute.
981:
971:
ruled that the CFAA does not criminalize the violation of a website's terms of service.
886:
729:
640:
253:
1693:
1535:
1385:
A representative of GTE Telenet (November 10, 1983). "Hearing". Subcommittee on Crime.
875:
the PlayStation 3 system. The lawsuit alleged, among other things, that Hotz violated
444:
432:
420:
408:
396:
384:
368:
262:
2380:
2329:"Texas Man Sentenced to 57 Months for Computer Hacking and Aggravated Identity Theft"
1371:
1220:
929:
851:
840:
836:
689:
604:
592:
555:. Charges were under 18 USC 1030(a)(2)(c) and (b)(2)(c). Judge Wu decided that using
497:
The Computer Fraud and Abuse Act is both a criminal law and a statute that creates a
159:
139:
2530:
480:
468:
456:
3008:
2993:
2973:
2911:
2568:
2048:
1359:
1085:
985:
943:
669:
661:
566:
510:
2746:
2407:
1537:
244:
to provide a narrow interpretation of the meaning of "exceeds authorized access".
109:
3098:
3038:
2590:
2575:
2552:
2537:
2129:
1459:
209:
2355:"A Voice from Prison Blog | Criminal Justice Reform & Constitutional Rights"
2304:"A Voice from Prison Blog | Criminal Justice Reform & Constitutional Rights"
2165:
2011 8 9, Mike Masnick, "Sending Too Many Emails to Someone Is Computer Hacking"
116:. Prior to computer-specific criminal laws, computer crimes were prosecuted as
3118:
3108:
3088:
2963:
1427:
1243:
918:
623:. He allegedly avoided various attempts by JSTOR and MIT to stop this, such as
531:, 928 F.2d 504 (2d Cir. 1991), decided March 7, 1991. After the release of the
101:
2765:
2583:
2545:
2440:<CTRL><ALT><DELETE>: Rethinking Federal Computer Legislation
2282:"Computer Fraud and Abuse Act Enforcement: Cruel, Unusual, and Due for Reform"
1129:) and again stalled. There has been no further introduction of related bills.
201:. Congress also included in the CFAA a provision criminalizing trafficking in
3254:
3073:
3058:
3043:
3023:
2978:
2968:
1363:
1068:(who used a script to download scholarly research articles in excess of what
933:
894:
733:
725:
721:
674:
548:
536:
155:
147:
97:
94:
3128:
3123:
3013:
2998:
2594:
2556:
2389:
1092:
1065:
1043:
or terms of service is a violation of the CFAA and the wire fraud statute.
953:
926:
832:
804:
717:
682:
616:
514:
213:
186:
388:: Computer trespassing, and taking government, financial, or commerce info
177:
to cases "with a compelling federal interest—i.e., where computers of the
3133:
3113:
3103:
3068:
3028:
3018:
2983:
2802:
1096:
1073:
1056:
989:
914:
906:
532:
237:
151:
41:
2766:
Cybercrime: A Sketch of 18 U.S.C. 1030 and Related Federal Criminal Laws
2140:
1306:. Office of Legal Education Executive Office for United States Attorneys
337:(B) such computer is used by or for the Government of the United States;
3063:
3053:
3048:
3033:
1183:
824:
741:
506:
372:: Computer espionage. This section takes much of its language from the
225:
2204:"Startup that we all forgot gets small win against Facebook on appeal"
2152:
See the links to the original lawsuit documents which are indexed here
1326:"Who's Responsible? - Computer Crime Laws | Hackers | FRONTLINE | PBS"
1107:, announced an investigation of the Justice Department's prosecution.
961:
decision. The Ninth Circuit ultimately affirmed its original decision.
652:
2011. Adekeye allegedly violated (a)(2), when he allegedly downloaded
303:(B) information from any department or agency of the United States; or
3093:
3003:
1266:
596:
587:
233:
202:
2230:"Web scraping doesn't violate anti-hacking law, appeals court rules"
3083:
2579:
2541:
2256:"Court: Violating a site's terms of service isn't criminal hacking"
1488:
657:
492:
252:
The only computers, in theory, covered by the CFAA are defined as "
217:
166:
134:
2689:"Swartz doc director: Oracle and Larry Ellison killed Aaron's Law"
2638:"Lawmakers slam DOJ prosecution of Swartz as 'ridiculous, absurd'"
2609:"New 'Aaron's Law' aims to alter controversial computer fraud law"
2378:
2988:
628:
552:
502:
221:
194:
143:
129:
2385:"Most of what you do online is illegal. Let's end the absurdity"
2354:
2303:
2141:
3Taps Can't Shake Unauthorized Craigslist Access Claims – Law360
2113:"IP Cloaking Violates Computer Fraud and Abuse Act, Judge Rules"
1388:
2191:
https://www.employerlawreport.com/files/2013/09/Pulte-Homes.pdf
1841:
Ex-Goldman Programmer Described Code Downloads to FBI (Update1)
1736:
Appeals Court: No Hacking Required to Be Prosecuted as a Hacker
1384:
1011:
993:
436:: Trafficking in passwords of a government or commerce computer
334:(A) such trafficking affects interstate or foreign commerce; or
2771:
1687:
Internet Activist Charged in M.I.T. Data Theft, By NICK BILTON
1350:
Schulte, Stephanie (November 2008). "The WarGames Scenario".
1110:
By May 2014, Aaron's Law had stalled in committee. Filmmaker
1069:
922:
839:
wrote in his decision that "the average person does not use "
736:
in question did not demonstrate a tangential relationship to
620:
591:, 2011. A group of men and women connected to the collective
1624:"FindLaw's United States Eleventh Circuit case and opinions"
1536:
Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School.
1455:"Democrats, Tech Experts Slam Obama's Anti-Hacking Proposal"
2019:
Fung, Brian; de Vogue, Ariane; Cole, Devan (June 3, 2021).
1650:"PayPal 14 'Freedom Fighters' Plead Guilty to Cyber-Attack"
1440:
1271:
1203:
California Comprehensive Computer Data Access and Fraud Act
1253:(mentions the law, & the eponymous Chicago task force)
913:(LIUNA). After Pulte fired an employee represented by the
569:
agreement would make the law overly broad. 259 F.R.D. 449
424:: Damaging a protected computer (including viruses, worms)
100:
bill that was enacted in 1986 as an amendment to existing
2947:
Telemarketing and Consumer Fraud and Abuse Prevention Act
2025:
1911:"Feds Drop Hacking Charges in Video-Poker Glitching Case"
1843:, David Glovin and David Scheer. July 10, 2009, Bloomberg
1064:
In the wake of the prosecution and subsequent suicide of
125:
2506:"Congresswoman Introduces 'Aaron's Law' Honoring Swartz"
1484:"Supreme Court narrows scope of sweeping cybercrime law"
1407:
United States Code Congressional and Administrative News
1870:
1228:
Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority v. Anderson
952:, 2019. The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that
803:
ruled that Jacob Citrin had violated the CFAA when he
2499:
2497:
1118:'s financial interest in maintaining the status quo.
1162:
Broadened the definition of "protected computer" in
1831:, Case 1:10-cr-00096-DLC Document 69 Filed 10/25/10
607:. They later became known under the name PayPal 14.
345:(A) threat to cause damage to a protected computer;
2870:Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968
2494:
1091:In addition to Lofgren's efforts, Representatives
902:Pulte Homes, Inc. v. Laborers' International Union
864:Sony Computer Entertainment America v. George Hotz
285:
1666:
1599:"'MySpace mom' Lori Drew's conviction thrown out"
1295:Jarrett, H. Marshall; Bailie, Michael W. (2010).
551:case involving the suicide of a girl harassed on
132:that characterized the 1983 techno-thriller film
3252:
2018:
1817:Federal Grand Jury indicts former Cisco Engineer
493:Notable cases and decisions referring to the Act
1878:"United States of America v. Neil Scott Kramer"
1014:called the CFAA "the worst law in technology".
786:International Airport Centers, L.L.C. v. Citrin
400:: Computer trespassing in a government computer
120:, but the applying law was often insufficient.
3182:National Institute of Standards and Technology
2768:, by Charles Doyle, CRS, 12 27 2010, (FAS.org)
2130:Craigslist v. 3taps |Digital Media Law Project
1754:"Man Convicted of Hacking Despite Not Hacking"
1481:
1290:
1288:
1286:
911:Laborers' International Union of North America
639:, 2011. Nosal and others allegedly accessed a
603:which was part of a wider Anonymous campaign,
2787:
2451:
2449:
1647:
1482:Geller, Eric; Gerstein, Josh (June 3, 2021).
1294:
1004:, deterring undesirable, yet legal, conduct.
1544:
831:in order to access Craigslist's website and
448:: Threatening to damage a protected computer
306:(C) information from any protected computer;
3301:United States federal computing legislation
2425:The George Washington University Law School
1283:
150:programmed to predict possible outcomes of
3286:United States federal commerce legislation
2794:
2780:
2446:
2437:
1692:, July 19, 2011, 12:54 PM, as well as the
1512:"What is the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act"
1121:Aaron's Law was reintroduced in May 2015 (
871:, 2011. SCEA sued "Geohot" and others for
2898:Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act
1819:By Howard Mintz, 08/05/2011, Mercury News
724:does not constitute hacking because the
3192:U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
2094:Court: Disloyal Computing Is Not Illegal
165:The CFAA was written to extend existing
2933:Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952
2631:
2629:
2481:
2418:
2279:
2201:
2110:
1908:
1865:Sibel Edmond's Boiling Frogs podcast 61
1751:
1349:
114:Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984
3253:
2663:
2503:
2455:
2046:
1858:
940:Facebook v. Power Ventures and Vachani
827:of breaching CFAA by circumventing an
673:, 2011. Aleynikov was a programmer at
247:
138:—in which a young teenager (played by
3235:Electronic Privacy Information Center
2891:Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act
2877:Electronic Communications Privacy Act
2775:
2686:
2635:
2606:
2228:Lee, Timothy B. (September 9, 2019).
2179:, Employer Law Report, 3 August 2011.
2047:Gelman, Lauren (September 22, 2003).
1990:
1596:
1509:
1239:Information technology security audit
1208:Electronic Communications Privacy Act
1132:
649:United States v. Peter Alfred-Adekeye
2753:Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986
2664:Reilly, Ryan J. (January 15, 2013).
2626:
2504:Reilly, Ryan J. (January 15, 2013).
728:in question failed to constitute a "
357:
216:proposed expanding the CFAA and the
87:Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986
16:1986 United States cybersecurity law
3220:Center for Democracy and Technology
2636:Sasso, Brendan (January 16, 2013).
2253:
2227:
13:
3306:Title 18 of the United States Code
2607:Musil, Steven (January 15, 2013).
2254:Lee, Timothy B. (March 30, 2020).
2111:Kravets, David (August 20, 2013).
1667:Alexa O'Brien (December 5, 2013).
1648:David Gilbert (December 6, 2013).
705:United States v. Neil Scott Kramer
256:". They are defined under section
112:), which had been included in the
14:
3317:
2736:
1940:"United States v. Gilberto Valle"
1752:Kravets, David (April 24, 2013).
1399:Could become available on GovInfo
690:United States v Nada Nadim Prouty
685:and transporting stolen property.
577:Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals
520:
484:: Investigative, protective, and
3162:Select Committee on Intelligence
2202:Farivar, Cyrus (July 12, 2016).
1991:Marks, Joseph (April 24, 2020).
1510:Varma, Corey (January 3, 2015).
909:brought a CFAA suit against the
801:Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals
412:: Committing fraud with computer
27:
3152:Federal Bureau of Investigation
2801:
2711:
2687:Dekel, Jonathan (May 1, 2014).
2680:
2657:
2600:
2516:
2475:
2442:. 27 Seton Hall Law Review 574.
2431:
2412:
2397:
2372:
2347:
2321:
2296:
2273:
2247:
2221:
2195:
2184:
2168:
2156:
2145:
2134:
2123:
2104:
2085:
2071:
2059:
2053:Center for Internet and Society
2040:
2012:
1984:
1958:
1932:
1921:
1902:
1846:
1834:
1822:
1806:
1781:
1764:
1745:
1729:
1715:
1698:
1679:
1660:
1641:
1616:
1590:
1578:
1564:
1029:
754:Second Circuit Court of Appeals
286:Criminal offenses under the Act
3230:Electronic Frontier Foundation
3210:American Civil Liberties Union
2919:Right to Financial Privacy Act
2438:Olivenbaum, Joseph M. (1997).
1944:Electronic Frontier Foundation
1909:Poulsen, Kevin (May 7, 2013).
1669:"Inside the 'PayPal 14' Trial"
1553:United States v. Morris (1991)
1529:
1503:
1475:
1447:
1415:
1378:
1343:
1318:
1197:McCarran Internal Security Act
969:Federal District Court of D.C.
768:
677:accused of copying code, like
588:United States v. Collins et al
581:Social Security Administration
528:United States v. Morris (1991)
154:and unwittingly almost starts
1:
2458:"Data Journalism and the Law"
1561:, 505 (2d Cir. 1991).
1277:
1114:alleges this occurred due to
823:, 2012. 3Taps was accused by
694:
612:United States v. Aaron Swartz
270:exclusively for the use of a
173:, while, in theory, limiting
3281:Information technology audit
3215:American Library Association
2940:Victims of Crime Act of 1984
2905:Money Laundering Control Act
2884:Computer Fraud and Abuse Act
2484:Wash. J. L. Tech. & Arts
1710:International Business Times
1654:International Business Times
1234:Information technology audit
975:
732:" under the statute (as the
565:against someone violating a
146:breaks into a U.S. military
22:Computer Fraud and Abuse Act
7:
3276:Hacking (computer security)
3266:98th United States Congress
3225:Center for Public Integrity
1597:Staff, Ars (July 2, 2009).
1214:LVRC Holdings LLC v. Brekka
1189:Defense Secrets Act of 1911
1177:
1022:around the CFAA increases.
460:: Conspiracy to violate (a)
49:United States Supreme Court
10:
3322:
3296:Fraud in the United States
3167:Department of the Treasury
2589:November 12, 2013, at the
2551:November 12, 2013, at the
2462:Columbia Journalism Review
2181:Retrieved 27 January 2013.
1036:Van Buren v. United States
1033:
959:Van Buren v. United States
761:Van Buren v. United States
573:United States v. Rodriguez
544:United States v. Lori Drew
242:Van Buren v. United States
61:Van Buren v. United States
3200:
3142:
2956:
2926:Fair Credit Reporting Act
2861:
2809:
2280:Curtiss, Tiffany (2016),
1772:"Nos. 14-10037, 14-10275"
1297:"Prosecution of Computer"
1262:Telecommunications Policy
1105:House Oversight Committee
1101:House Judiciary Committee
917:, LIUNA urged members to
779:Stored Communications Act
660:and had accused CISCO of
199:denial-of-service attacks
55:
47:
40:
35:
26:
3240:Humanitarian Law Project
1395:Metadata on Congress.gov
1364:10.1177/1527476408323345
1352:Television and New Media
1585:US v Lori Drew, psu.edu
885:( taking info from any
845:cease-and-desist letter
812:LVRC Holdings v. Brekka
796:§ 1030(a)(5)(A)(i)
499:private right of action
2574:July 15, 2018, at the
2536:July 15, 2018, at the
2456:Baranetsky, Victoria.
2055:. Stanford University.
1052:
1002:free-culture activists
775:Theofel v. Farey Jones
749:United States v. Valle
679:high-frequency trading
636:United States v. Nosal
601:Wau Holland Foundation
183:financial institutions
3271:Computing legislation
3157:Department of Justice
2419:Simmons, Ric (2016).
2286:Washington Law Review
2101:, September 18, 2009.
1829:US v Sergey Aleynikov
1815:Indictment. see also
1193:Espionage Act of 1917
1040:
857:acceptable use policy
716:, 2011. Exploiting a
713:United States v. Kane
374:Espionage Act of 1917
272:financial institution
236:, and Representative
3261:1986 in American law
2761:US Statutes at Large
2668:. Huffingtonpost.com
1793:www.supremecourt.gov
1789:"Docket for 16-1344"
1738:, By David Kravets,
1726:, uscourts.gov, 2011
1587:Kyle Joseph Sassman,
1559:928 F.2d 504
1250:The Hacker Crackdown
950:HiQ Labs v. LinkedIn
882:§ 1030(a)(2)(c)
625:MAC address spoofing
562:§ 1030(a)(2)(C)
266:to mean a computer:
175:federal jurisdiction
3177:Department of State
2379:Christian Sandvig;
2359:A Voice from Prison
2308:A Voice from Prison
1998:The Washington Post
1972:. December 10, 2015
1712:, January 15, 2013.
1112:Brian Knappenberger
897:system furthermore.
820:Craigslist v. 3Taps
738:interstate commerce
254:protected computers
248:Protected computers
205:and similar items.
171:intangible property
118:mail and wire fraud
23:
2699:on October 3, 2018
1890:on August 16, 2011
1463:. January 20, 2015
1431:. January 13, 2015
1257:Protected computer
1133:Amendments history
1116:Oracle Corporation
982:breach of contract
887:protected computer
730:protected computer
641:protected computer
179:federal government
21:
3291:Fraud legislation
3248:
3247:
2749:, text of the law
2381:Karrie Karahalios
2335:. August 13, 2020
2066:US v Jacob Citrin
1572:U.S. v. Lori Drew
1441:National Archives
1221:In re DoubleClick
1168:§ 1030(e)(2)
1153:§ 1030(a)(7)
852:Lee v. PMSI, Inc.
841:anonymous proxies
605:Operation Payback
445:§ 1030(a)(7)
433:§ 1030(a)(6)
421:§ 1030(a)(5)
409:§ 1030(a)(4)
397:§ 1030(a)(3)
385:§ 1030(a)(2)
369:§ 1030(a)(1)
358:Specific sections
263:§ 1030(e)(2)
160:personal computer
140:Matthew Broderick
83:
82:
3313:
3129:John Conyers Jr.
3009:Michael Chertoff
2994:Dianne Feinstein
2974:Alberto Gonzales
2912:Bank Secrecy Act
2796:
2789:
2782:
2773:
2772:
2731:
2715:
2709:
2708:
2706:
2704:
2695:. Archived from
2684:
2678:
2677:
2675:
2673:
2661:
2655:
2654:
2652:
2650:
2633:
2624:
2623:
2621:
2619:
2604:
2598:
2520:
2514:
2513:
2501:
2492:
2491:
2479:
2473:
2472:
2470:
2468:
2453:
2444:
2443:
2435:
2429:
2428:
2416:
2410:
2401:
2395:
2394:
2383:(July 1, 2006).
2376:
2370:
2369:
2367:
2365:
2351:
2345:
2344:
2342:
2340:
2325:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2314:
2300:
2294:
2293:
2277:
2271:
2270:
2268:
2266:
2251:
2245:
2244:
2242:
2240:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2214:
2199:
2193:
2188:
2182:
2172:
2166:
2160:
2154:
2149:
2143:
2138:
2132:
2127:
2121:
2120:
2108:
2102:
2092:Kravets, David,
2089:
2083:
2075:
2069:
2068:, openjurist.org
2063:
2057:
2056:
2044:
2038:
2037:
2035:
2033:
2016:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2005:
1988:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1962:
1956:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1936:
1930:
1925:
1919:
1918:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1897:
1895:
1889:
1883:. Archived from
1882:
1874:
1868:
1862:
1856:
1850:
1844:
1838:
1832:
1826:
1820:
1810:
1804:
1803:
1801:
1799:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1749:
1743:
1742:, April 29, 2011
1733:
1727:
1719:
1713:
1702:
1696:
1683:
1677:
1676:
1664:
1658:
1657:
1645:
1639:
1638:
1636:
1634:
1620:
1614:
1613:
1611:
1609:
1594:
1588:
1582:
1576:
1568:
1562:
1556:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1524:
1522:
1507:
1501:
1500:
1498:
1496:
1479:
1473:
1472:
1470:
1468:
1451:
1445:
1444:
1438:
1436:
1419:
1413:
1412:
1402:
1387:Transcribed in:
1386:
1382:
1376:
1375:
1347:
1341:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1322:
1316:
1315:
1313:
1311:
1301:
1292:
1086:terms of service
1084:) would exclude
1060:
998:disproportionate
986:terms of service
944:cease and desist
884:
798:
699:
696:
670:Sergey Aleynikov
668:United States v
662:anti-competitive
631:in January 2013.
567:terms of service
564:
511:equitable relief
483:
471:
459:
447:
435:
423:
411:
399:
387:
371:
265:
36:Major amendments
31:
24:
20:
3321:
3320:
3316:
3315:
3314:
3312:
3311:
3310:
3251:
3250:
3249:
3244:
3202:
3196:
3187:Customs Service
3144:
3138:
3099:Dennis Kucinich
3039:Jay Rockefeller
2952:
2857:
2805:
2800:
2739:
2734:
2716:
2712:
2702:
2700:
2685:
2681:
2671:
2669:
2662:
2658:
2648:
2646:
2634:
2627:
2617:
2615:
2605:
2601:
2591:Wayback Machine
2576:Wayback Machine
2553:Wayback Machine
2538:Wayback Machine
2521:
2517:
2510:Huffington Post
2502:
2495:
2480:
2476:
2466:
2464:
2454:
2447:
2436:
2432:
2417:
2413:
2402:
2398:
2377:
2373:
2363:
2361:
2353:
2352:
2348:
2338:
2336:
2333:www.justice.gov
2327:
2326:
2322:
2312:
2310:
2302:
2301:
2297:
2278:
2274:
2264:
2262:
2252:
2248:
2238:
2236:
2226:
2222:
2212:
2210:
2200:
2196:
2189:
2185:
2173:
2169:
2161:
2157:
2150:
2146:
2139:
2135:
2128:
2124:
2109:
2105:
2090:
2086:
2076:
2072:
2064:
2060:
2045:
2041:
2031:
2029:
2017:
2013:
2003:
2001:
1989:
1985:
1975:
1973:
1964:
1963:
1959:
1949:
1947:
1946:. March 6, 2015
1938:
1937:
1933:
1926:
1922:
1907:
1903:
1893:
1891:
1887:
1880:
1876:
1875:
1871:
1863:
1859:
1851:
1847:
1839:
1835:
1827:
1823:
1811:
1807:
1797:
1795:
1787:
1786:
1782:
1774:
1770:
1769:
1765:
1750:
1746:
1734:
1730:
1720:
1716:
1703:
1699:
1684:
1680:
1673:The Daily Beast
1665:
1661:
1646:
1642:
1632:
1630:
1622:
1621:
1617:
1607:
1605:
1595:
1591:
1583:
1579:
1569:
1565:
1550:
1549:
1545:
1534:
1530:
1520:
1518:
1508:
1504:
1494:
1492:
1480:
1476:
1466:
1464:
1460:Huffington Post
1453:
1452:
1448:
1434:
1432:
1421:
1420:
1416:
1404:
1403:Reproduced in:
1383:
1379:
1348:
1344:
1334:
1332:
1324:
1323:
1319:
1309:
1307:
1299:
1293:
1284:
1280:
1180:
1135:
1062:
1059:, Jan 15, 2013
1054:
1038:
1032:
978:
965:Sandvig v. Barr
876:
799:, in which the
790:
771:
697:
556:
523:
495:
475:
463:
451:
439:
427:
415:
403:
391:
379:
363:
360:
288:
257:
250:
210:USA PATRIOT Act
79:
42:USA Patriot Act
17:
12:
11:
5:
3319:
3309:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3206:
3204:
3201:Non-government
3198:
3197:
3195:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3148:
3146:
3140:
3139:
3137:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3119:Bernie Sanders
3116:
3114:Richard Durbin
3111:
3109:John E. Sununu
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3089:Lisa Murkowski
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2964:George W. Bush
2960:
2958:
2954:
2953:
2951:
2950:
2943:
2936:
2929:
2922:
2915:
2908:
2901:
2894:
2887:
2880:
2873:
2865:
2863:
2859:
2858:
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2807:
2806:
2799:
2798:
2791:
2784:
2776:
2770:
2769:
2763:
2750:
2743:18 U.S.C.
2738:
2737:External links
2735:
2733:
2732:
2718:H.R. 1918
2710:
2679:
2656:
2625:
2599:
2523:H.R. 2454
2515:
2493:
2474:
2445:
2430:
2411:
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2103:
2084:
2070:
2058:
2039:
2011:
1983:
1957:
1931:
1920:
1901:
1869:
1857:
1853:Plea Agreement
1845:
1833:
1821:
1805:
1780:
1763:
1744:
1728:
1714:
1697:
1690:New York Times
1678:
1659:
1640:
1615:
1589:
1577:
1563:
1543:
1528:
1516:CoreyCarma.com
1502:
1474:
1446:
1428:whitehouse.gov
1414:
1409:(U.S.C.C.A.N.)
1391:H.R. 5616
1377:
1358:(6): 487–513.
1342:
1317:
1281:
1279:
1276:
1275:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1246:
1244:Computer fraud
1241:
1236:
1231:
1224:
1217:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1186:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1174:
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1164:18 U.S.C.
1160:
1157:
1149:18 U.S.C.
1145:
1142:
1134:
1131:
1123:H.R. 1918
1078:H.R. 2454
1039:
1031:
1028:
977:
974:
973:
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947:
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709:
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686:
665:
645:
632:
608:
584:
570:
540:
522:
521:Criminal cases
519:
494:
491:
490:
489:
481:§ 1030(f)
473:
469:§ 1030(c)
461:
457:§ 1030(b)
449:
437:
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389:
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359:
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224:organizer and
195:malicious code
106:18 U.S.C.
102:computer fraud
81:
80:
78:
77:
76:___ (2021)
56:
53:
52:
45:
44:
38:
37:
33:
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15:
9:
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2:
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3203:organizations
3199:
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3150:
3149:
3147:
3145:organizations
3141:
3135:
3132:
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3127:
3125:
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3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3079:Ellen Huvelle
3077:
3075:
3074:Russ Feingold
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3059:Paul Sarbanes
3057:
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2729:Congress.gov
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2722:Congress.gov
2713:
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2697:the original
2692:
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2565:Congress.gov
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2260:Ars Technica
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1808:
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967:, 2020. The
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214:Barack Obama
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2672:January 16,
2649:January 16,
2618:October 19,
2467:October 16,
2364:October 25,
2339:October 25,
2313:October 25,
1467:January 30,
1435:January 30,
1330:www.pbs.org
1304:justice.gov
1097:Jared Polis
1074:Zoe Lofgren
1057:Zoe Lofgren
990:misdemeanor
907:Pulte Homes
769:Civil cases
698: 2010
535:, an early
533:Morris worm
501:, allowing
472:: Penalties
238:Zoe Lofgren
230:Marc Rogers
228:researcher
181:or certain
152:nuclear war
110:§ 1030
3255:Categories
3143:Government
3064:Trent Lott
3054:Dick Armey
3049:Mike Oxley
3034:Bob Graham
2408:1030(a)(4)
1694:Indictment
1278:References
1184:Cybercrime
1034:See also:
825:Craigslist
742:wire fraud
664:practices.
507:injunctive
488:activities
232:, Senator
226:Cloudflare
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3004:Joe Biden
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2613:CNET News
2546:H.R. 2454
2531:H.R. 2454
2404:18 U.S.C.
2265:March 31,
2239:March 31,
2213:March 31,
1976:March 31,
1950:March 31,
1894:March 18,
1798:March 31,
1633:March 31,
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615:, 2011.
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167:tort law
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2569:S. 1196
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