2852:– A common solution to the problem is constantly maintaining an identical copy of device content on another device (typically of the same type). The downside is that this doubles the storage, and both devices (copies) need to be updated simultaneously with some overhead and possibly some delays. The upside is the possible concurrent reading of the same data group by two independent processes, which increases performance. When one of the replicated devices is detected to be defective, the other copy is still operational and is being utilized to generate a new copy on another device (usually available operational in a pool of stand-by devices for this purpose).
149:
912:
1706:
1037:
103:
390:
1675:
2889:
the probability of two failures in the same RAID group in time proximity is much smaller (approximately the probability squared, i.e., multiplied by itself). If a database cannot tolerate even such a smaller probability of data loss, then the RAID group itself is replicated (mirrored). In many cases such mirroring is done geographically remotely, in a different storage array, to handle recovery from disasters (see disaster recovery above).
777:) differs from primary storage in that it is not directly accessible by the CPU. The computer usually uses its input/output channels to access secondary storage and transfer the desired data to primary storage. Secondary storage is non-volatile (retaining data when its power is shut off). Modern computer systems typically have two orders of magnitude more secondary storage than primary storage because secondary storage is less expensive.
79:
122:
36:
345:) is typically corrected upon detection. A bit or a group of malfunctioning physical bits (the specific defective bit is not always known; group definition depends on the specific storage device) is typically automatically fenced out, taken out of use by the device, and replaced with another functioning equivalent group in the device, where the corrected bit values are restored (if possible). The
3252:
2948:(SAN) is a specialized network, that provides other computers with storage capacity. The crucial difference between NAS and SAN, is that NAS presents and manages file systems to client computers, while SAN provides access at block-addressing (raw) level, leaving it to attaching systems to manage data or file systems within the provided capacity. SAN is commonly associated with
2664:, has long been used to store information for automatic processing, particularly before general-purpose computers existed. Information was recorded by punching holes into the paper or cardboard medium and was read mechanically (or later optically) to determine whether a particular location on the medium was solid or contained a hole.
2003:. The information is accessed using one or more read/write heads which may contain one or more recording transducers. A read/write head only covers a part of the surface so that the head or medium or both must be moved relative to another in order to access data. In modern computers, magnetic storage will take these forms:
2770:. Holographic storage can utilize the whole volume of the storage medium, unlike optical disc storage, which is limited to a small number of surface layers. Holographic storage would be non-volatile, sequential-access, and either write-once or read/write storage. It might be used for secondary and off-line storage. See
1053:
Storage technologies at all levels of the storage hierarchy can be differentiated by evaluating certain core characteristics as well as measuring characteristics specific to a particular implementation. These core characteristics are volatility, mutability, accessibility, and addressability. For any
2980:
Robotic-access storage devices may have a number of slots, each holding individual media, and usually one or more picking robots that traverse the slots and load media to built-in drives. The arrangement of the slots and picking devices affects performance. Important characteristics of such storage
2888:
Device mirroring and typical RAID are designed to handle a single device failure in the RAID group of devices. However, if a second failure occurs before the RAID group is completely repaired from the first failure, then data can be lost. The probability of a single failure is typically small. Thus
938:
removable mass storage media into a storage device according to the system's demands; such data are often copied to secondary storage before use. It is primarily used for archiving rarely accessed information since it is much slower than secondary storage (e.g. 5–60 seconds vs. 1–10 milliseconds).
2732:
is a medium for optical storage, generally consisting of a long and narrow strip of plastic, onto which patterns can be written and from which the patterns can be read back. It shares some technologies with cinema film stock and optical discs, but is compatible with neither. The motivation behind
843:
on HDDs reaches the proper placement and the data, subsequent data on the track are very fast to access. To reduce the seek time and rotational latency, data are transferred to and from disks in large contiguous blocks. Sequential or block access on disks is orders of magnitude faster than random
629:
is an intermediate stage between ultra-fast registers and much slower main memory. It was introduced solely to improve the performance of computers. Most actively used information in the main memory is just duplicated in the cache memory, which is faster, but of much lesser capacity. On the other
1027:
In modern personal computers, most secondary and tertiary storage media are also used for off-line storage. Optical discs and flash memory devices are the most popular, and to a much lesser extent removable hard disk drives; older examples include floppy disks and Zip disks. In enterprise uses,
359:
methods allow in many cases (such as a database) to represent a string of bits by a shorter bit string ("compress") and reconstruct the original string ("decompress") when needed. This utilizes substantially less storage (tens of percent) for many types of data at the cost of more computation
1004:. The medium is recorded, usually in a secondary or tertiary storage device, and then physically removed or disconnected. It must be inserted or connected by a human operator before a computer can access it again. Unlike tertiary storage, it cannot be accessed without human interaction.
1023:
since it is physically inaccessible from a computer, and data confidentiality or integrity cannot be affected by computer-based attack techniques. Also, if the information stored for archival purposes is rarely accessed, off-line storage is less expensive than tertiary storage.
844:
access, and many sophisticated paradigms have been developed to design efficient algorithms based on sequential and block access. Another way to reduce the I/O bottleneck is to use multiple disks in parallel to increase the bandwidth between primary and secondary memory.
186:, which puts fast but expensive and small storage options close to the CPU and slower but less expensive and larger options further away. Generally, the fast technologies are referred to as "memory", while slower persistent technologies are referred to as "storage".
2810:. It was first done in 2012, when researchers achieved a ratio of 1.28 petabytes per gram of DNA. In March 2017 scientists reported that a new algorithm called a DNA fountain achieved 85% of the theoretical limit, at 215 petabytes per gram of DNA.
715:
run programs directly from ROM (or similar), because such programs are rarely changed. Standard computers do not store non-rudimentary programs in ROM, and rather, use large capacities of secondary storage, which is non-volatile as well, and not as costly.
1451:
The accessing of pieces of information will be in a serial order, one after the other; therefore the time to access a particular piece of information depends upon which piece of information was last accessed. Such characteristic is typical of off-line
2751:
of the material. Phase-change memory would be non-volatile, random-access read/write storage, and might be used for primary, secondary and off-line storage. Most rewritable and many write-once optical disks already use phase-change material to store
1758:
As of 2011, the most commonly used data storage media are semiconductor, magnetic, and optical, while paper still sees some limited usage. Some other fundamental storage technologies, such as all-flash arrays (AFAs) are proposed for development.
1328:
requires constant power to maintain the stored information. The fastest memory technologies are volatile ones, although that is not a universal rule. Since the primary storage is required to be very fast, it predominantly uses volatile memory.
2840:
While a group of bits malfunction may be resolved by error detection and correction mechanisms (see above), storage device malfunction requires different solutions. The following solutions are commonly used and valid for most storage devices:
360:(compress and decompress when needed). Analysis of the trade-off between storage cost saving and costs of related computations and possible delays in data availability is done before deciding whether to keep certain data compressed or not.
225:
Without a significant amount of memory, a computer would merely be able to perform fixed operations and immediately output the result. It would have to be reconfigured to change its behavior. This is acceptable for devices such as desk
1366:
Allows information to be overwritten at any time. A computer without some amount of read/write storage for primary storage purposes would be useless for many tasks. Modern computers typically use read/write storage also for secondary
2078:
Magnetic storage does not have a definite limit of rewriting cycles like flash storage and re-writeable optical media, as altering magnetic fields causes no physical wear. Rather, their life span is limited by mechanical parts.
1831:
has steadily gained share as off-line storage for home computers. Non-volatile semiconductor memory is also used for secondary storage in various advanced electronic devices and specialized computers that are designed for them.
1014:
since the detached medium can easily be physically transported. Additionally, it is useful for cases of disaster, where, for example, a fire destroys the original data, a medium in a remote location will be unaffected, enabling
201:'s Analytical Machine, clearly distinguished between processing and memory (Babbage stored numbers as rotations of gears, while Ludgate stored numbers as displacements of rods in shuttles). This distinction was extended in the
336:
bit value flipping, or "physical bit fatigue", loss of the physical bit in the storage of its ability to maintain a distinguishable value (0 or 1), or due to errors in inter or intra-computer communication. A random
677:
As the RAM types used for primary storage are volatile (uninitialized at start up), a computer containing only such storage would not have a source to read instructions from, in order to start the computer. Hence,
4210:
551:, is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required. Any data actively operated on is also stored there in a uniform manner.
2788:
that can store electric charge. Molecular memory might be especially suited for primary storage. The theoretical storage capacity of molecular memory is 10 terabits per square inch (16 Gbit/mm).
1469:. In modern computers, location-addressable storage usually limits to primary storage, accessed internally by computer programs, since location-addressability is very efficient, but burdensome for humans.
332:
By adding bits to each encoded unit, redundancy allows the computer to detect errors in coded data and correct them based on mathematical algorithms. Errors generally occur in low probabilities due to
3493:
1583:
for tertiary storage. It may make sense to separate read latency and write latency (especially for non-volatile memory) and in case of sequential access storage, minimum, maximum and average latency.
1350:(UPS) can be used to give a computer a brief window of time to move information from primary volatile storage into non-volatile storage before the batteries are exhausted. Some systems, for example
3256:
4015:
1595:
may also be used. As with latency, read rate and write rate may need to be differentiated. Also accessing media sequentially, as opposed to randomly, typically yields maximum throughput.
2433:. The deformities may be permanent (read only media), formed once (write once media) or reversible (recordable or read/write media). The following forms are in common use as of 2009:
2864:) – This method generalizes the device mirroring above by allowing one device in a group of devices to fail and be replaced with the content restored (Device mirroring is RAID with
1343:
is a form of volatile memory similar to DRAM with the exception that it never needs to be refreshed as long as power is applied; it loses its content when the power supply is lost.
3757:
1591:
The rate at which information can be read from or written to the storage. In computer data storage, throughput is usually expressed in terms of megabytes per second (MB/s), though
878:) to a swap file or page file on secondary storage, retrieving them later when needed. If a lot of pages are moved to slower secondary storage, the system performance is degraded.
601:
to improve both reading and writing performance. Operating systems borrow RAM capacity for caching so long as it's not needed by running software. Spare memory can be utilized as
874:, allowing the utilization of more primary storage capacity than is physically available in the system. As the primary memory fills up, the system moves the least-used chunks (
2961:
Large quantities of individual magnetic tapes, and optical or magneto-optical discs may be stored in robotic tertiary storage devices. In tape storage field they are known as
1662:
Hardware memory encryption is available in Intel
Architecture, supporting Total Memory Encryption (TME) and page granular memory encryption with multiple keys (MKTME). and in
1427:
Any location in storage can be accessed at any moment in approximately the same amount of time. Such characteristic is well suited for primary and secondary storage. Most
4202:
958:
to fetch the medium and place it in a drive. When the computer has finished reading the information, the robotic arm will return the medium to its place in the library.
54:
1373:
Read/write storage which allows information to be overwritten multiple times, but with the write operation being much slower than the read operation. Examples include
1746:, of which high counts signify deteriorating and/or low-quality media. Too many consecutive minor errors can lead to data corruption. Not all vendors and models of
3978:
981:
For example, always-on spinning hard disk drives are online storage, while spinning drives that spin down automatically, such as in massive arrays of idle disks (
2703:
to store information. These primary storage devices were short-lived in the market, since the
Williams tube was unreliable, and the Selectron tube was expensive.
1552:
The compactness of stored information. It is the storage capacity of a medium divided with a unit of length, area or volume (e.g. 1.2 megabytes per square inch).
1639:
have no moving parts and consume less power than hard disks. Also, memory may use more power than hard disks. Large caches, which are used to avoid hitting the
4981:
4266:
1586:
623:
to perform various calculations or other operations on this data (or with the help of it). Registers are the fastest of all forms of computer data storage.
3237:
Most contemporary computers use volatile technologies (which lose data when power is off); early computers used both volatile and persistent technologies.
4417:
4008:
3364:
2559:
1632:
Storage devices that reduce fan usage automatically shut-down during inactivity, and low power hard drives can reduce energy consumption by 90 percent.
1229:
2530:
Light induced magnetization melting in magnetic photoconductors has also been proposed for high-speed low-energy consumption magneto-optical storage.
4943:
3501:
2513:
surface stores information. The information is read optically and written by combining magnetic and optical methods. Magneto-optical disc storage is
919:, with tape cartridges placed on shelves in the front, and a robotic arm moving in the back. The visible height of the library is about 180 cm.
1876:
2108:
242:
and data. Such computers are more versatile in that they do not need to have their hardware reconfigured for each new program, but can simply be
4171:
3560:
2981:
are possible expansion options: adding slots, modules, drives, robots. Tape libraries may have from 10 to more than 100,000 slots, and provide
3156:
3896:
3714:
3467:
425:
is from the CPU. This traditional division of storage to primary, secondary, tertiary, and off-line storage is also guided by cost per bit.
3340:
as defined in
Microsoft Computing Dictionary, 4th Ed. (c)1999 or in The Authoritative Dictionary of IEEE Standard Terms, 7th Ed., (c) 2000.
1515:(computer device), with hardware being faster but more expensive option. Hardware content addressable memory is often used in a computer's
3750:
1324:
retains the stored information even if not constantly supplied with electric power. It is suitable for long-term storage of information.
1159:
4974:
3866:
3733:
1601:
The size of the largest "chunk" of data that can be efficiently accessed as a single unit, e.g. without introducing additional latency.
4138:
278:, equal to 8 bits. A piece of information can be handled by any computer or device whose storage space is large enough to accommodate
2969:, or optical disk libraries per analogy. The smallest forms of either technology containing just one drive device are referred to as
3578:
2722:
to store information. Delay-line memory was dynamic volatile, cycle sequential read/write storage, and was used for primary storage.
2425:, stores information in deformities on the surface of a circular disc and reads this information by illuminating the surface with a
711:, as updates to them are possible; however it is slow and memory must be erased in large portions before it can be re-written. Some
4410:
3605:
2884:, at the cost of more processing during both regular operation (with often reduced performance) and defective device replacement.
4240:
3804:
3632:
3443:
1847:(SSDs) as default configuration options for the secondary storage either in addition to or instead of the more traditional HDD.
589:(RAM). It is small-sized, light, but quite expensive at the same time. The particular types of RAM used for primary storage are
3926:
2552:
3394:
3261:
670:(MMU) is a small device between CPU and RAM recalculating the actual memory address, for example to provide an abstraction of
608:
As shown in the diagram, traditionally there are two more sub-layers of the primary storage, besides main large-capacity RAM:
5154:
4967:
3527:
3437:
3404:
1969:
2733:
developing this technology was the possibility of far greater storage capacities than either magnetic tape or optical discs.
4948:
1869:
939:
This is primarily useful for extraordinarily large data stores, accessed without human operators. Typical examples include
2835:
1495:
to make the operation more understandable. In modern computers, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage use file systems.
3952:
2101:
1652:
250:
between successive computations to build up complex procedural results. Most modern computers are von
Neumann machines.
2901:. This concept does not pertain to the primary storage, which is shared between multiple processors to a lesser degree.
2668:
make it possible for objects that are sold or transported to have some computer-readable information securely attached.
1503:
Each individually accessible unit of information is selected based on the basis of (part of) the contents stored there.
246:
with new in-memory instructions; they also tend to be simpler to design, in that a relatively simple processor may keep
239:
4403:
4050:
3986:
3654:
1933:
1054:
particular implementation of any storage technology, the characteristics worth measuring are capacity and performance.
2173:
1390:(WORM) allows the information to be written only once at some point after manufacture. Examples include semiconductor
3685:"Power consumption – Tom's hardware : Conventional hard drive obsoletism? Samsung's 32 GB flash drive previewed"
3684:
3314:
2545:
1785:
4262:
1694:
1335:
is a form of volatile memory that also requires the stored information to be periodically reread and rewritten, or
1215:
375:
in storage to prevent the possibility of unauthorized information reconstruction from chunks of storage snapshots.
17:
1532:
The total amount of stored information that a storage device or medium can hold. It is expressed as a quantity of
3267:
2997:
2671:
Relatively small amounts of digital data (compared to other digital data storage) may be backed up on paper as a
1862:
213:(ALU). The former controls the flow of data between the CPU and memory, while the latter performs arithmetic and
182:(CPU) of a computer is what manipulates data by performing computations. In practice, almost all computers use a
3830:
2908:(DAS) is a traditional mass storage, that does not use any network. This is still a most popular approach. This
982:
630:
hand, main memory is much slower, but has a much greater storage capacity than processor registers. Multi-level
5230:
5225:
5098:
3523:
2094:
1492:
5128:
4938:
3372:
1391:
555:
287:
270:. Text, numbers, pictures, audio, and nearly any other form of information can be converted into a string of
1028:
magnetic tape cartridges are predominant; older examples include open-reel magnetic tape and punched cards.
5014:
4806:
4777:
3043:
3027:
3004:
long-unused files from fast hard disk storage to libraries or jukeboxes. If the files are needed, they are
1820:
1347:
1332:
694:
storage to RAM and start to execute it. A non-volatile technology used for this purpose is called ROM, for
616:
274:, or binary digits, each of which has a value of 0 or 1. The most common unit of storage is the
5027:
4603:
4545:
3365:"Primary storage or storage hardware (shows usage of term "primary storage" meaning "hard disk storage")"
3080:
2452:: Read only storage, used for mass distribution of digital information (music, video, computer programs);
1683:
1504:
1340:
985:), are nearline storage. Removable media such as tape cartridges that can be automatically loaded, as in
974:
Nearline storage is not immediately available, but can be made online quickly without human intervention.
967:
because it is "near to online". The formal distinction between online, nearline, and offline storage is:
800:(billionths of a second). Thus, secondary storage is significantly slower than primary storage. Rotating
593:, meaning that they lose the information when not powered. Besides storing opened programs, it serves as
3564:
863:
describing the owner of a certain file, the access time, the access permissions, and other information.
4782:
3306:
3022:
2771:
2027:
1498:
821:
1731:
Flash storage may experience downspiking transfer rates as a result of accumulating errors, which the
1405:
4596:
2747:
to store information in an X–Y addressable matrix and reads the information by observing the varying
2349:
950:
When a computer needs to read information from the tertiary storage, it will first consult a catalog
398:
231:
3350:
2918:(NAS) is mass storage attached to a computer which another computer can access at file level over a
2675:
for very long-term storage, as the longevity of paper typically exceeds even magnetic data storage.
977:
Offline storage is not immediately available, and requires some human intervention to become online.
4913:
4826:
4799:
4770:
4533:
3218:
3213:
2915:
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1815:
In modern computers, primary storage almost exclusively consists of dynamic volatile semiconductor
1656:
247:
235:
202:
1743:
1709:
1235:
4856:
4851:
4739:
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4367:
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3460:
3432:. Series on foundations and trends in theoretical computer science. Hanover, MA: now Publishers.
2905:
2524:
2499:
2153:
2147:
2141:
2135:
1789:
1732:
1188:
1001:
663:
394:
346:
179:
989:, are nearline storage, while tape cartridges that must be manually loaded are offline storage.
812:
drives, have even longer access times. Other examples of secondary storage technologies include
3547:
3151:
2989:
of near-line information. Optical jukeboxes are somewhat smaller solutions, up to 1,000 slots.
1547:
1428:
875:
667:
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2744:
2506:
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2320:
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to determine which tape or disc contains the information. Next, the computer will instruct a
856:
796:(thousandths of a second), while the access time per byte for primary storage is measured in
620:
422:
418:
302:
267:
210:
3874:
1808:
forms of semiconductor memory exist, the former using standard MOSFETs and the latter using
148:
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4343:
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3181:
3129:
3098:
2945:
2332:
2296:
1927:
1915:
1816:
1809:
1773:
1768:
1465:
Each individually accessible unit of information in storage is selected with its numerical
1387:
1081:
1020:
840:
751:
586:
579:
571:
436:
433:
243:
930:
is a level below secondary storage. Typically, it involves a robotic mechanism which will
8:
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4608:
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3176:
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2927:
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2405:
1568:
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129:
45:
4305:
4172:"New method of self-assembling nanoscale elements could transform data storage industry"
4153:
4098:
4325:
4115:
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4072:
3108:
3103:
2970:
2919:
2653:
2568:
1792:. A semiconductor memory chip may contain millions of memory cells, consisting of tiny
1781:
1747:
1682:
Distinct types of data storage have different points of failure and various methods of
1487:
directory and file names. The underlying device is still location-addressable, but the
1011:
886:
801:
687:
662:, that indicates the desired location of data. Then it reads or writes the data in the
612:
575:
314:
3601:
5149:
5059:
4756:
4620:
4518:
4430:
4317:
4232:
4120:
3930:
3808:
3628:
3433:
3424:
3400:
3320:
3310:
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3134:
3065:
3048:
2923:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2628:
2326:
2164:
1844:
1636:
1607:
The probability of spontaneous bit value change under various conditions, or overall
1512:
1446:
1016:
911:
890:
785:
646:
Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing unit via a
559:
452:
214:
194:
183:
50:
4329:
3979:"MacBook Air replaces the standard notebook hard disk for solid state flash storage"
1000:
is computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of a
5133:
4591:
4482:
4376:
4309:
4110:
4102:
3271:
3196:
3113:
2898:
2779:
2692:
2057:
2053:
1988:
1975:
1939:
1885:
1840:
1488:
1086:
963:
955:
902:
867:
755:
739:
695:
631:
456:
384:
356:
283:
4032:
3533:
1635:
2.5-inch hard disk drives often consume less power than larger ones. Low capacity
4999:
4751:
4729:
4692:
4640:
4460:
4455:
4447:
3295:
3166:
2966:
2418:
2393:
2117:
2033:
2019:
1921:
1721:
1439:
provide random access, though both semiconductor and flash memories have minimal
1436:
1325:
1066:
944:
882:
813:
781:
712:
698:(the terminology may be somewhat confusing as most ROM types are also capable of
626:
590:
527:
460:
350:
306:
190:
3529:
Federal
Standard 1037C – Telecommunications: Glossary of Telecommunication Terms
1354:, have integrated batteries that maintain volatile storage for several minutes.
5200:
5064:
4816:
4717:
4487:
4470:
4381:
4362:
4203:"This speck of DNA contains a movie, a computer virus, and an Amazon gift card"
3956:
3161:
3075:
3058:
2974:
2962:
2847:
2825:
2696:
2672:
2193:
2061:
1951:
1897:
1725:
1705:
1484:
1466:
1336:
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940:
871:
671:
659:
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as primary storage. By 1954, those unreliable methods were mostly replaced by
102:
5219:
5185:
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4918:
4908:
4888:
4704:
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3532:(Technical report). General Services Administration. FS-1037C. Archived from
3093:
2949:
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2510:
1992:
1963:
1903:
1824:
1797:
1777:
1739:
1479:
1422:
1351:
906:
852:
700:
563:
410:
364:
198:
4395:
4313:
4054:
3662:
3324:
2996:, and for high-capacity archives in imaging, medical, and video industries.
2796:
store magnetic information, which can be modified by low-light illumination.
2502:
and is slow write, fast read storage used for tertiary and off-line storage.
1404:
Retains the information stored at the time of manufacture. Examples include
5123:
4794:
4682:
4665:
4660:
4438:
4321:
4124:
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3191:
3141:
3119:
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2622:
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2422:
2284:
2278:
2234:
2007:
1996:
1828:
1608:
1567:
The time it takes to access a particular location in storage. The relevant
1443:
when compared to hard disk drives, as no mechanical parts need to be moved.
1432:
1076:
1071:
916:
829:
598:
468:
464:
447:
consists of storage devices and their media not directly accessible by the
406:
402:
206:
172:
168:
137:
113:
hard disk drive (HDD) from 1999. When connected to a computer it serves as
110:
72:
4033:"Comparing SSD and HDD - A comprehensive comparison of the storage drives"
3848:
3731:
1294:
Mid-term archival, routine backups, server, workstation storage expansion
5190:
4893:
4861:
4764:
4724:
4687:
4655:
4497:
4073:"Optically switched magnetism in photovoltaic perovskite CH3NH3(Mn:Pb)I3"
3124:
3053:
3033:
2700:
2426:
2049:
2045:
2013:
1957:
1909:
1854:
1640:
1576:
1472:
848:
817:
793:
789:
658:. The CPU firstly sends a number through an address bus, a number called
651:
567:
389:
368:
4106:
2521:, slow write, fast read storage used for tertiary and off-line storage.
2492:: Slow write, fast read storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage;
2086:
506:. Meanwhile, slower persistent storage devices have been referred to as
4625:
4555:
4550:
4540:
3186:
3146:
2807:
2657:
2610:
1690:
1620:
1572:
1207:
1044:
851:
format, which provides the abstraction necessary to organize data into
825:
797:
594:
393:
Various forms of storage, divided according to their distance from the
338:
310:
238:
machines differ in having a memory in which they store their operating
227:
5102:
5020:
4903:
4898:
4882:
4811:
4650:
4502:
4465:
3302:
3201:
2399:
2290:
2272:
2217:
1674:
1516:
1298:
1202:
833:
747:
602:
372:
342:
4233:"Researchers store computer operating system and short movie on DNA"
2897:
A secondary or tertiary storage may connect to a computer utilizing
5159:
4841:
4492:
4427:
4289:
4089:
3782:
2986:
2982:
2939:
2931:
2909:
2364:
2314:
2223:
2068:
1945:
1592:
1541:
1508:
1007:
951:
860:
655:
417:
Generally, the lower a storage is in the hierarchy, the lesser its
291:
259:
164:
126:
107:
91:
83:
78:
4290:"DNA Fountain enables a robust and efficient storage architecture"
3351:"Documentation for /proc/sys/vm/ — The Linux Kernel documentation"
3087:
1678:
S.M.A.R.T. software warning suggests impending hard drive failure.
727:
in some uses refer to what was historically called, respectively,
690:
the computer, that is, to read a larger program from non-volatile
619:
of data (often 32 or 64 bits). CPU instructions instruct the
615:
are located inside the processor. Each register typically holds a
574:. Core memory remained dominant until the 1970s, when advances in
121:
4675:
4613:
4567:
3297:
Computer organization and design: The hardware/software interface
2785:
2763:
2665:
2640:
2587:
2583:
2485:
2481:
2370:
2205:
2126:
1041:
349:(CRC) method is typically used in communications and storage for
298:
3732:
Karen
Scarfone; Murugiah Souppaya; Matt Sexton (November 2007).
1724:
is estimable using S.M.A.R.T. diagnostic data that includes the
1657:
volume and virtual disk encryption, andor file/folder encryption
175:. It is a core function and fundamental component of computers.
5113:
5108:
4789:
4562:
3734:"Guide to storage encryption technologies for end user devices"
2993:
2477:
2463:
2449:
2441:
2338:
2308:
2302:
2211:
2199:
1836:
1793:
1728:
and the count of spin-ups, though its reliability is disputed.
1713:
1616:
1580:
1409:
743:
397:. The fundamental components of a general-purpose computer are
333:
326:
4989:
3522:
1823:(DRAM). Since the turn of the century, a type of non-volatile
1784:(IC) chips to store information. Data are typically stored in
1716:. The minor errors are correctable and within a healthy range.
290:, about 1250 pages in print, can be stored in about five
5169:
5118:
5043:
4051:"The DVD FAQ - A comprehensive reference of DVD technologies"
3579:"How much of the [re]drive is actually eco-friendly?"
2593:
2489:
2473:
2470:: Write once storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage;
2459:
2376:
2255:
1663:
1374:
1099:
318:
87:
4139:"A paper-based backup solution (not as stupid as it sounds)"
4866:
4760:
3805:"Introduction to SPARC M7 and silicon secured memory (SSM)"
2860:
2829:
2467:
2455:
2249:
2243:
1537:
1483:
of variable length, and a particular file is selected with
1395:
683:
440:
322:
275:
263:
1689:
Vulnerabilities that can instantly lead to total loss are
638:
being smallest, fastest and located inside the processor;
4846:
4670:
2445:
2184:
1999:
coated surface to store information. Magnetic storage is
1533:
1378:
1047:
809:
448:
271:
4009:"Comparing SSD and HDD endurance in the age of QLC SSDs"
3396:
The
Essentials of Computer Organization and Architecture
2074:
Magnetic tape was then often used for secondary storage.
4360:
2437:
2040:
In early computers, magnetic storage was also used as:
805:
253:
3953:"MacBook Air – The best of iPad meets the best of Mac"
2509:
is optical disc storage where the magnetic state on a
2429:
and observing the reflection. Optical disc storage is
4263:"DNA could store all of the world's data in one room"
3927:"Mac Pro – Storage and RAID options for your Mac Pro"
3897:"Toshiba tosses hat into notebook flash storage ring"
3867:"New Samsung notebook replaces hard drive with flash"
280:
the binary representation of the piece of information
3000:
is a most known archiving strategy of automatically
2678:
2071:) or off line storage in the form of magnetic cards;
847:
Secondary storage is often formatted according to a
650:. It is actually two buses (not on the diagram): an
294:(40 million bits) with one byte per character.
3831:"What S.M.A.R.T. hard disk errors actually tell us"
792:per byte for HDDs or SSDs is typically measured in
152:
Read/Write DVD drive with cradle for media extended
3426:Algorithms and data structures for external memory
3294:
788:(SSDs) are usually used as secondary storage. The
3739:. National Institute of Standards and Technology.
3292:
5217:
1669:
1623:can be used to measure IO performance in Linux.
971:Online storage is immediately available for I/O.
313:object. Many standards exist for encoding (e.g.
205:, where the CPU consists of two main parts: The
4288:Erlich, Yaniv; Zielinski, Dina (2 March 2017).
4287:
4066:
4064:
3293:Patterson, David A.; Hennessy, John L. (2005).
3088:Secondary, tertiary and off-line storage topics
2912:was coined recently, together with NAS and SAN.
1659:is readily available for most storage devices.
1240:Indicated by downward spikes in transfer rates
3708:
3706:
467:drives, and other devices slower than RAM but
409:devices. Technology and capacity as in common
4975:
4944:History of computing hardware (1960s–present)
4425:
4411:
3715:"SSD, i-RAM and traditional hard disk drives"
3712:
3157:Noise-predictive maximum-likelihood detection
2553:
2102:
1870:
1031:
27:Storage of digital data readable by computers
4061:
3419:
2567:
3783:"A proposed API for full-memory encryption"
3703:
3288:
3286:
3284:
3207:
1643:, may also consume a large amount of power.
4982:
4968:
4418:
4404:
3661:. 12 July 2006. p. 13. Archived from
3655:"Super Talent's 2.5" IDE flash hard drive"
3602:"IS the Silent PC Future 2.5-inches wide?"
3498:IBM developer-works, inside system storage
3485:
2560:
2546:
2109:
2095:
1884:
1877:
1863:
478:has, depending on technology, been called
4380:
4114:
4088:
3626:
3599:
3016:
2116:
2030:, used for tertiary and off-line storage;
4151:
3281:
1843:manufacturers started using flash-based
1704:
1673:
1035:
910:
471:(retaining contents when powered down).
388:
147:
120:
101:
77:
71:For broader coverage of this topic, see
4070:
3491:
3399:. Jones & Bartlett Learning. 2006.
2892:
2814:
1491:of a computer provides the file system
1304:Portable electronics; operating system
605:for temporary high-speed data storage.
378:
14:
5218:
3473:from the original on 27 September 2007
2934:. NAS is commonly associated with the
707:Many types of "ROM" are not literally
4963:
4399:
3929:. Apple. 27 July 2006. Archived from
3635:from the original on 5 September 2008
2541:
2090:
1858:
1363:Read/write storage or mutable storage
1019:. Off-line storage increases general
443:(dynamic RAM) or other such devices.
4990:
4949:List of pioneers in computer science
4071:Náfrádi, Bálint (24 November 2016).
4021:from the original on 9 October 2022.
3807:. swisdev.oracle.com. Archived from
3449:from the original on 4 January 2011.
2856:Redundant array of independent disks
2762:stores information optically inside
2743:uses different mechanical phases of
761:
682:containing a small startup program (
666:using the data bus. Additionally, a
582:to become economically competitive.
353:. A detected error is then retried.
254:Data organization and representation
136:storage. When used within a robotic
29:
3763:from the original on 9 October 2022
992:
896:
301:by assigning a bit pattern to each
24:
4361:Goda, K.; Kitsuregawa, M. (2012).
4354:
4265:. Science Magazine. 2 March 2017.
4152:Sterling, Bruce (16 August 2012).
3985:. 15 November 2010. Archived from
3494:"Correct use of the term nearline"
2956:
2880:saves storage, when compared with
1744:measuring correctable minor errors
1700:
1666:M7 generation since October 2015.
1174:Lack of random access (very slow)
961:Tertiary storage is also known as
521:
25:
5242:
4269:from the original on 2 March 2017
4243:from the original on 2 March 2017
4213:from the original on 3 March 2017
3608:from the original on 20 July 2008
2679:Other storage media or substrates
2498:or UDO is similar in capacity to
1456:
893:, are usually block-addressable.
881:The secondary storage, including
642:being somewhat larger and slower.
234:, and other specialized devices.
189:Even the first computer designs,
4363:"The history of storage systems"
4344:"Disaster Recovery on AWS Cloud"
4200:
3255: This article incorporates
3250:
3116:used for capturing research data
1762:
1753:
1695:failure of electronic components
1416:
1286:Moderate (but expensive drives)
1266:Very low (but expensive drives)
220:
34:
4336:
4281:
4255:
4225:
4194:
4164:
4145:
4131:
4043:
4025:
4001:
3971:
3945:
3919:
3889:
3859:
3841:
3823:
3797:
3775:
3743:
3725:
3713:Aleksey Meyev (23 April 2008).
3677:
3647:
3627:Mike Chin (18 September 2002).
3620:
3593:
3571:
3553:
3516:
3268:General Services Administration
2998:Hierarchical storage management
2965:, and in optical storage field
738:The primary storage, including
547:), often referred to simply as
4178:. 1 March 2009. Archived from
3524:National Communications System
3461:"A thesis on tertiary storage"
3453:
3413:
3387:
3357:
3343:
3331:
3231:
1827:semiconductor memory known as
1693:on mechanical hard drives and
1556:
432:is usually fast but temporary
367:, certain types of data (e.g.
163:is a technology consisting of
132:tape cartridge, an example of
13:
1:
4991:Primary computer data storage
4939:History of computing hardware
3873:. 23 May 2006. Archived from
3849:"QPxTool - check the quality"
3244:
2819:
2044:Primary storage in a form of
2022:, used for secondary storage.
1670:Vulnerability and reliability
1626:
1392:programmable read-only memory
1370:Slow write, fast read storage
1357:
1339:, otherwise it would vanish.
1316:
288:complete works of Shakespeare
4807:Network interface controller
3717:. X-bit labs. Archived from
3369:searchstorage.techtarget.com
3044:Memory cell (disambiguation)
3028:Dynamic random-access memory
2992:Robotic storage is used for
2507:Magneto-optical disc storage
2016:, used for off-line storage;
1821:dynamic random-access memory
1794:MOS field-effect transistors
1477:Information is divided into
1348:uninterruptible power supply
1333:Dynamic random-access memory
680:non-volatile primary storage
634:setup is also commonly used—
516:auxiliary/peripheral storage
7:
4604:Refreshable braille display
4546:Refreshable braille display
3561:"Energy savings calculator"
3081:Static random-access memory
3011:
2656:, typically in the form of
1991:uses different patterns of
1850:
1684:predictive failure analysis
1647:
1579:for secondary storage, and
1523:
1505:Content-addressable storage
1341:Static random-access memory
421:and the greater its access
325:, and video encodings like
43:It has been suggested that
10:
5247:
4382:10.1109/JPROC.2012.2189787
3600:Mike Chin (8 March 2004).
3307:Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
3023:Aperture (computer memory)
2833:
2823:
2806:stores information in DNA
2772:Holographic Versatile Disc
2082:
1766:
1032:Characteristics of storage
900:
525:
382:
70:
60:Proposed since April 2024.
5178:
5142:
5091:
5082:
5052:
5036:
5007:
4998:
4931:
4875:
4834:
4825:
4703:
4639:
4582:
4511:
4446:
4437:
4392:, Computer history museum
3629:"Recommended hard drives"
2603:
2576:
2386:
2350:Magneto-optic Kerr effect
2348:
2265:
2233:
2183:
2163:
2125:
1893:
1786:metal–oxide–semiconductor
1507:can be implemented using
1214:
1104:
399:arithmetic and logic unit
371:information) may be kept
232:digital signal processors
4154:"PaperBack paper backup"
3224:
3219:Storage World Conference
3214:Storage Networking World
3208:Data storage conferences
2916:Network-attached storage
2793:Magnetic photoconductors
2758:Holographic data storage
2635:Optical mark recognition
2533:
2527:has also been proposed.
1750:support error scanning.
203:Von Neumann architecture
171:that are used to retain
4713:Central processing unit
4368:Proceedings of the IEEE
4314:10.1126/science.aaj2038
3955:. Apple. Archived from
2906:Direct-attached storage
2718:in a substance such as
2708:Electro-acoustic memory
2525:3D optical data storage
1733:flash memory controller
1040:A 1 GiB module of
859:, while also providing
428:In contemporary usage,
395:central processing unit
347:cyclic redundancy check
321:, image encodings like
180:central processing unit
3853:qpxtool.sourceforge.io
3756:. software.intel.com.
3548:Federal standard 1037C
3492:Pearson, Tony (2010).
3263:Federal Standard 1037C
3257:public domain material
3162:Object(-based) storage
3152:Information repository
3017:Primary storage topics
2784:stores information in
1717:
1710:Error rate measurement
1679:
1548:Memory storage density
1511:(computer program) or
1429:semiconductor memories
1236:Error rate measurement
1201:Failure with imminent
1050:
920:
668:memory management unit
414:
153:
145:
140:, it is classified as
118:
99:
5231:Computer architecture
5226:Computer data storage
4077:Nature Communications
4037:www.stellarinfo.co.in
4014:. Micron technology.
3071:Page address register
2749:electrical resistance
2745:phase-change material
2496:Ultra Density Optical
1810:floating-gate MOSFETs
1742:can be determined by
1735:attempts to correct.
1720:Impending failure on
1708:
1677:
1575:for primary storage,
1243:(Short-term storage)
1039:
914:
780:In modern computers,
621:arithmetic logic unit
405:, storage space, and
392:
268:binary numeral system
211:arithmetic logic unit
157:Computer data storage
151:
124:
105:
81:
5196:Magnetic-core memory
4390:Memory & storage
3721:on 18 December 2008.
3567:on 21 December 2008.
3375:on 10 September 2008
3182:Virtual tape library
3130:List of file formats
3099:Hybrid cloud storage
2946:Storage area network
2926:, or in the case of
2893:Network connectivity
2815:Related technologies
1819:(RAM), particularly
1817:random-access memory
1774:Semiconductor memory
1769:Semiconductor memory
1653:Full disk encryption
1462:Location-addressable
1388:Write once read many
1297:Long-term archival,
1082:Random-access memory
1021:information security
1012:transfer information
841:disk read/write head
587:random-access memory
580:semiconductor memory
572:magnetic-core memory
379:Hierarchy of storage
341:(e.g. due to random
161:digital data storage
53:into this article. (
5084:Non-volatile memory
4306:2017Sci...355..950E
4107:10.1038/ncomms13406
4099:2016NatCo...713406N
3983:news.inventhelp.com
3877:on 30 December 2010
3691:. 20 September 2006
3504:on 24 November 2015
3274:on 22 January 2022.
2928:online file storage
2836:Storage replication
2739:Phase-change memory
1569:unit of measurement
1499:Content-addressable
1322:Non-volatile memory
1310:Long-term archival
1165:~150 ms (moderate)
1059:
1010:storage is used to
870:use the concept of
613:Processor registers
585:This led to modern
578:technology allowed
315:character encodings
286:. For example, the
46:Non-volatile memory
4057:on 22 August 2009.
3811:on 21 January 2019
3751:"Encryption specs"
3665:on 26 January 2012
3109:Data proliferation
3104:Data deduplication
2920:local area network
2868:). RAID groups of
2684:Vacuum-tube memory
2654:Paper data storage
2569:Paper data storage
1845:solid-state drives
1835:As early as 2006,
1782:integrated circuit
1726:hours of operation
1718:
1697:on flash storage.
1680:
1637:solid-state drives
1615:Utilities such as
1384:Write once storage
1057:
1051:
921:
786:solid-state drives
632:hierarchical cache
576:integrated circuit
415:
215:logical operations
154:
146:
119:
100:
5213:
5212:
5209:
5208:
5078:
5077:
5060:Delay-line memory
4957:
4956:
4927:
4926:
4857:Analog audio jack
4578:
4577:
4346:. 18 August 2023.
4300:(6328): 950–954.
4141:. 14 August 2012.
3989:on 23 August 2011
3901:technewsworld.com
3837:. 6 October 2016.
3589:on 5 August 2008.
3546:See also article
3526:(7 August 1996).
3439:978-1-60198-106-6
3406:978-0-7637-3769-6
3172:Solid-state drive
3135:Global filesystem
3066:Memory protection
3049:Memory management
2967:optical jukeboxes
2924:wide area network
2899:computer networks
2712:Delay-line memory
2650:
2649:
2629:Edge-notched card
2519:sequential access
2415:
2414:
2165:Professional Disc
2036:(magnetic rolls).
1985:
1984:
1796:(MOSFETs) and/or
1447:Sequential access
1401:Read only storage
1314:
1313:
1291:Main application
1017:disaster recovery
945:optical jukeboxes
868:operating systems
804:devices, such as
775:auxiliary storage
767:Secondary storage
762:Secondary storage
729:secondary storage
725:secondary storage
508:secondary storage
437:read-write memory
403:control circuitry
195:Analytical Engine
184:storage hierarchy
67:
66:
62:
16:(Redirected from
5238:
5089:
5088:
5005:
5004:
4984:
4977:
4970:
4961:
4960:
4832:
4831:
4483:Optical trackpad
4448:Pointing devices
4444:
4443:
4420:
4413:
4406:
4397:
4396:
4386:
4384:
4348:
4347:
4340:
4334:
4333:
4285:
4279:
4278:
4276:
4274:
4259:
4253:
4252:
4250:
4248:
4229:
4223:
4222:
4220:
4218:
4198:
4192:
4191:
4189:
4187:
4176:sciencedaily.com
4168:
4162:
4161:
4149:
4143:
4142:
4135:
4129:
4128:
4118:
4092:
4068:
4059:
4058:
4053:. Archived from
4047:
4041:
4040:
4029:
4023:
4022:
4020:
4013:
4005:
3999:
3998:
3996:
3994:
3975:
3969:
3968:
3966:
3964:
3949:
3943:
3942:
3940:
3938:
3923:
3917:
3916:
3914:
3912:
3907:on 18 March 2012
3903:. Archived from
3893:
3887:
3886:
3884:
3882:
3863:
3857:
3856:
3845:
3839:
3838:
3827:
3821:
3820:
3818:
3816:
3801:
3795:
3794:
3792:
3790:
3779:
3773:
3772:
3770:
3768:
3762:
3755:
3747:
3741:
3740:
3738:
3729:
3723:
3722:
3710:
3701:
3700:
3698:
3696:
3689:tomshardware.com
3681:
3675:
3674:
3672:
3670:
3651:
3645:
3644:
3642:
3640:
3624:
3618:
3617:
3615:
3613:
3597:
3591:
3590:
3585:. Archived from
3575:
3569:
3568:
3563:. Archived from
3557:
3551:
3545:
3543:
3541:
3520:
3514:
3513:
3511:
3509:
3500:. Archived from
3489:
3483:
3482:
3480:
3478:
3472:
3465:
3457:
3451:
3450:
3448:
3431:
3417:
3411:
3410:
3391:
3385:
3384:
3382:
3380:
3371:. Archived from
3361:
3355:
3354:
3347:
3341:
3335:
3329:
3328:
3301:(3rd ed.).
3300:
3290:
3276:
3275:
3270:. Archived from
3254:
3253:
3238:
3235:
3197:Write protection
3114:Data storage tag
2780:Molecular memory
2693:cathode-ray tube
2562:
2555:
2548:
2539:
2538:
2111:
2104:
2097:
2088:
2087:
2058:thin-film memory
2054:core rope memory
1989:Magnetic storage
1886:Magnetic storage
1879:
1872:
1865:
1856:
1855:
1841:desktop computer
1722:hard disk drives
1489:operating system
1473:File addressable
1437:hard disk drives
1251:Price per space
1225:Error detection
1087:Linear tape-open
1060:
1056:
998:Off-line storage
993:Off-line storage
964:nearline storage
924:Tertiary storage
903:Nearline storage
897:Tertiary storage
814:USB flash drives
782:hard disk drives
756:byte-addressable
733:tertiary storage
713:embedded systems
696:read-only memory
674:or other tasks.
461:hard disk drives
457:tertiary storage
385:Memory hierarchy
365:security reasons
357:Data compression
260:digital computer
144:storage instead.
94:. An example of
58:
38:
37:
30:
21:
18:Computer storage
5246:
5245:
5241:
5240:
5239:
5237:
5236:
5235:
5216:
5215:
5214:
5205:
5174:
5138:
5074:
5048:
5032:
5000:Volatile memory
4994:
4988:
4958:
4953:
4923:
4871:
4821:
4699:
4693:USB flash drive
4642:
4635:
4574:
4507:
4461:Game controller
4456:Graphics tablet
4433:
4424:
4357:
4355:Further reading
4352:
4351:
4342:
4341:
4337:
4286:
4282:
4272:
4270:
4261:
4260:
4256:
4246:
4244:
4231:
4230:
4226:
4216:
4214:
4199:
4195:
4185:
4183:
4182:on 1 March 2009
4170:
4169:
4165:
4150:
4146:
4137:
4136:
4132:
4069:
4062:
4049:
4048:
4044:
4031:
4030:
4026:
4018:
4011:
4007:
4006:
4002:
3992:
3990:
3977:
3976:
3972:
3962:
3960:
3951:
3950:
3946:
3936:
3934:
3925:
3924:
3920:
3910:
3908:
3895:
3894:
3890:
3880:
3878:
3865:
3864:
3860:
3847:
3846:
3842:
3829:
3828:
3824:
3814:
3812:
3803:
3802:
3798:
3788:
3786:
3781:
3780:
3776:
3766:
3764:
3760:
3753:
3749:
3748:
3744:
3736:
3730:
3726:
3711:
3704:
3694:
3692:
3683:
3682:
3678:
3668:
3666:
3659:The tech report
3653:
3652:
3648:
3638:
3636:
3625:
3621:
3611:
3609:
3598:
3594:
3577:
3576:
3572:
3559:
3558:
3554:
3539:
3537:
3536:on 2 March 2009
3521:
3517:
3507:
3505:
3490:
3486:
3476:
3474:
3470:
3463:
3459:
3458:
3454:
3446:
3440:
3429:
3418:
3414:
3407:
3393:
3392:
3388:
3378:
3376:
3363:
3362:
3358:
3349:
3348:
3344:
3336:
3332:
3317:
3291:
3282:
3260:
3251:
3249:
3247:
3242:
3241:
3236:
3232:
3227:
3210:
3167:Removable media
3090:
3019:
3014:
2959:
2957:Robotic storage
2895:
2838:
2832:
2824:Main articles:
2822:
2817:
2681:
2651:
2646:
2599:
2572:
2566:
2536:
2419:Optical storage
2416:
2411:
2394:Laser turntable
2382:
2344:
2261:
2229:
2179:
2159:
2121:
2118:Optical storage
2115:
2085:
2067:Tertiary (e.g.
2046:magnetic memory
2034:Carousel memory
2020:Hard disk drive
1986:
1981:
1889:
1883:
1853:
1771:
1765:
1756:
1703:
1701:Error detection
1672:
1650:
1629:
1559:
1526:
1459:
1419:
1360:
1326:Volatile memory
1319:
1271:Price per unit
1171:None (instant)
1168:None (instant)
1067:Hard disk drive
1063:Characteristic
1034:
1002:processing unit
995:
928:tertiary memory
909:
899:
802:optical storage
771:external memory
769:(also known as
764:
721:primary storage
640:secondary cache
627:Processor cache
556:early computers
541:internal memory
535:(also known as
533:Primary storage
530:
528:Computer memory
524:
522:Primary storage
512:external memory
504:internal memory
387:
381:
351:error detection
256:
223:
191:Charles Babbage
169:recording media
167:components and
96:primary storage
76:
63:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5244:
5234:
5233:
5228:
5211:
5210:
5207:
5206:
5204:
5203:
5201:Twistor memory
5198:
5193:
5188:
5182:
5180:
5176:
5175:
5173:
5172:
5167:
5162:
5157:
5152:
5146:
5144:
5140:
5139:
5137:
5136:
5131:
5126:
5121:
5116:
5111:
5106:
5095:
5093:
5086:
5080:
5079:
5076:
5075:
5073:
5072:
5067:
5065:Selectron tube
5062:
5056:
5054:
5050:
5049:
5047:
5046:
5040:
5038:
5034:
5033:
5031:
5030:
5025:
5024:
5023:
5011:
5009:
5002:
4996:
4995:
4987:
4986:
4979:
4972:
4964:
4955:
4954:
4952:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4935:
4933:
4929:
4928:
4925:
4924:
4922:
4921:
4916:
4911:
4906:
4901:
4896:
4891:
4886:
4879:
4877:
4873:
4872:
4870:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4838:
4836:
4829:
4823:
4822:
4820:
4819:
4817:Expansion card
4814:
4809:
4804:
4803:
4802:
4797:
4787:
4786:
4785:
4775:
4774:
4773:
4768:
4754:
4744:
4743:
4742:
4737:
4727:
4722:
4721:
4720:
4718:Microprocessor
4709:
4707:
4701:
4700:
4698:
4697:
4696:
4695:
4690:
4680:
4679:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4658:
4653:
4647:
4645:
4637:
4636:
4634:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4617:
4616:
4606:
4601:
4600:
4599:
4588:
4586:
4584:Output devices
4580:
4579:
4576:
4575:
4573:
4572:
4571:
4570:
4560:
4559:
4558:
4548:
4543:
4538:
4537:
4536:
4526:
4521:
4515:
4513:
4509:
4508:
4506:
4505:
4500:
4495:
4490:
4488:Pointing stick
4485:
4480:
4479:
4478:
4468:
4463:
4458:
4452:
4450:
4441:
4435:
4434:
4423:
4422:
4415:
4408:
4400:
4394:
4393:
4387:
4356:
4353:
4350:
4349:
4335:
4280:
4254:
4224:
4193:
4163:
4144:
4130:
4060:
4042:
4024:
4000:
3970:
3959:on 27 May 2013
3944:
3933:on 6 June 2013
3918:
3888:
3858:
3840:
3822:
3796:
3774:
3742:
3724:
3702:
3676:
3646:
3619:
3592:
3570:
3552:
3515:
3484:
3452:
3438:
3412:
3405:
3386:
3356:
3342:
3330:
3315:
3279:
3278:
3246:
3243:
3240:
3239:
3229:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3222:
3221:
3216:
3209:
3206:
3205:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3138:
3137:
3132:
3122:
3117:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3089:
3086:
3085:
3084:
3078:
3076:Stable storage
3073:
3068:
3063:
3062:
3061:
3059:Virtual memory
3056:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3034:Memory latency
3031:
3025:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:back to disk.
2963:tape libraries
2958:
2955:
2954:
2953:
2943:
2913:
2894:
2891:
2886:
2885:
2853:
2826:Disk mirroring
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2812:
2811:
2804:
2798:
2797:
2794:
2790:
2789:
2782:
2776:
2775:
2760:
2754:
2753:
2741:
2735:
2734:
2730:
2724:
2723:
2709:
2705:
2704:
2697:Selectron tube
2685:
2680:
2677:
2673:matrix barcode
2648:
2647:
2645:
2644:
2638:
2632:
2626:
2620:
2614:
2607:
2605:
2601:
2600:
2598:
2597:
2591:
2580:
2578:
2574:
2573:
2565:
2564:
2557:
2550:
2542:
2535:
2532:
2504:
2503:
2493:
2471:
2453:
2421:, the typical
2413:
2412:
2410:
2409:
2403:
2397:
2390:
2388:
2387:Optical Assist
2384:
2383:
2381:
2380:
2374:
2368:
2362:
2355:
2353:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2342:
2336:
2330:
2324:
2318:
2312:
2306:
2300:
2294:
2288:
2287:(20th century)
2282:
2281:(20th century)
2276:
2269:
2267:
2263:
2262:
2260:
2259:
2253:
2247:
2240:
2238:
2231:
2230:
2228:
2227:
2221:
2215:
2209:
2203:
2197:
2190:
2188:
2181:
2180:
2178:
2177:
2170:
2168:
2161:
2160:
2158:
2157:
2151:
2145:
2139:
2132:
2130:
2123:
2122:
2114:
2113:
2106:
2099:
2091:
2084:
2081:
2076:
2075:
2072:
2065:
2062:twistor memory
2038:
2037:
2031:
2025:
2024:
2023:
2017:
1983:
1982:
1980:
1979:
1973:
1967:
1961:
1955:
1949:
1943:
1937:
1931:
1925:
1919:
1913:
1907:
1901:
1894:
1891:
1890:
1882:
1881:
1874:
1867:
1859:
1852:
1849:
1798:MOS capacitors
1767:Main article:
1764:
1761:
1755:
1752:
1748:optical drives
1738:The health of
1702:
1699:
1671:
1668:
1649:
1646:
1645:
1644:
1633:
1628:
1625:
1613:
1612:
1605:
1602:
1599:
1596:
1589:
1584:
1565:
1558:
1555:
1554:
1553:
1550:
1545:
1530:
1525:
1522:
1521:
1520:
1501:
1496:
1485:human-readable
1475:
1470:
1467:memory address
1463:
1458:
1457:Addressability
1455:
1454:
1453:
1449:
1444:
1433:flash memories
1425:
1418:
1415:
1414:
1413:
1402:
1399:
1385:
1382:
1371:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1356:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1311:
1308:
1305:
1302:
1295:
1292:
1288:
1287:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1272:
1268:
1267:
1264:
1261:
1258:
1255:
1252:
1248:
1247:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1233:
1226:
1222:
1221:
1218:
1213:
1210:
1205:
1198:
1197:
1194:
1191:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1176:
1175:
1172:
1169:
1166:
1163:
1157:
1156:(access time)
1150:
1149:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1133:Random access
1130:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1114:
1110:
1109:
1108:Magnetic tape
1106:
1105:Semiconductor
1103:
1097:
1096:Magnetic disk
1094:
1090:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1033:
1030:
994:
991:
987:tape libraries
979:
978:
975:
972:
941:tape libraries
898:
895:
872:virtual memory
866:Most computer
763:
760:
754:, are usually
672:virtual memory
660:memory address
644:
643:
624:
568:magnetic drums
566:, or rotating
564:Williams tubes
554:Historically,
526:Main article:
523:
520:
480:central memory
474:Historically,
411:home computers
383:Main article:
380:
377:
255:
252:
222:
219:
65:
64:
42:
40:
33:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5243:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5224:
5223:
5221:
5202:
5199:
5197:
5194:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5186:Bubble memory
5184:
5183:
5181:
5177:
5171:
5168:
5166:
5163:
5161:
5158:
5156:
5153:
5151:
5148:
5147:
5145:
5141:
5135:
5132:
5130:
5127:
5125:
5122:
5120:
5117:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5104:
5100:
5097:
5096:
5094:
5090:
5087:
5085:
5081:
5071:
5070:Williams tube
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5057:
5055:
5051:
5045:
5042:
5041:
5039:
5035:
5029:
5026:
5022:
5018:
5017:
5016:
5013:
5012:
5010:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4997:
4992:
4985:
4980:
4978:
4973:
4971:
4966:
4965:
4962:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4936:
4934:
4930:
4920:
4917:
4915:
4912:
4910:
4907:
4905:
4902:
4900:
4897:
4895:
4892:
4890:
4889:Parallel port
4887:
4884:
4881:
4880:
4878:
4874:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4839:
4837:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4824:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4792:
4791:
4788:
4784:
4781:
4780:
4779:
4776:
4772:
4769:
4766:
4762:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4750:
4749:
4748:
4745:
4741:
4738:
4736:
4733:
4732:
4731:
4728:
4726:
4723:
4719:
4716:
4715:
4714:
4711:
4710:
4708:
4706:
4705:Computer case
4702:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4685:
4684:
4681:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4663:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4648:
4646:
4644:
4638:
4632:
4631:Graphics card
4629:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4615:
4612:
4611:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4598:
4595:
4594:
4593:
4590:
4589:
4587:
4585:
4581:
4569:
4566:
4565:
4564:
4561:
4557:
4554:
4553:
4552:
4549:
4547:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4535:
4532:
4531:
4530:
4529:Graphics card
4527:
4525:
4524:Image scanner
4522:
4520:
4517:
4516:
4514:
4510:
4504:
4501:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4477:
4474:
4473:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4453:
4451:
4449:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4439:Input devices
4436:
4432:
4429:
4421:
4416:
4414:
4409:
4407:
4402:
4401:
4398:
4391:
4388:
4383:
4378:
4375:: 1433–1440.
4374:
4370:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4358:
4345:
4339:
4331:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4311:
4307:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4284:
4268:
4264:
4258:
4242:
4238:
4234:
4228:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4197:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4167:
4159:
4155:
4148:
4140:
4134:
4126:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4108:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4091:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4067:
4065:
4056:
4052:
4046:
4038:
4034:
4028:
4017:
4010:
4004:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3974:
3958:
3954:
3948:
3932:
3928:
3922:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3892:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3862:
3854:
3850:
3844:
3836:
3832:
3826:
3810:
3806:
3800:
3784:
3778:
3759:
3752:
3746:
3735:
3728:
3720:
3716:
3709:
3707:
3690:
3686:
3680:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3650:
3634:
3630:
3623:
3607:
3603:
3596:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3574:
3566:
3562:
3556:
3549:
3535:
3531:
3530:
3525:
3519:
3503:
3499:
3495:
3488:
3469:
3462:
3456:
3445:
3441:
3435:
3428:
3427:
3422:
3416:
3408:
3402:
3398:
3397:
3390:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3360:
3352:
3346:
3339:
3334:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3316:1-55860-604-1
3312:
3308:
3304:
3299:
3298:
3289:
3287:
3285:
3280:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3264:
3258:
3234:
3230:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3211:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3127:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3094:Cloud storage
3092:
3091:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3051:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3020:
3009:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2990:
2988:
2984:
2978:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2951:
2950:Fibre Channel
2947:
2944:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2914:
2911:
2907:
2904:
2903:
2902:
2900:
2890:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2862:
2857:
2854:
2851:
2850:(replication)
2849:
2844:
2843:
2842:
2837:
2831:
2827:
2809:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2799:
2795:
2792:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2768:photopolymers
2765:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2755:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2736:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2710:
2707:
2706:
2702:
2699:used a large
2698:
2694:
2690:
2689:Williams tube
2686:
2683:
2682:
2676:
2674:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2662:punched cards
2659:
2655:
2642:
2639:
2636:
2633:
2630:
2627:
2624:
2621:
2618:
2615:
2612:
2609:
2608:
2606:
2602:
2595:
2592:
2590:(c. 3000 BCE)
2589:
2585:
2582:
2581:
2579:
2575:
2570:
2563:
2558:
2556:
2551:
2549:
2544:
2543:
2540:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2522:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2511:ferromagnetic
2508:
2501:
2500:BD-R or BD-RE
2497:
2494:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2472:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2454:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2436:
2435:
2434:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2407:
2404:
2401:
2398:
2395:
2392:
2391:
2389:
2385:
2378:
2375:
2372:
2369:
2366:
2363:
2360:
2357:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2347:
2340:
2337:
2334:
2331:
2328:
2325:
2322:
2319:
2316:
2313:
2310:
2307:
2304:
2301:
2298:
2295:
2292:
2289:
2286:
2283:
2280:
2277:
2274:
2271:
2270:
2268:
2264:
2257:
2254:
2251:
2248:
2245:
2242:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2232:
2225:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2210:
2207:
2204:
2201:
2198:
2195:
2192:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2182:
2175:
2172:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2162:
2155:
2152:
2149:
2146:
2143:
2140:
2137:
2134:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2124:
2119:
2112:
2107:
2105:
2100:
2098:
2093:
2092:
2089:
2080:
2073:
2070:
2066:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2042:
2041:
2035:
2032:
2029:
2028:Magnetic tape
2026:
2021:
2018:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2009:
2008:Magnetic disk
2006:
2005:
2004:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1993:magnetization
1990:
1977:
1974:
1971:
1968:
1965:
1962:
1959:
1956:
1953:
1950:
1947:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1935:
1932:
1929:
1926:
1923:
1920:
1917:
1914:
1911:
1908:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1896:
1895:
1892:
1887:
1880:
1875:
1873:
1868:
1866:
1861:
1860:
1857:
1848:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1833:
1830:
1826:
1825:floating-gate
1822:
1818:
1813:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1778:semiconductor
1775:
1770:
1763:Semiconductor
1760:
1754:Storage media
1751:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1740:optical media
1736:
1734:
1729:
1727:
1723:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1698:
1696:
1692:
1691:head crashing
1687:
1685:
1676:
1667:
1665:
1660:
1658:
1654:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1631:
1630:
1624:
1622:
1618:
1610:
1606:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1594:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1571:is typically
1570:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1560:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1528:
1527:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1481:
1476:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1464:
1461:
1460:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1424:
1423:Random access
1421:
1420:
1417:Accessibility
1411:
1407:
1403:
1400:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1386:
1383:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1369:
1365:
1362:
1361:
1355:
1353:
1352:EMC Symmetrix
1349:
1344:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1327:
1323:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1301:distribution
1300:
1296:
1293:
1290:
1289:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1270:
1269:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1250:
1249:
1245:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1231:
1227:
1224:
1223:
1219:
1217:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1200:
1199:
1195:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1178:
1177:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1164:
1161:
1158:
1155:
1152:
1151:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1132:
1131:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1112:
1111:
1107:
1101:
1098:
1095:
1092:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1070:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1061:
1055:
1049:
1046:
1043:
1038:
1029:
1025:
1022:
1018:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1003:
999:
990:
988:
984:
976:
973:
970:
969:
968:
966:
965:
959:
957:
953:
948:
946:
942:
937:
934:(insert) and
933:
929:
925:
918:
913:
908:
907:Cloud storage
904:
894:
892:
888:
884:
879:
877:
873:
869:
864:
862:
858:
854:
850:
845:
842:
837:
835:
831:
830:punched cards
827:
823:
822:magnetic tape
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
778:
776:
772:
768:
759:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
736:
734:
730:
726:
722:
717:
714:
710:
705:
703:
702:
701:random access
697:
693:
689:
686:) is used to
685:
681:
675:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
641:
637:
636:primary cache
633:
628:
625:
622:
618:
614:
611:
610:
609:
606:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
583:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
552:
550:
546:
542:
538:
534:
529:
519:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
477:
472:
470:
466:
462:
459:), typically
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
435:
434:semiconductor
431:
426:
424:
420:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
391:
386:
376:
374:
370:
366:
361:
358:
354:
352:
348:
344:
340:
335:
330:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
295:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
251:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
221:Functionality
218:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
199:Percy Ludgate
196:
192:
187:
185:
181:
176:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
150:
143:
139:
135:
131:
128:
123:
116:
112:
109:
104:
97:
93:
90:mounted in a
89:
85:
80:
74:
69:
61:
56:
52:
48:
47:
41:
32:
31:
19:
5124:Flash memory
4993:technologies
4795:Power MOSFET
4778:Power supply
4747:Data storage
4746:
4683:Flash memory
4661:Optical disc
4643:data storage
4372:
4366:
4338:
4297:
4293:
4283:
4271:. Retrieved
4257:
4245:. Retrieved
4236:
4227:
4215:. Retrieved
4207:The Atlantic
4206:
4196:
4184:. Retrieved
4180:the original
4175:
4166:
4157:
4147:
4133:
4080:
4076:
4055:the original
4045:
4036:
4027:
4003:
3991:. Retrieved
3987:the original
3982:
3973:
3961:. Retrieved
3957:the original
3947:
3935:. Retrieved
3931:the original
3921:
3909:. Retrieved
3905:the original
3900:
3891:
3879:. Retrieved
3875:the original
3871:Extreme tech
3870:
3861:
3852:
3843:
3834:
3825:
3813:. Retrieved
3809:the original
3799:
3787:. Retrieved
3777:
3765:. Retrieved
3745:
3727:
3719:the original
3693:. Retrieved
3688:
3679:
3667:. Retrieved
3663:the original
3658:
3649:
3637:. Retrieved
3622:
3610:. Retrieved
3595:
3587:the original
3582:
3573:
3565:the original
3555:
3538:. Retrieved
3534:the original
3528:
3518:
3506:. Retrieved
3502:the original
3497:
3487:
3475:. Retrieved
3455:
3425:
3421:J. S. Vitter
3415:
3395:
3389:
3377:. Retrieved
3373:the original
3368:
3359:
3345:
3337:
3333:
3296:
3272:the original
3262:
3248:
3233:
3192:Write buffer
3142:Flash memory
3120:Disk utility
3039:Mass storage
3005:
3001:
2991:
2979:
2975:autochangers
2960:
2922:, a private
2896:
2887:
2881:
2877:
2876:are common.
2873:
2869:
2865:
2859:
2855:
2845:
2839:
2752:information.
2728:Optical tape
2670:
2652:
2623:Punched card
2617:Punched tape
2529:
2523:
2518:
2515:non-volatile
2514:
2505:
2431:non-volatile
2430:
2423:optical disc
2417:
2285:Optical disc
2279:Optical tape
2266:Discontinued
2235:Compact disc
2077:
2039:
2001:non-volatile
2000:
1997:magnetically
1987:
1916:Ferrite core
1834:
1829:flash memory
1814:
1806:non-volatile
1805:
1801:
1790:memory cells
1772:
1757:
1737:
1730:
1719:
1688:
1681:
1661:
1651:
1614:
1609:failure rate
1529:Raw capacity
1478:
1406:mask ROM ICs
1345:
1331:
1320:
1228:Diagnostic (
1077:Flash memory
1072:Optical disc
1052:
1026:
1006:
997:
996:
980:
962:
960:
949:
935:
931:
927:
923:
922:
917:tape library
880:
865:
846:
838:
818:floppy disks
794:milliseconds
779:
774:
770:
766:
765:
737:
732:
728:
724:
720:
718:
708:
706:
699:
691:
676:
664:memory cells
647:
645:
639:
635:
607:
599:write buffer
584:
553:
548:
545:prime memory
544:
540:
536:
532:
531:
515:
511:
507:
503:
500:real storage
499:
495:
491:
488:core storage
487:
483:
479:
475:
473:
469:non-volatile
465:optical disc
444:
439:, typically
429:
427:
416:
413:around 2005.
407:input/output
362:
355:
331:
296:
282:, or simply
279:
257:
244:reprogrammed
240:instructions
224:
207:control unit
188:
177:
173:digital data
160:
156:
155:
141:
138:tape library
133:
114:
95:
73:Data storage
68:
59:
44:
5191:Drum memory
4894:Serial port
4885:(IEEE 1394)
4862:DisplayPort
4852:Thunderbolt
4725:Motherboard
4688:Memory card
4656:Floppy disk
4498:Touchscreen
3815:28 December
3789:28 December
3767:28 December
3583:Simple tech
3125:File system
3054:Memory leak
2971:autoloaders
2930:, over the
2808:nucleotides
2716:sound waves
2701:vacuum tube
2619:(mid-1800s)
2427:laser diode
2050:core memory
2014:Floppy disk
1958:Floppy disk
1928:Stripe card
1641:memory wall
1604:Reliability
1598:Granularity
1577:millisecond
1557:Performance
1540:(e.g. 10.4
1493:abstraction
1179:Controller
1113:Volatility
1093:Technology
956:robotic arm
857:directories
849:file system
798:nanoseconds
790:access time
652:address bus
560:delay lines
537:main memory
496:main memory
484:core memory
369:credit card
262:represents
236:Von Neumann
228:calculators
5220:Categories
5179:Historical
5053:Historical
4641:Removable
4626:Sound card
4556:Sound chip
4551:Sound card
4541:Microphone
4431:components
4201:Yong, Ed.
4090:1611.08205
3245:References
3187:Wait state
3147:Geoplexing
2942:protocols.
2834:See also:
2820:Redundancy
2658:paper tape
2611:Index card
1627:Energy use
1587:Throughput
1573:nanosecond
1358:Mutability
1317:Volatility
1307:Real-time
1263:Very high
1230:S.M.A.R.T.
1208:Head crash
901:See also:
826:paper tape
784:(HDDs) or
719:Recently,
648:memory bus
595:disk cache
311:multimedia
266:using the
5103:3D XPoint
5021:DDR SDRAM
4904:PS/2 port
4899:Game port
4812:Fax modem
4651:Disk pack
4503:Trackball
4466:Light pen
4083:: 13406.
3835:Backblaze
3785:. Lwn.net
3540:8 October
3508:16 August
3303:Amsterdam
3202:Cold data
3006:retrieved
3002:migrating
2987:petabytes
2983:terabytes
2952:networks.
2848:mirroring
2577:Antiquity
2406:Super DLT
2400:Floptical
2291:LaserDisc
2273:Microform
1976:Racetrack
1940:Thin film
1922:Hard disk
1542:megabytes
1517:CPU cache
1337:refreshed
1299:hard copy
1280:Moderate
1274:Moderate
1216:Circuitry
1203:data loss
1196:External
1193:Internal
1185:External
1182:Internal
1125:Volatile
1058:Overview
839:Once the
834:RAM disks
748:NOR flash
709:read only
692:secondary
688:bootstrap
603:RAM drive
453:secondary
419:bandwidth
373:encrypted
343:radiation
303:character
297:Data are
292:megabytes
258:A modern
217:on data.
125:160
115:secondary
4883:FireWire
4876:Obsolete
4842:Ethernet
4621:Speakers
4519:Keyboard
4493:Touchpad
4428:computer
4330:13470340
4322:28254941
4267:Archived
4241:Archived
4237:phys.org
4211:Archived
4125:27882917
4016:Archived
3758:Archived
3639:2 August
3633:Archived
3612:2 August
3606:Archived
3468:Archived
3444:Archived
3423:(2008).
3325:56213091
3012:See also
2940:CIFS/SMB
2932:Internet
2910:retronym
2764:crystals
2695:, and a
2666:Barcodes
2596:(105 CE)
2365:MiniDisc
2315:DataPlay
2224:DVD-R DL
2218:DVD+R DL
2154:BD-RE XL
2069:NCR CRAM
1851:Magnetic
1837:notebook
1802:volatile
1648:Security
1593:bit rate
1524:Capacity
1513:hardware
1509:software
1452:storage.
1367:storage.
1246:Unknown
1189:Internal
1162:(swift)
1008:Off-line
952:database
936:dismount
915:A large
861:metadata
656:data bus
591:volatile
339:bit flip
209:and the
165:computer
142:tertiary
134:off-line
117:storage.
106:15
92:computer
5092:Current
5008:Current
4932:Related
4835:Current
4676:Blu-ray
4614:Plotter
4609:Printer
4592:Monitor
4568:Softcam
4476:Optical
4302:Bibcode
4294:Science
4273:3 March
4247:3 March
4217:3 March
4186:18 June
4116:5123013
4095:Bibcode
3993:18 June
3963:18 June
3937:18 June
3911:18 June
3881:18 June
3695:18 June
3669:18 June
3477:18 June
3379:18 June
3338:Storage
3177:Spindle
2994:backups
2846:Device
2786:polymer
2720:mercury
2691:used a
2641:Barcode
2637:(1930s)
2625:(1880s)
2613:(1640s)
2588:papyrus
2584:Writing
2486:DVD-RAM
2371:MD Data
2361:(1980s)
2359:MO disc
2327:ProData
2148:BD-R XL
2127:Blu-ray
2083:Optical
2060:and/or
1966:(~1970)
1954:(~1968)
1952:Twistor
1800:. Both
1780:-based
1563:Latency
1441:latency
1154:Latency
445:Storage
423:latency
299:encoded
82:1
55:Discuss
5143:Future
5114:EEPROM
5037:Future
5019:e.g.,
4790:MOSFET
4730:Memory
4597:Screen
4563:Webcam
4426:Basic
4328:
4320:
4123:
4113:
3436:
3403:
3323:
3313:
3083:(SRAM)
3030:(DRAM)
2878:n>2
2774:(HVD).
2643:(1948)
2631:(1904)
2604:Modern
2482:DVD+RW
2478:DVD-RW
2450:BD-ROM
2442:CD-ROM
2408:(1998)
2402:(1991)
2396:(1986)
2379:(2004)
2373:(1993)
2367:(1992)
2352:(1877)
2341:(2006)
2339:HD DVD
2335:(2004)
2329:(2003)
2323:(2003)
2317:(2002)
2311:(1999)
2309:MIL-CD
2305:(1997)
2303:GD-ROM
2299:(1979)
2293:(1978)
2275:(1870)
2258:(1997)
2252:(1991)
2246:(1988)
2237:(1982)
2226:(2005)
2220:(2004)
2214:(2002)
2208:(2001)
2206:DVD+RW
2202:(1999)
2200:DVD-RW
2196:(1997)
2187:(1995)
2176:(2004)
2167:(2003)
2156:(2010)
2150:(2010)
2144:(2006)
2138:(2006)
2129:(2006)
1978:(2008)
1972:(1995)
1964:Bubble
1960:(1969)
1948:(1962)
1942:(1962)
1936:(1956)
1930:(1956)
1924:(1956)
1918:(1949)
1912:(1932)
1906:(1928)
1900:(1898)
1788:(MOS)
1617:hdparm
1581:second
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