6065:"The rate of conversion is slow until the tenth century (less than one-quarter of the eventual total number of converts had been converted); the explosive period coincides closely with the reign of 'Abd al-Rahman III (912–961); the process is completed (eighty percent converted) by around 1100. The curve, moreover, makes possible a reasonable estimate of the religious distribution of the population. Assuming that there were seven million Hispano-Romans in the peninsula in 711 and that the numbers of this segment of the population remained level through the eleventh century (with population growth balancing out Christian migration to the north), then by 912 there would have been approximately 2.8 million indigenous Muslims (muwalladûn) plus Arabs and Berbers. At this point Christians still vastly outnumbered Muslims. By 1100, however, the number of indigenous Muslims would have risen to a majority of 5.6 million."
3627:
8786:
3242:, considered a very prized commodity. The latter were an integral part of Umayyad palace society and played an important role in courtly politics, including in the matter of dynastic succession, where they often allied with the women whose sons were potential candidates for the throne. All the mothers of Umayyad emirs and caliphs were also originally slaves. In the context of elite society, slave origins held no social stigma and women could become very powerful in the household and the court. Slave girls that were considered particularly prized or gifted were usually given an extensive education in arts and literature, as was also common in the court of the Abbasid caliphs. Black African slaves, known as
7021:
3904:
7013:
61:
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2954:, indigenous converts to Islam, indigenous Christians, and Jews. The Andalusis of Arab origin were a minority but they had formed the ruling elites since the Muslim conquest in the early 8th century. Berbers, who had made up the majority of the conquering army, were a larger group, relatively powerful but less so than the Arab elites. The indigenous population were the majority, but the proportion of Christians among them decreased over time as many of them converted to Islam. The indigenous Muslim converts were known as
834:
966:
3038:
12369:
2564:, in 961. Al-Hakam II continued his father's policy toward Christian kings and North African rebels. Al-Hakam's relied on his advisers more than his father because the caliphate was less prosperous, and there was less money to go around. This style of rulership suited Al-Hakam II since he was more interested in his scholarly and intellectual pursuits than ruling the caliphate. The caliphate reached an intellectual and scholarly peak under Al-Hakam II.
3873:
2680:, chroniclers record Almanzor leading 12,000 African horsemen, five thousand al-Andalusi horsemen, and 40,000 infantry. Stories of Almanzor's last campaign record forty-six thousand horsemen, six hundred forces guarding the train, 26,000 infantry, two hundred scouts or 'police', and one hundred and thirty drummers. The garrison of Córdoba was recorded at 10,500 horsemen, while other forces kept the northern border in dispersed detachments.
3286:
promoted a higher standard of living, which in turn attracted more skilled labour to the country. Córdoba also drew revenues from tributes collected from the
Christian kingdoms to the north, which provided silver and slaves. One historical source reports that the state's total revenues at the end of Abd al-Rahman III's reign amounted to six and a half million dinars – though it's unclear what this figure means precisely in terms of
12358:
915:
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convert likely became stronger and the process became self-reinforcing. Indigenous elites had been among the first to convert as a way to preserve their status. As
Christian institutions weakened and the Islamic presence became clearly more permanent, a steady drift towards Islam likely took place in the rest of the Christian population seeking improved social status and economic opportunities.
2969:, "Despite the withdrawal of substantial numbers during the drought and famine of the 750s, fresh Berber migration from North Africa was a constant feature of Andalusi history, increasing in tempo in the tenth century. Hispano-Romans who converted to Islam, numbering six or seven millions, comprised the majority of the population and also occupied the lowest rungs on the social ladder."
3145:'Arabized'). The term "Mozarab" has been used by historians in various ways since the 19th century and can refer to either the Christian population living under Muslim rule – who did not call themselves by this name – or to the Arabized Christians that emigrated from al-Andalus to the Christian kingdoms in northern Iberia. The term "Mozarabic" is also used to refer to the
3317:(a type of waterwheel) – meant that agricultural output was greater, more consistent, and took place during a longer part of the year. This ensured that the population was healthier and less vulnerable to famine, encouraging demographic growth, while farmers reaped higher incomes and were able to further diversify their production. Some crops, such as figs, were cultivated as
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roughly 50% towards 950, and around 75% by 1000, after which conversion slowed. Half of the population in Córdoba is reported to have been Muslim by the 10th century, with an increase to 70 percent by the 11th century, though this was due less to local conversion than to Muslim immigration from the rest of the
Iberian Peninsula and North Africa.
5396:, p. 125: "Normalmente participaban en sus aceifas doce mil hombres de a caballo, inscritos en la escalilla militar y a los que, además de la acostumbrada soldada, se les proporcionaban una caballería con sus arreos, armas, alojamiento, pagas y gratificaciones para diversos gastos, y forraje para las caballerías, según su categoría."
3228:
and especially at the royal court, but little is known of what role they may have played in industries such as agriculture and mining. Most slaves of this period were captured during Muslim raids on the
Christian kingdoms in the northern Iberian Peninsula or were imported from other European markets. These European slaves were known as
3072:) were common, but the Umayyads themselves promoted the former. One reason for this might be that Hanafism was seen as too closely associated with the Abbasids, whom the Umayyads considered enemies. Maliki dominance solidified under the reign of Abd ar-Rahman II in the 9th century, though during the reign of his son, Muhammad I, the
2965:) and became very numerous in later generations. Some of them were descended from the former Visigothic and Hispano-Roman landholding elites that existed prior to the Muslim conquest and who had retained much of their status after the conquest. Jews were present in smaller numbers relative to the other groups. According to
3161:
Jewish communities in al-Andalus before the 10th century, though they must have been an important presence. Historical records attest that they were present in Córdoba in the 9th century. During the caliphal period, some Jews entered into the circles of the caliph's court, of whom the most influential was
8608:
Ambrosio, Beatriz; Hernández, Candela; Novelletto, Andrea; Dugoujon, Jean M.; Rodríguez, Juan N.; Cuesta, Pedro; Fortes-Lima, César; Calderón, Rosario (December 2010). "Searching the peopling of the
Iberian Peninsula from the perspective of two andalusian subpopulations: a study based on Y-chromosome
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The state also benefited greatly from trade with the rest of the
Islamic world to the east. In addition to exporting crafted goods (primarily silk cloth), it provided raw materials to North Africa and the Middle East, regions that were poorer in natural resources than al-Andalus. This trade advantage
2646:
Almanzor abolished the system of tribal units with their own commanders. This system had been in decline due to a lack of Arab recruits and the pseudo-feudalistic institutions on the frontiers. A new system of mixed units without clear loyalty under orders from
Administration officials replaced it.
2620:
Almanzor continued the military reforms by Al-Hakam and his predecessors. He professionalized the regular army, which guaranteed his military power in the capital and ensured the availability of forces for numerous campaigns. Professionalization de-emphasized levies and other non-professional troops,
3480:
Some upper-class women also had the resources to receive education and participate in high culture in the domains of poetry and even religion. Examples include 'Aisha ibn Ahmad, who was born from a noble family and wrote poetry, copied the Qur'an, and founded libraries. Lubna, a slave in the service
2976:
s were largely organized into family-based social structures, the Arabs and
Berbers were organized into a more complex mix of family and tribe loyalties. "Arab" identity in general was largely tied to the assertion of Arab ancestry. This lineage was perceived as inherited through the father, meaning
3354:
was a "major trendsetter of his time" creating trends in fashion, hairstyles, and hygiene. His students took these trends with them throughout Europe and North Africa. He also founded an academy for arts, music, and fashion which lasted for several generations. The legacy of Ziryab and figures like
3293:
Some of the most prominent merchants of the caliphate were Jews. Jewish merchants had extensive networks of trade that stretched the length of the
Mediterranean Sea. Since there was no international banking system at the time, payments relied on a high level of trust, and this level of trust could
3227:
in the
Western Mediterranean, particularly in the 10th century when the caliphate played a major role in international trade. Merchants of many backgrounds (Jewish, Muslim, and Christian) participated in this trade. Historical sources attest that slaves were commonly employed in wealthy households
3173:
The Muslim proportion of al-Andalus's population grew during Umayyad rule as native Iberians converted to Islam. As in many other lands in the early Islamic era, conversion to Islam was likely motivated primarily by social and economic considerations. As the number of converts grew, the reasons to
2897:
Colmeiro estimated in a pre-industrial society, for every million inhabitants, ten thousand soldiers could be mustered. Even assuming the chronicles exaggerated tenfold the real numbers – these speak of eight hundred thousand soldiers – the caliphate could have had eight million inhabitants. Those
2793:
Almanzor eliminated figures who could have opposed his reforms, such as killing Ghalib. Almanzor also replaced the governor of Zaragoza after he collaborated with his eldest son to replace him with a member of the same clan, the Banu Tujib. The admiral of the fleet was also poisoned in January 980
3160:
While Christians saw their status decline from their rule under the Visigoths, the status of Jews improved. While Jews were persecuted under the Visigoths, Jewish communities benefited from Umayyad rule by obtaining more freedom, affluence and a higher social standing. Not much is known about the
3521:
In the 10th century, the caliph's official workshops, such as those at Madinat al-Zahra, fabricated luxury products for use at court or as gifts for guests, allies, and diplomats, which stimulated artistic production. Many objects produced in the caliph's workshops later made their way into the
3181:
has put forward a possible model of this process. It suggests that by the beginning of the 9th century only some 8% of the indigenous population had converted but that the curve of conversion increased in the second half of the 9th century, resulting in about 25% conversion around the year 900,
3112:
in al-Andalus was partially integrated with the Umayyad regime and its leaders collaborated with the Arab-Muslim elites. Bishops often acted as administrators and political envoys and their appointment was overseen by the Umayyad state. While the Catholic Church retained its internal unity, the
2806:
The title of caliph became symbolic, without power or influence. Almanzor's temporal power increased the importance of the military, both as a symbol of the power of Almanzor and an instrument to guarantee the payment of taxes. The chamberlain's court also rivaled that of the caliph. Almanzor's
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The present-day Albolafia's origin is uncertain and historians differ on the most likely date of its construction. While one hypothesis attributes it the 9th century around the time of Abd al-Rahman II, other hypotheses have attributed its origin to the 10th century, the 12th century under the
3957:
was issued). The minaret, with a square floor plan, set another precedent that was followed in the architecture of other mosques in the region. Abd ar Rahman III's cultured successor, al-Hakam II, further expanded the mosque's prayer hall, starting in 962. He endowed it with some of its most
3468:
was one of the most well-known Jewish figures of this time. In addition to serving in the caliph's court and being highly versed in Arabic culture, Hasdai was also a patron of Hebrew scholarship. He was determined to establish the Jewish community of al-Andalus as independent from the Jewish
3406:
In the 10th century, Córdoba became one of the centers of culture and high society in the Islamic world. Al-Andalus's prosperity and the caliph's patronage attracted travelers, diplomats and scholars. Advances in science, history, geography, philosophy, and language also occurred during the
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argues the Almanzor's armies were between 35,000 and 70–75,000 soldiers. It is likely that the leader's armies may not have exceeded twenty thousand men. Until the eleventh century no Muslim army on campaign exceeded thirty thousand troops, while during the eighth century the trans-Pyrenean
2650:
The increase in military forces and their partial professionalization led to an increase in financial expenses, and incentivized campaigning so troops could be paid with loot and land. Lands handed over to the soldiers were subject to tribute and ceased to operate under a system of border
2692:
The main weapon of the peninsular campaigns, which required speed and surprise, was the light cavalry. To try to counteract them, the Castilians created the role of "villain knights" by ennobling those free men who were willing to keep a horse to increase the mounted units through the
2667:
Contemporary figures on the size of the army are contradictory. Some accounts claim that their armies numbered two hundred thousand horsemen and six hundred thousand foot soldiers, while others talk about twelve thousand horsemen, three thousand mounted Berbers and two thousand
3888:(also spelled and pronounced today as "Medina Azahara"), located just outside Córdoba. Construction began in 936–940 and continued in multiple phases throughout his reign and the reign of his son, Al-Hakam II (r. 961–976). The new city included ceremonial reception halls, a
2797:
Land transport routes were dotted with strongholds, and dignitaries controlled communications. Messengers were bought in and specially trained to handle Almanzor's messages and to transmit the official reports that his foreign ministries wrote about the annual campaigns.
2937:
continued to be spoken in rural lower classes but Arabic had become the language of the middle and upper classes. By the end of the century, even the Christian population was so widely Arabized that their clergy were required to translate religious texts into Arabic.
2672:, African light infantry. Christian chroniclers record that "ordinarily the Saracen armies amount to 30, 40, 50 or 60,000 men, even when in serious occasions they reach 100, 160, 300 and even 600,000 fighters" in the time of Almanzor. In the campaign that swept
3477:. The Latin language was retained in liturgy. However, Andalusi Christians did journey to and from the Christian-controlled territories to the north and in the rest of Europe, contributing to the transmission of knowledge from al-Andalus to the rest of Europe.
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3294:
only be cemented through personal or family bonds, such as marriage. Jews from al-Andalus, Cairo, and the Levant all intermarried across borders. Therefore, Jewish merchants in the caliphate had counterparts abroad that were willing to do business with them.
6738:
The Bayt al-Ḥikmah ("House of Wisdom"), founded in AD 830 in Baghdad, contained a public library with a large collection of materials on a wide range of subjects, and the 10th-century library of Caliph al-Ḥakam in Cordova, Spain, boasted more than 400,000
2893:
The Iberian Christian states comprised 160,000 square kilometers and 500,000 people. By comparison, at the time of the Muslim invasion, Iberia had an estimated four million inhabitants. Other historians estimate higher at around seven or eight million.
2664:, or "country of jihad". It attracted many zealous volunteers, who made up a small but important portion of the total army. Almanzor's personal guard was made up of Christian mercenaries who also participated in his campaigns in Christian territories.
3460:). These histories also provided information on the land and its people. Many ideas and myths concerning the history of al-Andalus – including stories about its initial Muslim conquest in the 8th century – began to appear in this period.
6183:
7724:
2807:
reforms also divided the population into two unequal groups: a large mass of civilian taxpayers and a small professional military caste, generally from outside the peninsula and not particularally loyal to the polity.
2711:
In contrast to the role the navy played under Abd al-Rahman III, under Almanzor, it served as a means of transporting ground troops, such as between the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula. This was also seen with
2683:
Other modern studies found the army was between 50,000 and 90,000 under Almanzor. Scholars have argued Almanzor's armies could muster 600,000 laborers and 200,000 horses "drawn from all provinces of the empire".
2550:. Abd al-Rahman III also brought the Christian kingdoms of the north under his direct influence through military force. The size of the Caliphal army under Abd al-Rahman III was between 30,000 and 50,000 troops.
3626:
3463:
Christians and Jews contributed to the intellectual and cultural spheres of al-Andalus, although this required that they publicly respect the higher status of the Arabic language and of the Islamic religion.
4039:
mosques in Fes and the addition of their square-shafted minarets, carried out under the sponsorship of Abd al-Rahman III and following the example of the minaret he built for the Great Mosque of Córdoba.
2534:
recognized the caliphate, but refused to allow them to occupy Tangier. The Umayyads besieged Tangier in 949 and defeated Abul-Aish, forcing him to retreat, and then occupied the rest of northern Morocco.
4026:
In the 10th century much of northern Morocco also came directly within the sphere of influence of the Córdoban Caliphate, with competition from the Fatimid Caliphate further east. Early contributions to
2557:, higher than previous administrations. Wealth was budgeted into three parts: the payment of the salaries and maintenance of the army, the preservation of public buildings, and the needs of the caliph.
2890:
estimated that circa 1000 CE, Córdoba held around 450,000 people. Around the same year, the caliphate occupied four hundred thousand square kilometers and was populated by around three million people.
2657:
The massive incorporation of North African horsemen relegated the infantry to sieges and fortress garrisons. This reform led to entire tribes, particularly Berber riders, being moved to the peninsula.
2579:
had to recognise the Fatimids. The Umayyads sent their general, Ghalib, to invade Idrisid Morocco in 973. By 974, Al-Hassan II was taken to Córdoba, and the remaining Idrisids recognized Umayyad rule.
2980:
Beyond the heartland of Cordoba, the makeup of the population varied depending on the region. The northern limit of Muslim settlement generally extended along a frontier that ran to the north of the
2977:
that children of Arab men and non-Arab women were still considered Arabs, although the lineage of the mother, if she came from another noble or elite background, could still be seen as prestigious.
7397:
3860:), which preserves minor remains of the mosque. In Mérida, following a violent revolt, Abd al-Rahman II also built a fortress, now known as the Alcazaba of Mérida, which was later re-used by the
3024:
s. Among the latter were powerful families who dominated the area's politics throughout the Islamic period. The hills and mountains to the north were generally still inhabited by Christians.
2418:. Real control was always in question, particularly over the marches along the Christian border, where power depended on the competence of the individual emir. For example, the power of emir
3481:
of al-Hakam II, served as one of the caliph's scribes (or secretaries) and a librarian. Although religious domains were still dominated by men, Fatima bint Yahya al-Maghami was a well-known
7333:
6166:
Monferrer-Sala, Juan Pedro (2023). "The Arabicized Christians in Cordoba: Social Context and Literary Production". In Monferrer-Sala, Juan Pedro; Monterroso-Checa, Antonio (eds.).
3301:
that occurred in al-Andalus following the arrival of the Arabs and Berbers was of major importance to both society and the economy. The combination of new crops – including rice,
2708:
Military industry flourished in factories around Córdoba. The city was said to produce 1,000 bows and 20,000 arrows monthly, and 1,300 shields and 3,000 campaign stores annually.
2654:
The nucleus of the new army was formed by Maghrebi Berber forces. Arabs, Berbers, and Slavs within the army were played off against one another by Almanzor to maintain his power.
3569:. While the production of ivory and silk objects largely stopped after the Caliphate's collapse, production in other mediums like leather and ceramic continued in later periods.
2312:. The Umayyads had previously conducted small raids on the southern tip of Iberia against the Visigoths, but full-scale conquest did not begin until April of 711. An army led by
3008:
s. The region along the central frontier, near Toledo, also known as the Middle March, was again only sparsely inhabited by Arabs. The city and local politics were dominated by
2874:
progressed significantly in al-Andalus. In the long-term, these were to comprise the two major aspects of Andalusi identity and eventually characterized most of the population.
2786:
tried to raise an army to help but several flotillas of Berber pirates threatened their coasts, forcing them to stay to defend their lands. In 997 the al-Andalusi fleet hit the
2836:. Córdoban forces were also joined in the civil war by contingents of Christian mercenaries. Beset by factionalism, the caliphate crumbled in 1031 into a number of independent
2280:
3642:
2821:. While Abd al-Rahman was leading a raid on the Christian north, a revolt tore through Córdoba and deposed him, and he was killed when he tried to restore himself to power.
3666:
3080:
schools were also introduced. Malikism eventually became another core characteristic of Andalusi identity and its spread contributed to the Islamization of the country.
3610:
3572:
Marble was also carved for decorative elements in some buildings, such as wall paneling and window grilles. One of the most prolific types of marble craftsmanship were
410:
385:
371:
2724:
to the detriment of native officials. The fleet was reinforced with a network of ports and a new base in the Atlantic, in Alcácer do Sal, which protected the city of
2728:, recovered in the 980s. It served as start of a campaign against Santiago. On the Mediterranean shore, the naval defense was centered at the base of al-Mariya, now
2437:
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and more legitimate than the Abbasids, even though the Caliphate of Córdoba's legitimacy was not accepted outside of al-Andalus and its North African affiliates.
12465:
11990:
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3335:, a kind of etiquette common to al-Andalus and other Islamic societies at the time. Women, such as royal concubines, were sometimes sent abroad to be trained in
3200:). They were largely Arab, though they were also joined by individuals of non-Arab origin who climbed through the political ranks. Among the latter were various
2743:
Initially, the maritime defense of the Caliphate was led by Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Rumahis, a veteran admiral who had served Al-Hakam II and was Qadi of
2414:
For the next century and a half, his descendants continued as emirs of Córdoba, with nominal control over the rest of al-Andalus and sometimes parts of western
12450:
11358:
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by the end of the 8th century, but it wasn't until the 10th century that both gold and silver coins were minted, thanks in large part to the flow of gold from
12430:
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Following Almanzor's death in 1002, the institutions he created stagnated under internal divisions from military and political factions competing for power.
6992:
7052:
3000:. Ethnic Arabs were (at least during the early Emirate period) sparse here and the Muslim population consisted mostly of Berbers, probably semi-nomadic or
5796:
García Sanjuán, Alejandro (2017). "al- Andalus, political history". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).
3592:
and can be found in later buildings across the region built under the Almoravids and Almohads. Another notable example is a marble basin, now kept at the
3558:
2476:
An Umayyad expedition helmed by ʿIṣām al-Ḫawlānī occupied the Balearic Islands (the 'Eastern Islands') and incorporated them to Cordobese rule under emir
11975:
7385:
7082:
3433:
2767:. In April 973, he transported the army of Ghalib from Algeciras to subdue the rebellious tribes of the Maghreb and end Fatimid ambitions in that area.
3549:
textiles, ceramics, and leatherwork. Metalwork objects were also produced, of which the most famous surviving piece is the so-called "Córdoba Stag", a
3522:
collections of museums and Christian cathedrals in Europe. Among the most famous objects of this period are ivory boxes which are carved with vegetal,
2273:
3418:, who served as court poet for Abd al-Rahman III, Al-Hakam II, and Almanzor. Other poets, such as Yusuf al-Ramadi, composed works on nature and love.
2763:), in the west of al-Andalus in mid-971. When there was another invasion later that year, the admiral left Almería and defeated them off the coast of
3220:
in al-Andalus typically implied an elite status. Some powerful Berber leaders and scholars were also able to join the ranks of the political elites.
3113:
advent of Islamic rule weakened its monopoly on religious authority over the Christian communities in al-Andalus, resulting in many deviations from
12074:
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in the city. He and his successors built and continuously developed the Alcázar into the official royal residence and seat of power in Al-Andalus.
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800:
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8413:
Historia de los vikingos en España: ataques e incursiones contra los reinos cristianos y musulmanes de la Península Ibérica en los siglos IX–XI
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in 836, who preserved the original design while extending its dimensions. The mosque was again embellished with new features by his successors
2882:
The population of the capital city, Córdoba, most likely surpassed 100,000 in the 10th century, making it the largest city in Europe alongside
9747:
8058:. Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, Agencia Espyearla de Cooperación Internacional, Instituto de Cooperación con el Mundo Árabe. p. 654.
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who obtained privileged military status by fighting against the Córdobans armed on horseback – after losing their capital in the fall of 985.
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and Berbers. He also created new units, outside the regular army of the Caliphate, that were loyal to him and served to control the capital.
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in 929, challenging the Fatimids in their claim to religious authority. Internally, the Spanish Umayyads considered themselves as closer to
12480:
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3214:), or "clients" sponsored by powerful families. These were often Muslim converts and, unlike its connotations in the Middle East, the term
6725:
12005:
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8993:
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4798:
3282:. A new mint was established at Madinat al-Zahra circa 947 CE (336 AH), though it was moved back to Córdoba circa 975–976 CE (365 AH).
3800:), dates from the 9th century expansion and is often noted as an important prototype of later Moorish architectural forms and motifs.
3432:, grew more popular during this period. Writers also began to compose histories devoted to the Umayyad dynasty of Al-Andalus, such as
2613:. Almanzor then sent out a powerful reinforcement under his son Abd al-Malik, whose armies clashed near Tangier. The Umayyads entered
2368:
and became an independent emir of Córdoba. He had been on the run for six years after the Umayyads had lost the position of caliph in
2328:, the last king of the Visigoths, was killed, leaving an open path into Hispania. The Umayyads established the Iberian Peninsula as a
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Caliphate. During the reign of al-Hakam II, the royal library possessed an estimated 400,000 to 500,000 volumes. For comparison, the
12096:
2925:
The adoption of the Arabic language was a wide-reaching phenomenon of long-term importance. It was spearheaded by the promotion of
2503:. The Fatimid's claim of Caliph challenged the legitmacy of the Abbasids' religious authority. Abd al-Rahman III took the title of
2450:. After the revolt's suppression, the inhabitants were expelled. Some settled in Fez or Alexandria, while others ended forming the
2299:
6879:
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earlier that century. After a failed plot against him in 784, Abd al-Rahman I moved his residence definitively to the site of the
12059:
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8297:
Tomo IV. Espasa-Calpe. Edición de Ramón Menéndez Pidal & Leopoldo Torres-Balbás. Traducción de Emilio García Gómez. p.
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10890:
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him was continued into the 9th century by bringing in new styles of art, music, and literature from the eastern Islamic world.
3105:. Their religious practices were tolerated but conspicuous displays of faith, such as bells and processions, were discouraged.
2689:
expeditions totaled ten thousand men and those carried out against Christians in the north of the peninsula were even smaller.
3350:
became fashionable, and his reign is considered a high point of culture and patronage during the Emirate period. The musician
2606:
from Africa to migrate to al-Andalus to increase his base of support. While Hisham II was caliph, he was merely a figurehead.
504:. The polity then flourished for the best part of three centuries, before disintegrating in the early 11th century during the
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s, while the rural highlands were generally the domain of Berber tribes. To the northeast, the Upper March, centered around
2538:
Abd al-Rahman III increased diplomatic relations with the Berber tribes in North Africa, Christian kingdoms from the north,
9208:
7396:. Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Departamento de Ciencias de la Antigüedad y Edad Media, Universidad de Córdoba: 149–190.
2587:
The death of Al-Hakam II in 976 marked the beginning of the end of Caliphal power. Al-Hakam was succeeded by his only son,
2336:) of their empire. The rulers of this province established their capital in Córdoba and received the administrative titles
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carved in brick. Other monuments from the Caliphate period in al-Andalus include several of Toledo's old city gates, the
3604:
basin and dedicated to 'Abd al-Malik, the son of al-Mansur, before being shipped to Morocco and re-used in new buildings.
2917:, all above 15,000. This contrasted sharply with the Christian north of the peninsula, which lacked large urban centers.
943:
793:
3375:. The emir Abd al-Rahman II sent emissaries to the Abbasid and Byzantine courts to bring back books on subjects such as
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8177:
8118:
8063:
7952:
7876:
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3157:, a fusion of Christian and Islamic artistic styles brought by Christian emigrants from al-Andalus to northern Iberia.
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or Maghrebis – and freed Córdoban subjects from military service. Almanzor expanded recruitment of the
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on the lower tier) composed of alternating red brick and light-colored stone. The mosque was subsequently expanded by
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in the east. The region along the western frontier, known as the Lower March and including the modern-day province of
531:
The period was characterized by an expansion of trade and culture, including the construction of well-known pieces of
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11470:
9396:
8005:
7623:
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7327:
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Rosser-Owen, Mariam (2014). "Andalusi Spolia in Medieval Morocco: "Architectural Politics, Political Architecture"".
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was responsible for improving the water supply for both the city and the palace gardens. He may have also built the
11733:
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10962:
8690:
5959:"The Social Structure of al-Andalus during the Muslim Occupation (711–55) and the Founding of the Umayyad Monarchy"
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In the 9th century, Abd al-Rahman II established a workshop that produced official embroidered textiles known as
1232:
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4474:
Not to be confused with the later Almohad Great Mosque (12th century) which was subsequently converted into the
2832:, with rivals claiming to be the new caliph, violence sweeping the caliphate, and intermittent invasions by the
2685:
2553:
The caliphate became very profitable during the reign of Abd al-Rahman III, with public revenue up to 6,245,000
522:. In 1031, after years of infighting, the caliphate collapsed and fractured into a number of independent Muslim
12292:
11840:
11738:
8986:
8685:
8638:
8538:. Fundación Santa María La Real, Centro Estudios del Románico, Monasterio de Santa María la Real. p. 160.
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7691:
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or "protected non-Muslims". In exchange for the state's protection, they were required to pay a tax called the
2698:
2419:
1912:
786:
8208:
Más allá del legado pirata. Historia y leyenda de la piratería. La fabulosa aventura de los bandoleros del mar
6169:
A Companion to Late Antique and Medieval Islamic Cordoba: Capital of Roman Baetica and Caliphate of al-Andalus
3363:
Córdoba was the cultural and intellectual centre of al-Andalus, with translations of ancient Greek texts into
2602:, the mother and regent of Hisham II. Almanzor isolated Hisham in Córdoba, eradicated opposition, and allowed
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in the region. By contrast, Latin culture within Al-Andalus declined as local Christians became increasingly
701:
3884:
Abd al-Rahman III marked his political ascendancy with the creation of a vast and lavish palace-city called
2609:
In 996, Almanzor sent an invasion force to Morocco. After three months of struggle, his forces retreated to
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in Spanish) in a distinctive style associated with the caliphal period. These capitals later became prized
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553:
3495:) who taught both men and women. Under al-Hakam II, some female slaves could also receive an education in
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Al-Andalus was subject to eastern cultural influences, with Abd al-Rahman I likely having an interest in
2338:
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in 997. As in the army Almanzor recruited Berbers faithful to him. In its administration he favored the
12064:
11947:
11464:
10883:
9358:
9353:
9328:
9313:
3988:
2469:, a palatine guard of 3,000 riders and 2,000 infantry was created made up of Slavic slaves. Under Emir
659:
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for a permanent army of 40,000 to end the conflicts that had plagued the emirate. In the time of Emir
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that was spoken by Christians in al-Andalus, to the Mozarabic liturgy that was a continuation of the
8874:
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Al-Mansur y la dawla 'amiriya: una dinámica de poder y legitimidad en el occidente musulmán medieval
7354:
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The elite political and social circles that formed around the Umayyads in Córdoba were known as the
573:
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12028:
11852:
11625:
11105:
10737:
10712:
10562:
10221:
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9343:
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6275:
Wasserstein, David J. (2020). "Christians, Jews, and the Dhimma Status". In Fierro, Maribel (ed.).
3995:, which features a variety of ribbed domes resting on horseshoe arches and an exterior façade with
3177:
Historical sources provide little data on which to estimate the rate of conversion, but a study by
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578:
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9513:
9363:
8905:
8755:
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4567:
Albarrán, Javier (2018). "Al-Andalus". In Fitz, Francisco García; Monteiro, João Gouveia (eds.).
4254:
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As elsewhere in the historic Islamic world, Jews and Christians were considered by Muslims to be
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2818:
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2592:
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2317:
1902:
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519:
11132:
9105:
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7014:"Cervatillo de Madinat al-Zahra – Obras Singulares – Museo arqueológico y etnológico de Córdoba"
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of this period who brought back technical and scientific knowledge back with him from the east.
2946:
The early population of al-Andalus at the outset of Umayyad rule had several main constituents:
881:
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12253:
12222:
12152:
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10100:
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9714:
9555:
9442:
9308:
8658:
6717:
4422:
3573:
3450:
3415:
3313:, oranges, and more – and new and more widespread irrigation techniques – including the use of
3224:
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as an administrative and literary language, followed by the development of a native vernacular
2717:
2007:
1952:
8834:
8809:
6438:
3789:
2477:
12270:
12248:
10999:
10876:
10757:
10717:
10530:
10405:
9469:
9459:
9418:
9389:
9252:
8926:
8912:
8889:
8879:
8294:
Historia de España: España musulmana hasta la caída del califato de Córdoba: 711–1031 de J.C.
7965:
Infidel Kings and Unholy Warriors: Faith, Power, and Violence in the Age of Crusade and Jihad
7848:
Allen, William Edward David; ʻAbd al-Raḥmān ʻAlī Ḥajjī (2002). Mariano González Campo (ed.).
5958:
5761:
4224:
4204:
4136:
4116:
4028:
3889:
1997:
1967:
532:
10645:
9100:
8794:
7104:
4775:
4417:
4020:
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2779:
2411:" until the mid-10th century and recognized the religious authority of the Abbasid Caliphs.
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valley, contained more cities and a more diverse population, including Arabs, Berbers, and
2783:
2547:
2141:
2022:
743:
10630:
9123:
6004:
Coope, Jessica A. (2020). "Arabs, Berbers, and Local Converts". In Fierro, Maribel (ed.).
5763:
Infidel Kings and Unholy Wars: Faith, Power, and Violence in the Age of Crusades and Jihad
3807:) which was raised over the street between them, allowing the caliph direct access to the
2473:, the army reached 35,000 to 40,000 combatants, half of them Syrian military contingents.
2376:
of the area who had defied Umayyad and Abbasid rule. Abd al-Rahman I united various local
673:
8:
12162:
12038:
11932:
11748:
11187:
10984:
10542:
10422:
10388:
10290:
10110:
10105:
9917:
9636:
9572:
9447:
9432:
9298:
9279:
9228:
9219:
9173:
9135:
9111:
8073:
De Bordejé Morencos, Federico Fernando (1992). "El Islam, la España musulmana y la mar".
7465:
Dodds, Jerrilynn D. (1992). "The Great Mosque of Córdoba". In Dodds, Jerrilynn D. (ed.).
4397:
3845:, also known as the Ibn Addabas Mosque, was either built or enlarged by Abd al-Rahman II
3617:
3561:. Two other bronze examples of similar craftsmanship, shaped like deers, are kept at the
3531:
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3408:
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which were replaced with taxes to support the professional troops – often
2576:
2321:
2231:
1242:
901:
710:
631:
568:
505:
10258:
10248:
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Fès avant le protectorat: étude économique et sociale d'une ville de l'occident musulman
7751:
Revisiting al-Andalus: perspectives on the material culture of Islamic Iberia and beyond
3262:
2843:
1547:
12329:
12243:
12174:
12084:
12020:
11828:
11804:
11481:
11459:
11419:
11261:
11164:
11115:
11081:
10972:
10655:
10635:
10618:
10569:
10434:
10243:
10194:
10127:
10045:
9986:
9981:
9976:
9932:
9902:
9794:
9692:
9560:
9535:
9323:
9274:
9237:
9232:
9194:
9182:
9141:
9057:
9033:
7298:
7293:
7276:
7232:
6493:
4525:
4402:
4392:
4004:
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3248:, were also purchased and imported to al-Andalus, but they were less numerous than the
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1937:
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1107:
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848:
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Slavery was also a regular feature of Andalusi society and al-Andalus was a center of
1527:
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228:
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Almería musulmana: hasta la conquista de Almería por Alfonso VII (711–1147 de J. C.)
5472:
5470:
3803:
The palaces and the Great Mosque in Cordoba were linked via a high covered passage (
2713:
2403:
Despite the realm's independence from Baghdad, the emirate's rulers used the title "
474:
74:
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11774:
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7146:
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4407:
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4234:
4106:
4008:
3987:
A much smaller but historically notable work from the late caliphate period is the
3977:
3885:
3777:
3738:
3648:
The "Stag of Córdoba", a bronze fountain spout from Madinat al-Zahra (10th century)
3577:
3396:
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3146:
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2887:
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1082:
1032:
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470:
97:
92:
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Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800
2997:
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11957:
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11702:
11388:
11348:
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11193:
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8804:
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7995:
7963:
7640:
7491:
6395:
6276:
6208:
6005:
5770:
5467:
4432:
4349:
4304:
4295:
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3996:
3958:
significant architectural flourishes and innovations, which included interlacing
3918:
3893:
3730:
3729:
chieftain named Razin al-Burnusi who accompanied the original Muslim invasion by
3698:
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3441:
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3178:
3150:
3109:
2985:
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in 750 to the Abbasids. Intent on regaining a position of power, he defeated the
2357:
2313:
2137:
2107:
1872:
1862:
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1022:
612:
583:
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267:
178:
106:
87:
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3772:
hall composed of rows of columns connected by double tiers of arches (including
833:
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12089:
11942:
11784:
11486:
10774:
10769:
10732:
10707:
10690:
10601:
10586:
10557:
10515:
10363:
10323:
10318:
10273:
10199:
10159:
10149:
10139:
9954:
9833:
9727:
9594:
9476:
9338:
8720:
4499:
4016:
3959:
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3672:
Marble basin crafted for 'Abd al-Malik (son of al-Mansur) between 1002 and 1007
3523:
3380:
3343:
2883:
2673:
2599:
2595:, pronounced the 10-year-old boy caliph and swore an oath of obedience to him.
2212:
2122:
2066:
1842:
1732:
1662:
1362:
738:
403:
8510:. Tomo II. Almería: Monte de Piedad y Caja de Ahorros de Almería. p. 512.
8453:. Tomo II. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe. Edición de José María Blázquez. p. 630.
7150:
2677:
12419:
12401:
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12275:
12102:
11952:
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11454:
11429:
11266:
10855:
10742:
10537:
10510:
10483:
10461:
10439:
10206:
10189:
10174:
10018:
9971:
9959:
9885:
9777:
9651:
9646:
9621:
9503:
8894:
8710:
8082:
4794:
4717:
4663:
3992:
3892:, administrative and government offices, aristocratic residences, gardens, a
3600:, which was crafted at Madinat al-Zahra between 1002 and 1007 to serve as an
3384:
3077:
3062:
3058:
3057:(judges) played the most important social role. In the 9th century, both the
2902:
2603:
2385:
2092:
1597:
1457:
145:
10283:
10263:
6863:
Sidik, Roziah; Sidek, Mat; Suryani Arshad, Izziah; Abu Bakar, Kaseh (2013).
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965:
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9641:
9577:
8971:
8622:
5894:
5892:
3754:
3633:
3539:
3331:
3275:
3124:
The Arabized Christians of the Iberian Peninsula were later referred to as
3118:
3001:
2871:
2614:
2543:
2539:
2096:
1567:
1322:
919:
8631:
Al-Andalus: Estructura antropológica de una sociedad islámica en Occidente
8583:
El Poema de mio Cid: el patriarca Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar trasmite sus genes
4783:
Bolletí de la Societat Arqueològica Lul·liana: Revista d'Estudis Històrics
4504:"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"
3709:
Upon rising to power, Abd al-Rahman I initially resided in several palace-
11914:
11404:
11312:
11212:
11099:
10466:
10451:
10300:
10013:
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9912:
9838:
9486:
9481:
9161:
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8760:
6525:
Peace Be Upon You: The Story of Muslim, Christian, and Jewish Coexistence
6250:
Peace Be Upon You: The Story of Muslim, Christian, and Jewish Coexistence
4427:
4329:
4174:
3932:
3835:
3750:
3722:
3593:
3496:
3474:
3414:
Poets sought the patronage of the caliph's court, as with the example of
2993:
2981:
2867:
2561:
1956:
1722:
1632:
1417:
1272:
1222:
774:
769:
748:
7945:
Geoestrategia en la España musulmana: las campañas militares de Almanzor
6497:
5889:
500:
prince who fled the defeat and persecution of the Umayyad clan amid the
12217:
11299:
11256:
11227:
10493:
10310:
10184:
10144:
10077:
9082:
8814:
8735:
7850:
Al-Ghazal y la embajada hispano-musulmana a los vikingos en el siglo IX
7228:
7215:
Forcada, Miquel (2019). "The garden in Umayyad society in al-Andalus".
4529:
4096:
3469:
academies of Baghdad and the Middle East, which helped bring about the
3420:
3310:
3302:
3017:
2855:
2775:
2496:
2466:
2447:
2320:. After the crossing, Tariq's troops defeated Visigothic forces at the
2242:
1882:
1852:
1682:
1487:
1052:
546:
466:
7355:"Albolafia (2 o 2) - Alcazar of the Christian Monarchs | Virtual Tour"
6865:"The Role And Contribution Of Women In Andalusian Muslim Civilization"
6210:
Mozarabs in Medieval and Early Modern Spain: Identities and Influences
5005:(in Spanish). Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Valencia: Anubar Ediciones.
2729:
2308:
had ruled Iberia for over two centuries when it was overthrown by the
11922:
11353:
11295:
11242:
11110:
10383:
10154:
10038:
10008:
9789:
9663:
9454:
9028:
8884:
8869:
8775:
8765:
8172:. Nerea. Traducido por Javier Sánchez García-Gutiérrez. p. 248.
6394:
Marín, Manuela (2020). "Women and slaves". In Fierro, Maribel (ed.).
5457:
5455:
4214:
4184:
3872:
3769:
3742:
3597:
3581:
3500:
3388:
3318:
3114:
2898:
who use more bullish criteria estimate between seven and 10 million.
2588:
2397:
2227:
2182:
2152:
2077:
2062:
1467:
1437:
1282:
1042:
982:
816:
509:
486:
428:
7713:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 152–153.
7386:"La noria fluvial en la provincia de Córdoba. Historia y tecnología"
5640:
5638:
5233:
5231:
5229:
5216:
5214:
5177:
5175:
5061:
5059:
5057:
5055:
4702:. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Maritime. p. 111.
3037:
2955:
2914:
12265:
11761:
11619:
11571:
11365:
11271:
11222:
10950:
9784:
9567:
9525:
9464:
8750:
8725:
8607:
8056:
El islam de Al-Ándalus: historia y estructura de su realidad social
7616:
Islamic Palace Architecture in the Western Mediterranean: A History
5377:
5375:
5373:
5371:
4086:
3923:
3809:
3725:
or a Roman-Visigothic estate which was taken over and adapted by a
3400:
3229:
3125:
3013:
2989:
2910:
2771:
2733:
2622:
2508:
2393:
2389:
2369:
2011:
1782:
1742:
1692:
1652:
1557:
1212:
1162:
1062:
437:
8643:
8353:
6443:
Occident and Orient: A Tribute to the Memory of Alexander Scheiber
6439:"The 'abid under the Umayyads of Cordova and the muluk al-tawa'if"
5569:
5476:
5452:
5440:
5162:
5160:
5158:
5091:
5089:
4776:"Documentación feudal y arqueología andalusí: el caso de Mallorca"
3483:
2436:
in 806. In 818, the inhabitants of the al-Rabad suburb of Córdoba
12280:
11876:
11564:
11444:
11322:
11317:
11304:
11288:
11281:
11276:
11008:
9697:
9626:
9582:
9437:
8715:
6862:
5701:
5635:
5226:
5211:
5199:
5172:
5052:
3950:
3842:
3726:
3347:
3066:
2951:
2906:
2764:
2760:
2748:
2737:
2725:
2610:
2523:
2515:
2433:
2415:
2381:
2373:
2329:
2325:
2171:
2081:
2051:
1986:
1822:
1802:
1762:
1672:
1607:
1397:
1012:
588:
478:
433:
376:
9498:
8354:
Martínez Enamorado, Virgilio; Torremocha Silva, Antonio (2001).
8236:
España estratégica: guerra y diplomacia en la historia de España
5623:
5368:
5356:
4757:
4755:
4753:
4751:
11794:
11768:
11727:
11688:
11605:
11518:
11439:
11341:
11251:
11182:
11177:
10944:
10868:
9530:
9405:
9052:
8356:
Almanzor y su época: al-Ándalus en la segunda mitad del siglo X
6144:
5836:
Four thousand years of urban growth : an historical census
5650:
5428:
5309:
5155:
5086:
5003:
Annotated Spanish translation: A. Huici Miranda, Rawd el-Qirtas
4548:
3968:
3913:
3908:
3897:
3660:
Example of a marble capital from Madinat al-Zahra, 10th century
3589:
3550:
3488:
3364:
3351:
3306:
3239:
3093:
3053:
2632:
2514:
Fatimid invasions were thwarted when Abd al-Rahman III secured
2504:
2408:
2246:
2126:
1982:
992:
342:
102:
7250:
M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Córdoba".
6915:
M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Córdoba".
6758:
M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Córdoba".
6580:
M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Córdoba".
5916:
5575:
2813:
The power of the chamberlain was retained by Almanzor's sons,
12043:
11868:
11822:
11810:
11612:
11598:
11557:
11334:
11172:
11029:
11015:
10936:
10899:
10164:
9040:
6536:
6534:
6084:
5662:
5527:
5387:
4748:
3973:
3954:
3815:
3746:
3710:
3632:
Vegetal motifs and figurative imagery carved in ivory on the
3620:, a carved ivory casket made at Madinat al-Zahra dated to 968
3513:
3368:
3346:
culture. During the reign of Abd al-Rahman II the culture of
3314:
3267:
3201:
3101:
3047:
2947:
2838:
2554:
2519:
2500:
2216:
1971:
1941:
524:
514:
441:
287:
8576:. Barcelona: Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona. p. 508.
8337:
Sociedad, política y protesta popular en la España musulmana
8274:
Muslim Spain and Portugal: a political history of al-Andalus
7469:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 11–26.
6618:
1001 inventions & awesome facts from Muslim civilization
5674:
5587:
5551:
5272:
5270:
2642:. The chamberlain carried out wide-ranging military reforms.
11709:
11681:
11631:
11578:
11523:
11036:
8470:
Introducción a la cultura hispánica: Historia, arte, música
6620:. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic. 2012. p. 18.
6484:
Hébert, Raymond J. (1991). "The Coinage of Islamic Spain".
5877:
5482:
4603:
4601:
3963:
3941:
3601:
3554:
3545:
The caliphal workshops also produced fine silks, including
3492:
3329:
In high society, both men and women were expected to learn
2901:
Under Almanzor, the realm also had other large cities like
2404:
2377:
2344:
2111:
272:
9374:
8373:
Matés Baco, Juan Manuel; Agustín González, Enciso (2006).
8372:
8049:. Tomo I. Madrid: Imprenta de Cipriano López. p. 508.
7832:. Casablanca: Société Marocaine de Librairie et d'Édition.
7319:
Water Architecture in the Lands of Syria: The Water-wheels
6945:
6841:
6788:
6531:
6366:
6318:
6306:
6072:
5898:
5516:. No. 2. Saint Léger-Vauban: Zodiaque, p. 55. En francés.
5076:
5074:
3238:) and were highly valued. Some were castrated and sold as
2617:
on 13 October 998 once the gates of the city were opened.
8092:
Historia de los musulmanes de España. Las guerras civiles
6807:
6805:
6803:
6651:
6649:
5691:
5689:
5406:
5404:
5402:
5334:
5332:
5330:
5328:
5326:
5324:
5267:
5121:
5119:
5106:
5104:
5042:
5040:
5038:
5036:
5034:
4936:
4934:
4932:
4930:
4917:
4915:
2571:
invasion of Morocco occurred in 958, led by the general,
8557:. Madrid: Mapfre. Edición de Elena Romero. p. 351.
7045:"Fountain spout – Discover Islamic Art – Virtual Museum"
6685:
6661:
6598:
6558:
6111:
6101:
6099:
5963:
The Formation of al-Andalus, Part 1: History and Society
5933:
5931:
5611:
5494:
5287:
5285:
4598:
3557:
which was made at Madinat al-Zahra and preserved by the
2740:
in 944. The fleet also maintained a significant budget.
2560:
Abd al-Rahman III was succeeded by his 46-year-old son,
2316:
crossed into Southern Hispania from North Africa across
6546:
6504:
6342:
5737:
5725:
5131:
5071:
5019:
4970:
4946:
3991:(later known as the Church of San Cristo de la Luz) in
7749:. In Anderson, Glaire D.; Rosser-Owen, Mariam (eds.).
7422:. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques. pp. 134–182.
7252:
The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture
7204:. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques. pp. 153–154.
6917:
The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture
6896:
6829:
6817:
6800:
6776:
6760:
The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture
6646:
6582:
The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture
6256:
6035:
5865:
5853:
5814:
5713:
5686:
5399:
5344:
5321:
5243:
5187:
5143:
5116:
5101:
5031:
4927:
4912:
4613:
2996:, was largely rural with the exception of the city of
461:
from 756 to 1031. Its territory comprised most of the
8491:. Vol. I. Madrid: Ediciones Rialp. p. 729.
7747:"Madinat Al-Zahra; Transformation of a Caliphal City"
7075:"Qantara – Spout of a fountain in the form of a stag"
6933:
6697:
6673:
6634:
6354:
6330:
6096:
5928:
5904:
5282:
3713:
on the outskirts of Cordoba, most notably one called
3576:, which continued the general configuration of Roman
3121:
which co-existed alongside official church doctrine.
8519:. Barcelona; Buenos Aires: Parkstone International.
8227:
Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages
7869:
Historia de España. España Musulmana: siglos VIII–XV
6047:
5539:
5416:
4982:
4958:
4900:
4827:
4815:
4648:. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 108.
3455:
3249:
3243:
3215:
3209:
3202:
3191:
3129:
8072:
7383:
5599:
5461:
5446:
5297:
4736:
4724:
4679:
4625:
3792:. One of the western gates of the mosque, known as
8108:
8030:. Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press.
7642:Baroque Seville: Sacred Art in a Century of Crisis
7435:
7433:
7431:
7429:
5707:
5644:
5237:
5220:
5205:
5181:
5065:
3876:The excavated and partly reconstructed remains of
2697:of 974. For similar reasons, the Barcelonan count
2432:Raids increased the emirate's size such as one to
8574:Estudios sobre la historia de la ciencia medieval
8394:La España medieval: sociedades, estados, culturas
8255:Los nuestros: cien vidas en la historia de España
8044:
7997:Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain
7942:
6575:
6573:
5839:(2nd ed.). Edwen Mellen Press. p. 129.
5629:
5434:
5381:
5362:
5166:
5095:
4646:Muslim identities : an introduction to Islam
3834:) for security reasons and was later replaced by
3424:, a form of Andalusi vernacular poetry combining
473:, and parts of North Africa, with its capital in
12417:
8486:
8252:
8233:
7681:
7527:
7521:
7439:
7249:
7195:
7193:
7191:
6914:
6872:Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences
6757:
6610:
6579:
5656:
5581:
5315:
5255:
5000:
4853:. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 119.
3411:in Switzerland contained just over 100 volumes.
3254:and mostly trained to serve as military troops.
508:, a civil war between the descendants of caliph
8391:
7577:
7426:
7277:"Early Arab Water Technology in Southern Spain"
7049:Discover Islamic Art – Museum With No Frontiers
6908:
5922:
5512:Crespi, Gabriele (1982). "L'Europe Musulmane".
4848:
4773:
3530:motifs. Notable surviving examples include the
3117:practice and the emergence of both old and new
2988:in the center, and before the foothills of the
12466:States and territories established in the 750s
8552:
8410:
8290:
8053:
7890:. Edicions Universitat Barcelona. p. 27.
7805:A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period
7744:
7411:
7268:
7243:
7170:Discover Islamic Art, Museum With No Frontiers
7163:
6570:
6165:
5795:
5773:. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. p. 30.
5668:
5593:
5570:Martínez Enamorado & Torremocha Silva 2001
5533:
5477:Martínez Enamorado & Torremocha Silva 2001
5393:
4872:A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period
4761:
2909:, which were all around 30,000; and Zaragoza,
2384:. The campaigns to unify al-Andalus went into
286:• Disintegrated into several independent
12451:States and territories disestablished in 1031
10884:
9390:
8987:
8659:
8505:
8472:. Barcelona: Publisher Crítica. p. 361.
8468:Russell, Peter Edward; Carr, Raymond (1982).
7188:
5557:
3896:, workshops, barracks, service quarters, and
3813:area of the mosque via a corridor behind the
3764:, one of the most important monuments of the
3358:
2491:ascended to the throne in 912, and faced the
2400:and took over twenty-five years to complete.
2274:
937:
794:
12431:11th-century disestablishments in al-Andalus
10847:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy
9001:
8571:
8415:. Madrid: Miraguano Ediciones. p. 238.
8377:. Barcelona: publisher Ariel. p. 1020.
8334:
7852:. Madrid: Miraguano ediciones. p. 238.
7682:Barrucand, Marianne; Bednorz, Achim (1992).
7632:
7607:
7528:Barrucand, Marianne; Bednorz, Achim (1992).
7440:Barrucand, Marianne; Bednorz, Achim (1992).
6981:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
5883:
5488:
4339:Yaḥya ibn ʿAli ibn Ḥammud al-Muʿtali bi-llāh
4275:Yaḥya ibn ʿAli ibn Ḥammud al-Muʿtali bi-llāh
2364:, refused to recognize the authority of the
820:
9159:
8467:
7827:
7483:
7458:
7136:
6274:
5276:
4492:
4031:from this period include expansions to the
3140:
2972:While the indigenous Jews, Christians, and
10891:
10877:
9397:
9383:
8994:
8980:
8666:
8652:
8339:. Universidad de Costa Rica. p. 611.
8094:. Madrid: Biblioteca Turner. p. 464.
8047:Historia de la economía política en España
7377:
7347:
2281:
2267:
944:
930:
801:
787:
59:
9080:
8533:
8451:Historia de España: Edad Media (711–1500)
8434:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
8358:. Málaga: publisher Sarriá. p. 197.
7885:
7807:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
7802:
7496:. Yale University Press. pp. 17–21.
7292:
7274:
6206:
5956:
5791:
5789:
5787:
5785:
5783:
5781:
5779:
5680:
5617:
5500:
5137:
5080:
5025:
4875:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
4868:
4498:
3766:architecture of the western Islamic world
2636:Almanzor's troops, as represented in the
2582:
457:, was an Arab Islamic state ruled by the
311:600,000 km (230,000 sq mi)
8315:
8238:. Madrid: Sílex ediciones. p. 501.
8186:
8167:
8146:
8127:
6753:
6751:
6749:
6747:
6715:
6552:
6540:
6527:. New York: Albert A. Knopf. p. 70.
6522:
6510:
6372:
6348:
6324:
6252:. New York: Albert A. Knopf. p. 70.
6247:
6202:
6200:
6041:
5871:
5859:
5832:
5695:
5338:
5125:
4940:
4921:
4864:
4862:
4860:
4566:
4165:ʿAbd al-Rahmān III al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh
4147:ʿAbd al-Rahmān III al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh
3902:
3871:
3692:
3517:, a custom that also existed in the east
3261:
3036:
2631:
2429:) did not extend beyond Córdoba itself.
2300:Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula
10671:
8448:
8271:
7904:
7787:
7783:
7781:
7706:
7677:
7675:
7673:
7417:
7322:. L'Erma di Bretschneider. p. 55.
7315:
7214:
7199:
6970:
6968:
6966:
6964:
6962:
6960:
6436:
6397:The Routledge Handbook of Muslim Iberia
6389:
6387:
6385:
6383:
6381:
6278:The Routledge Handbook of Muslim Iberia
6243:
6241:
6161:
6159:
6117:
6105:
6090:
6007:The Routledge Handbook of Muslim Iberia
5910:
5820:
5719:
5410:
5350:
5291:
5249:
5193:
5149:
5110:
5046:
4697:
4607:
3880:, outside Córdoba, Spain (10th century)
3563:National Archeological Museum in Madrid
3553:fountain spout carved in the form of a
3503:, medicine, or various other sciences.
2877:
14:
12418:
8585:. Kassel: Reichenberger. p. 172.
8580:
8429:
8025:
7993:
7961:
7947:. Ministerio de Defensa. p. 199.
7923:
7638:
7613:
7552:
7359:alcazardelosreyescristianos.cordoba.es
7132:
7130:
6951:
6939:
6902:
6858:
6856:
6847:
6835:
6823:
6811:
6794:
6782:
6728:from the original on 25 September 2024
6703:
6691:
6679:
6667:
6655:
6640:
6604:
6564:
6483:
6479:
6477:
6475:
6473:
6432:
6430:
6428:
6360:
6336:
6312:
6262:
6150:
6078:
5999:
5997:
5995:
5993:
5952:
5950:
5948:
5946:
5937:
5899:Matés Baco & Agustín González 2006
5776:
5743:
5731:
5422:
5001:Abi Zar, Ibn; al-Qirtas, Rawd (1964).
4988:
4976:
4964:
4952:
4906:
4833:
4821:
4685:
4643:
4631:
4619:
4570:War in the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1600
4554:
3854:Collegiate Church of the Divine Savior
3768:. The mosque was notable for its vast
3270:of Hisham II, dated 396 AH (1006–7 AD)
3083:
12129:
11897:
11513:
10872:
9378:
9014:
8975:
8647:
8224:
8205:
8028:Muslim Spain: Its History and Culture
7847:
7796:
7489:
7464:
7384:Córdoba de la Llave, Ricardo (1997).
7365:from the original on 15 November 2021
7115:from the original on 16 November 2021
7055:from the original on 26 November 2020
7024:from the original on 16 November 2021
6974:
6744:
6393:
6197:
6066:
6053:
6003:
5756:
5754:
5752:
5605:
5545:
4857:
4844:
4842:
4305:ʿAbd al-Rahmān V al-Mustaẓhir bi-llāh
4255:ʿAli ibn Ḥammud al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh
3838:when the latter expanded the mosque.
3399:was among the most notable poets and
2941:
2660:At that time al-Andalus was known as
27:State in Islamic Iberia (756–1031 CE)
11898:
11514:
8514:
8089:
7909:. Editorial Nerea, S.A. p. 28.
7866:
7821:
7792:. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques.
7778:
7670:
7595:from the original on 11 October 2020
7467:Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain
7042:
6978:Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain
6957:
6716:Slamecka, Vladimir (9 August 2018).
6378:
6238:
6156:
5303:
5261:
4742:
4730:
4235:ʿAbd al-Raḥmān IV al-Murtaḍā bi-llāh
3760:In 785, Abd al-Rahman I founded the
3045:In matters of Islamic religion, the
2828:in 1009 marked the beginning of the
959:Historical Arab states and dynasties
538:
12481:Former countries in Spanish history
12436:Former Islamic monarchies in Europe
8673:
8536:Almanzor y los terrores del milenio
8534:Fernández, Fernando Valdés (1999).
8489:Historia de España: Antigua y Media
8257:. Barcelona: Planeta. p. 437.
8253:Jiménez Losantos, Federico (1999).
7790:L'architecture musulmane d'Occident
7565:from the original on 8 October 2020
7420:L'architecture musulmane d'Occident
7202:L'architecture musulmane d'Occident
7176:from the original on 31 August 2021
7127:
6853:
6516:
6470:
6425:
5990:
5943:
4536:from the original on 17 August 2018
4461:, or to the 14th century under the
3445:
3438:History of the Rulers of al-Andalus
3274:The economy of al-Andalus had been
3235:
3197:
3135:
2962:
821:
203:
153:
24:
9053:(Eastern) Roman Province of Spania
8601:
8506:Tapia Garrido, José Ángel (1976).
8316:Aizpurúa, Juan Pablo Fusi (2012).
8210:. Barcelona: Ediciones Robinbook.
8153:. University of California Press.
8045:Colmeiro y Penido, Manuel (1863).
7294:10.1111/j.1747-6593.2004.tb00519.x
7085:from the original on 19 April 2021
5749:
4839:
3867:
3721:Ruṣāfa may have originally been a
2598:Almanzor had great influence over
65:Caliphate of Córdoba circa 1000 AD
25:
12502:
9096:Province of the Umayyad Caliphate
8291:Lévi Provençal, Évariste (1957).
7684:Moorish architecture in Andalusia
7645:. Penn State Press. p. 127.
7530:Moorish architecture in Andalusia
7442:Moorish architecture in Andalusia
6975:Dodds, Jerrilynn D., ed. (1992).
4043:
3688:
2716:'s ships in the campaign against
12426:1031 disestablishments in Europe
12368:
12367:
12356:
11877:Schools of islamic jurisprudence
11067:Timeline of the history of Islam
10898:
8784:
8553:Vallvé Bermejo, Joaquín (1992).
8411:Morales Romero, Eduardo (2004).
8392:Mitre Fernández, Emilio (1979).
8191:. Editorial NEREA. p. 213.
8113:. Silex Ediciones. p. 272.
8111:Almanzor: un califa en la sombra
8109:Echevarría Arsuaga, Ana (2011).
7943:Castellanos Gómez, Juan (2002).
7871:. Tomo III. Labor. p. 558.
7745:Vallejo Triano, Antonio (2007).
7738:
7700:
7546:
7309:
7208:
7157:
7097:
7067:
7036:
7006:
6724:. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
6709:
6268:
6213:. Routledge. pp. ix–xviii.
6123:
4468:
4450:
4315:Muhammad III al-Mustakfi bi-llāh
4175:Al-Ḥakam II al-Mustanṣir bi-llāh
3939:He also expanded the courtyard (
3665:
3653:
3641:
3625:
3609:
3185:
1380:Western dynasties and caliphates
964:
913:
832:
408:
383:
369:
12228:List of ex-Muslim organisations
9324:Monarchs of Barcelona/Catalonia
8487:Suárez Fernández, Luis (1976).
8396:. Ediciones Akal. p. 392.
8234:González Batista, Juan (2007).
8054:Cruz Hernández, Miguel (1992).
8014:from the original on 2024-09-25
7982:from the original on 2023-10-21
7840:
7767:from the original on 2024-09-25
7727:from the original on 2024-09-25
7659:from the original on 2023-06-02
7510:from the original on 2024-06-08
7400:from the original on 2023-12-14
7336:from the original on 2024-09-25
6995:from the original on 2024-07-29
6885:from the original on 2021-12-07
6459:from the original on 2024-07-29
6414:from the original on 2024-07-29
6400:. Routledge. pp. 228–248.
6295:from the original on 2024-07-29
6281:. Routledge. pp. 208–228.
6227:from the original on 2024-07-29
6186:from the original on 2024-09-25
6059:
6024:from the original on 2024-07-29
6010:. Routledge. pp. 189–207.
5979:from the original on 2024-09-25
5957:Hernandez, Miguel Cruz (2016).
5826:
5506:
4994:
4889:from the original on 2023-10-21
4804:from the original on 2024-08-17
4767:
4691:
4587:from the original on 2023-11-01
4509:International Studies Quarterly
4019:of Córdoba, and, possibly, the
3829:
3677:
3559:Archeological Museum of Córdoba
2854:. The last Córdoban Caliph was
2774:. During the Catalan campaign,
2736:of the fleet had been built in
882:Umayyad Caliphate in al-Andalus
8633:. Barcelona: Barral Editores.
8335:Marín Guzmán, Roberto (2006).
7968:. Farrar, Strauss and Giroux.
7710:Islamic Gardens and Landscapes
7707:Ruggles, D. Fairchild (2008).
6131:A History of the Islamic World
4670:
4637:
4560:
4413:List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
3823:was built by the Umayyad emir
3155:Mozarabic art and architecture
2770:In 985, the fleet ravaged the
2420:Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi
477:. From 756 it was ruled as an
13:
1:
8927:Al-Qasim al-Ma'mun ibn Hammud
8913:Al-Qasim al-Ma'mun ibn Hammud
8168:Fletcher, Richard A. (1999).
8147:Fletcher, Richard A. (1992).
7281:Water and Environment Journal
7043:Llorente, Margarita Sánchez.
5965:. Routledge. pp. 54–55.
5798:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three
4438:
4352:Caliphs of Córdoba (Restored)
4298:Caliphs of Córdoba (Restored)
4285:Al-Ma'mun al-Qāsim ibn Ḥammud
4265:Al-Ma'mun al-Qāsim ibn Ḥammud
4215:Hishām II al-Muʾayyad bi-llāh
4185:Hishām II al-Muʾayyad bi-llāh
3858:Iglesia Colegial del Salvador
3846:
3841:The original Great Mosque of
3701:in the oldest section of the
3377:Islamic religious scholarship
3168:
3051:(religious scholars) and the
2423:
2293:
702:Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa
12213:Apostasy in Islam by country
12080:Liberalism and progressivism
8375:Historia económica de España
7316:Miranda, Adriana de (2007).
4774:Rosselló Bordoy, G. (2007).
4698:Stanton, Charles D. (2015).
4485:
4359:Hisham III al-Muʿtad bi-llāh
4225:Sulaymān al-Mustaʿin bi'llāh
4205:Sulaymān al-Mustaʿin bi'llāh
4195:Muhammad II al-Mahdī bi'llāh
3931:, in the extension added by
3864:and remains standing today.
3852:. It is now occupied by the
3580:but were deeply carved with
3471:Golden Age of Jewish culture
3339:and other forms of culture.
3041:Exterior of the Great Mosque
2483:
2362:deposed Umayyad royal family
7:
9404:
8572:Vernet Ginés, Juan (1979).
8430:Reilly, Bernard F. (1993).
8132:. Oxford University Press.
7828:Le Tourneau, Roger (1949).
7618:. Oxford University Press.
7490:Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020).
7444:. Taschen. pp. 39–49.
7254:. Oxford University Press.
7164:El Khatib-Boujibar, Naima.
6919:. Oxford University Press.
6762:. Oxford University Press.
6584:. Oxford University Press.
6445:. Brill. pp. 229–238.
6207:Hitchcock, Richard (2016).
6172:. Brill. pp. 353–377.
5961:. In Marin, Manuela (ed.).
4851:A History of Medieval Spain
4849:O'Callaghan, J. F. (1983).
4376:
3456:
3430:vernacular Romance language
3250:
3244:
3216:
3210:
3203:
3192:
3147:Andalusi dialect of Romance
3130:
3027:
2920:
2801:
1100:Arab empires and caliphates
10:
12507:
12486:11th century in al-Andalus
12461:10th century in al-Andalus
12130:
8225:Glick, Thomas F. (2005) .
8187:Fletcher, Richard (2000).
8128:Fletcher, Richard (1991).
8090:Dozy, Reinhart P. (2010).
7886:Ballestín, Xavier (2004).
6523:Karabell, Zachary (2007).
6248:Karabell, Zachary (2007).
5833:Chandler, Tertius (1987).
4557:, pp. 36 (and after).
3966:, and a richly-ornamented
3681:
3567:Islamic Art Museum in Doha
3359:Literature and scholarship
3324:
3257:
3092:who took on the status of
3065:legal schools of thought (
2861:
2701:created the figure of the
2591:. Al-Hakam's top advisor,
2351:
2297:
512:and the successors of his
12456:9th century in al-Andalus
12351:
12236:
12203:
12143:
12139:
12125:
12052:
12019:
11991:Geography and cartography
11966:
11913:
11909:
11893:
11719:
11641:
11588:
11537:
11533:
11509:
11379:
11203:
11163:
11046:
10998:
10922:
10918:
10907:
10840:
10792:
10309:
9713:
9412:
9294:
9224:Principality of Catalonia
9169:
9158:
9154:
9091:
9079:
9075:
9024:
9013:
9009:
8958:
8848:
8793:
8782:
8699:
8681:
8318:Historia mínima de España
8229:. The Netherlands: Brill.
8075:Revista de historia naval
8026:Chejne, Anwar G. (1974).
8000:. New York: Basic Books.
7994:Catlos, Brian A. (2018).
7962:Catlos, Brian A. (2014).
7803:Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987).
7788:Marçais, Georges (1954).
7555:"El sabat de la Mezquita"
7553:Fatima (7 October 2014).
7418:Marçais, Georges (1954).
7275:Headworth, H. G. (2004).
7200:Marçais, Georges (1954).
7151:10.1163/15700674-12342164
5760:Catlos, Brain A. (2014).
4869:Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987).
4700:Medieval maritime warfare
4644:Hughes, Aaron W. (2013).
4367:
4347:
4323:
4293:
4243:
4057:
4050:
4003:(and later monastery) of
3949:and built its first true
2461:had used Berbers and the
822:
492:The state was founded by
424:
348:
338:
334:
324:
320:
315:
307:
302:
298:
284:
264:
260:
252:
248:
235:
222:
218:
202:
198:
185:
172:
168:
152:
141:
116:
80:
70:
58:
53:
32:
12491:Ummayad state of Córdoba
12310:Islamic view of miracles
9003:Spain in the Middle Ages
8944:Yahya ibn Ali al-Mu'tali
8920:Yahya ibn Ali al-Mu'tali
8611:Collegium Antropologicum
8449:Ríu Ríu, Manuel (1988).
8276:. Longman. p. 342.
7018:www.museosdeandalucia.es
6718:"Information processing"
6441:. In Dán, Robert (ed.).
6437:Handler, Andrew (2023).
6153:, pp. 107–108, 157.
5462:De Bordejé Morencos 1992
5447:De Bordejé Morencos 1992
4443:
3953:(a tower from which the
3705:in Spain, founded in 785
3032:
2984:in the west, around the
2817:, who died in 1008, and
2815:Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar
2499:Islamic empire based in
2495:, a rival North African
1408:Umayyad state of Córdoba
598:Umayyad state of Córdoba
12065:Creationism (evolution)
9162:Feudal Christian realms
8906:Ali ibn Hammud al-Nasir
8320:. Turner. p. 304.
8206:Frers, Ernesto (2008).
7905:Bariani, Laura (2003).
7639:Wunder, Amanda (2017).
7561:(in European Spanish).
7532:. Taschen. p. 70.
5708:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011
5645:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011
5277:Russell & Carr 1982
5238:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011
5221:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011
5206:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011
5182:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011
5066:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011
4522:10.1111/0020-8833.00053
3972:(niche symbolizing the
3929:Great Mosque of Cordoba
3762:Great Mosque of Cordoba
3703:Great Mosque of Cordoba
3506:
3457:Akhbār mulūk al-Andalus
3299:agricultural revolution
2826:Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo
2819:Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo
2751:. He repulsed raids by
2686:Évariste Lévi-Provençal
2639:Cantigas de Santa Maria
2318:the Strait of Gibraltar
623:Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir
12325:Persecution of Muslims
12223:List of former Muslims
11072:Succession to Muhammad
9309:Monarchs of al-Andalus
8609:haplogroups J and E".
8555:El Califato de Córdoba
8272:Kennedy, Hugh (1996).
7928:. Palgrave Macmillan.
7924:Barton, Simon (2004).
7614:Arnold, Felix (2017).
7585:"The andalusi Alcazar"
6093:, pp. 54–58, 126.
5630:Castellanos Gómez 2002
5435:Castellanos Gómez 2002
5382:Colmeiro y Penido 1863
5363:Colmeiro y Penido 1863
5167:Castellanos Gómez 2002
5096:Castellanos Gómez 2002
4423:Timeline of Septimania
3936:
3881:
3706:
3582:Islamic vegetal motifs
3395:, and other sciences.
3271:
3042:
2933:. In the 9th century,
2718:Santiago de Compostela
2643:
2583:Reforms under Almanzor
2374:existing Muslim rulers
12109:Conversion to mosques
11976:Alchemy and chemistry
10817:Medieval great powers
8629:Guichard, P. (1976).
8581:Weiner, Jack (2001).
8515:Vara, Carlos (2012).
7867:Arié, Rachel (1984).
7217:Early Medieval Europe
6129:Fred J. Hill et al.,
5657:Suárez Fernández 1976
5582:Jiménez Losantos 1999
5514:Les Formes de la nuit
5316:González Batista 2007
4137:Abdallah ibn Muhammad
4029:Moroccan architecture
3906:
3890:congregational mosque
3875:
3798:Puerta de San Esteban
3696:
3682:Further information:
3416:Ibn Darraj al-Qastali
3265:
3040:
2759:('men of the north',
2635:
1998:Sultanate of Zanzibar
1913:Mutawakkilite Kingdom
547:History of Al-Andalus
533:Andalusi architecture
485:adopted the title of
465:(known to Muslims as
132:Christianity, Judaism
81:Common languages
11835:Ma malakat aymanukum
11410:Association football
11309:Moderate Kharijites
10827:European colonialism
10812:Ancient great powers
9359:Monarchs of Valencia
9319:Monarchs of Asturias
9106:Caliphate of Córdoba
9046:Kingdom of the Suebi
8895:Abd Allah al-Mu'ayti
8130:The Quest for El Cid
7753:. Brill. p. 3.
6081:, pp. 190, 192.
5923:Mitre Fernández 1979
4388:History of Gibraltar
4369:End of the Caliphate
4328:Caliphs of Córdoba (
4015:(near Seville), the
3989:Bab al-Mardum Mosque
3962:, decorative ribbed
3684:Moorish architecture
3108:The local Christian
2878:Population estimates
2866:Under Umayyad rule,
2695:Fuero de Castrojeriz
2548:the Byzantine Empire
2526:in 951. In 948, the
2380:into an independent
744:Battle of the Strait
455:Caliphate of Córdoba
42:Caliphate of Córdoba
12398: /
10822:Modern great powers
9354:Monarchs of Navarre
9349:Monarchs of Majorca
9339:Monarchs of Granada
9334:Monarchs of Galicia
9329:Monarchs of Castile
9299:Visigothic monarchs
9280:Kingdom of Valencia
9248:Kingdom of Artajona
9229:Kingdom of Pamplona
9220:County of Barcelona
9174:Kingdom of Asturias
8701:Caliphs of Damascus
8517:Las Navas de Tolosa
8432:The Medieval Spains
7139:Medieval Encounters
6954:, pp. 139–141.
6850:, pp. 166–167.
6797:, pp. 165–166.
6315:, pp. 151–157.
5683:, pp. 153–154.
5669:Lévi Provençal 1957
5594:Lévi Provençal 1957
5534:Morales Romero 2004
5394:Vallvé Bermejo 1992
4762:Cruz Hernández 1992
4398:History of Portugal
3997:Arabic inscriptions
3974:direction of prayer
3862:Knights of Santiago
3636:, made in 1004–1005
3618:Pyxis of al-Mughira
3578:Corinthian capitals
3532:Pyxis of al-Mughira
3409:Abbey of Saint Gall
3280:trans-Saharan trade
3084:Christians and Jews
2830:Fitna of al-Andalus
2322:Battle of Guadalete
975:Ancient Arab states
902:Sharifian Caliphate
876:Parallel caliphates
674:Second Taifa period
569:Battle of Guadalete
506:Fitna of al-Andalus
12476:929 establishments
12471:756 establishments
12441:Former Arab states
12330:Quran and miracles
12244:Criticism of Islam
11948:Geometric patterns
11800:Gender segregation
11371:Non-denominational
9314:Monarchs of Aragon
9275:Kingdom of Majorca
9238:Kingdom of Viguera
9233:Kingdom of Navarre
9195:Kingdom of Castile
9183:Kingdom of Galicia
9142:Emirate of Granada
9101:Emirate of Córdoba
9058:Duchy of Cantabria
9034:Visigothic Kingdom
8850:Caliphs of Córdoba
7926:A History of Spain
7229:10.1111/emed.12347
5769:2023-10-21 at the
5558:Tapia Garrido 1976
4610:, pp. 30–129.
4502:(September 1997).
4418:Martyrs of Córdoba
4403:History of Morocco
4393:History of Algeria
4248:Caliphs of Córdoba
4013:Baños de la Encina
4005:Almonaster la Real
3937:
3882:
3755:Guadalquivir River
3707:
3594:Dar Si Said Museum
3466:Hasdai ibn Shaprut
3446:أخبار ملوك الأندلس
3272:
3163:Hasdai ibn Shaprut
3090:People of the Book
3043:
2986:Cordillera Central
2942:Ethnic composition
2644:
2360:, a prince of the
2306:Visigothic Kingdom
2040:Current monarchies
1703:Sharifate of Mecca
1173:Emirate of Tbilisi
1163:Emirate of Armenia
1013:Kingdom of Osroene
849:Rashidun Caliphate
724:Emirate of Granada
711:Third Taifa period
665:Battle of Sagrajas
632:First Taifa period
579:Battle of Toulouse
518:(court official),
502:Abbasid Revolution
451:Emirate of Córdoba
34:Emirate of Córdoba
12381:
12380:
12347:
12346:
12343:
12342:
12315:Domestic violence
12305:Islamic terrorism
12300:Islamic extremism
12121:
12120:
12117:
12116:
11889:
11888:
11885:
11884:
11675:Marriage contract
11505:
11504:
11465:Political aspects
11194:Story of Prophets
10963:Prophets of Islam
10866:
10865:
10788:
10787:
10753:Polish–Lithuanian
9928:Gurjara-Pratihara
9372:
9371:
9290:
9289:
9266:Kingdom of Aragon
9243:Kingdom of Najera
9209:Kingdom of Toledo
9188:County of Castile
9150:
9149:
9130:Almohad Caliphate
9118:Almoravid Emirate
9071:
9070:
9063:Duchy of Vasconia
9017:Early Middle Ages
8969:
8968:
8860:Abd al-Rahman III
8840:Abd al-Rahman III
8592:978-3-935004-38-1
8564:978-8-47100-406-2
8545:978-84-89483-09-5
8526:978-84-350-4582-7
8498:978-84-321-1882-1
8479:978-84-7423-186-1
8460:978-84-239-5090-4
8422:978-84-7813-270-6
8365:978-84-95129-55-0
8327:978-84-7506-677-6
8264:978-84-08-03304-2
8217:978-84-7927-963-9
8198:978-84-89569-40-9
8160:978-0-520-24840-3
8139:978-0-19-506955-6
8101:978-84-7506-941-8
7975:978-0-374-53532-2
7935:978-0-333-63257-4
7916:978-84-89569-85-0
7897:978-84-475-2772-4
7760:978-90-04-16227-3
7652:978-0-271-07941-7
7166:"Ablutions basin"
6694:, pp. 94–95.
6670:, pp. 40–41.
6627:978-1-4263-1258-8
6607:, pp. 89–99.
6567:, pp. 89–95.
6543:, pp. 62–64.
6452:978-90-04-67117-1
6407:978-1-317-23354-1
6375:, pp. 36–38.
6327:, pp. 35–36.
6288:978-1-317-23354-1
6220:978-1-317-09373-2
6179:978-90-04-52415-6
6120:, pp. 57–58.
6017:978-1-317-23354-1
5972:978-1-351-88960-5
5884:Marín Guzmán 2006
5846:978-0-88946-207-6
5746:, pp. 87–89.
5734:, pp. 42–43.
5489:Vernet Ginés 1979
4979:, pp. 38–40.
4955:, pp. 37–38.
4622:, pp. 43–49.
4580:978-1-351-77886-2
4476:Seville Cathedral
4374:
4373:
4062:rulers of Córdoba
4052:Rulers of Córdoba
3980:-influenced gold
3917:(center) and the
3699:two-tiered arches
3454:
3426:vernacular Arabic
3144:
2935:Romance languages
2852:Taifa of Zaragoza
2493:Fatimid Caliphate
2489:Abd al-Rahman III
2366:Abbasid Caliphate
2310:Umayyad Caliphate
2291:
2290:
2256:
2255:
2031:
2030:
2023:Tippu Tip's State
1921:
1920:
1893:Emirate of Beihan
1625:Arabian Peninsula
1616:
1615:
1371:
1370:
1155:Eastern dynasties
1146:
1145:
1091:
1090:
1003:Nabataean Kingdom
993:Kingdom of Lihyan
954:
953:
892:Almohad Caliphate
887:Fatimid Caliphate
864:Ottoman Caliphate
859:Abbasid Caliphate
854:Umayyad Caliphate
811:
810:
765:Iberian Peninsula
618:Abd al-Rahman III
539:Political history
483:Abd al-Rahman III
463:Iberian Peninsula
447:
446:
420:
419:
416:
415:
396:
395:
326:• 1000 est.
237:• 1026–1031
229:Abd al-Rahman III
192:Abd al-Rahman III
18:Cordoba Caliphate
16:(Redirected from
12498:
12446:Gharb Al-Andalus
12413:
12412:
12410:
12409:
12408:
12403:
12399:
12396:
12395:
12394:
12391:
12371:
12370:
12363:Islam portal
12361:
12360:
12359:
12141:
12140:
12133:
12127:
12126:
11968:Medieval science
11911:
11910:
11901:
11895:
11894:
11552:Economic history
11535:
11534:
11511:
11510:
11497:Islam by country
11282:Bektashi Alevism
10920:
10919:
10911:Outline of Islam
10893:
10886:
10879:
10870:
10869:
10669:
10668:
10334:Austro-Hungarian
10034:Chagatai Khanate
9399:
9392:
9385:
9376:
9375:
9344:Monarchs of León
9262:County of Aragon
9256:
9216:Catalan counties
9199:Crown of Castile
9156:
9155:
9077:
9076:
9011:
9010:
8996:
8989:
8982:
8973:
8972:
8900:Abd al-Rahman IV
8820:Abd ar-Rahman II
8795:Emirs of Córdoba
8788:
8668:
8661:
8654:
8645:
8644:
8626:
8617:(4): 1215–1228.
8596:
8577:
8568:
8549:
8530:
8511:
8502:
8483:
8464:
8445:
8426:
8407:
8388:
8369:
8350:
8331:
8312:
8287:
8268:
8249:
8230:
8221:
8202:
8183:
8164:
8143:
8124:
8105:
8086:
8069:
8050:
8041:
8022:
8020:
8019:
7990:
7988:
7987:
7958:
7939:
7920:
7901:
7882:
7863:
7834:
7833:
7825:
7819:
7818:
7800:
7794:
7793:
7785:
7776:
7775:
7773:
7772:
7742:
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7732:
7704:
7698:
7697:
7679:
7668:
7667:
7665:
7664:
7636:
7630:
7629:
7611:
7605:
7604:
7602:
7600:
7581:
7575:
7574:
7572:
7570:
7550:
7544:
7543:
7525:
7519:
7518:
7516:
7515:
7487:
7481:
7480:
7462:
7456:
7455:
7437:
7424:
7423:
7415:
7409:
7408:
7406:
7405:
7381:
7375:
7374:
7372:
7370:
7351:
7345:
7344:
7342:
7341:
7313:
7307:
7306:
7296:
7272:
7266:
7265:
7247:
7241:
7240:
7212:
7206:
7205:
7197:
7186:
7185:
7183:
7181:
7161:
7155:
7154:
7134:
7125:
7124:
7122:
7120:
7101:
7095:
7094:
7092:
7090:
7071:
7065:
7064:
7062:
7060:
7040:
7034:
7033:
7031:
7029:
7010:
7004:
7003:
7001:
7000:
6972:
6955:
6949:
6943:
6937:
6931:
6930:
6912:
6906:
6900:
6894:
6893:
6891:
6890:
6884:
6869:
6860:
6851:
6845:
6839:
6833:
6827:
6821:
6815:
6809:
6798:
6792:
6786:
6780:
6774:
6773:
6755:
6742:
6741:
6735:
6733:
6713:
6707:
6701:
6695:
6689:
6683:
6677:
6671:
6665:
6659:
6653:
6644:
6638:
6632:
6631:
6614:
6608:
6602:
6596:
6595:
6577:
6568:
6562:
6556:
6550:
6544:
6538:
6529:
6528:
6520:
6514:
6508:
6502:
6501:
6492:(1/2): 117–119.
6481:
6468:
6467:
6465:
6464:
6434:
6423:
6422:
6420:
6419:
6391:
6376:
6370:
6364:
6358:
6352:
6346:
6340:
6334:
6328:
6322:
6316:
6310:
6304:
6303:
6301:
6300:
6272:
6266:
6260:
6254:
6253:
6245:
6236:
6235:
6233:
6232:
6204:
6195:
6194:
6192:
6191:
6163:
6154:
6148:
6142:
6127:
6121:
6115:
6109:
6103:
6094:
6088:
6082:
6076:
6070:
6069:, pp. 23–24
6063:
6057:
6051:
6045:
6039:
6033:
6032:
6030:
6029:
6001:
5988:
5987:
5985:
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5902:
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5887:
5881:
5875:
5869:
5863:
5857:
5851:
5850:
5830:
5824:
5818:
5812:
5811:
5793:
5774:
5758:
5747:
5741:
5735:
5729:
5723:
5717:
5711:
5705:
5699:
5693:
5684:
5678:
5672:
5666:
5660:
5654:
5648:
5642:
5633:
5627:
5621:
5615:
5609:
5603:
5597:
5591:
5585:
5579:
5573:
5567:
5561:
5555:
5549:
5543:
5537:
5531:
5525:
5510:
5504:
5498:
5492:
5486:
5480:
5474:
5465:
5459:
5450:
5444:
5438:
5432:
5426:
5420:
5414:
5408:
5397:
5391:
5385:
5379:
5366:
5360:
5354:
5348:
5342:
5336:
5319:
5313:
5307:
5301:
5295:
5289:
5280:
5274:
5265:
5259:
5253:
5247:
5241:
5235:
5224:
5218:
5209:
5203:
5197:
5191:
5185:
5179:
5170:
5164:
5153:
5147:
5141:
5135:
5129:
5123:
5114:
5108:
5099:
5093:
5084:
5078:
5069:
5063:
5050:
5044:
5029:
5023:
5017:
5016:
4998:
4992:
4986:
4980:
4974:
4968:
4962:
4956:
4950:
4944:
4938:
4925:
4919:
4910:
4904:
4898:
4897:
4895:
4894:
4866:
4855:
4854:
4846:
4837:
4831:
4825:
4819:
4813:
4812:
4810:
4809:
4803:
4780:
4771:
4765:
4759:
4746:
4740:
4734:
4728:
4722:
4721:
4695:
4689:
4683:
4677:
4674:
4668:
4667:
4641:
4635:
4629:
4623:
4617:
4611:
4605:
4596:
4595:
4593:
4592:
4564:
4558:
4552:
4546:
4545:
4543:
4541:
4496:
4479:
4472:
4466:
4454:
4408:History of Spain
4383:History of Islam
4107:Abd al-Rahman II
4048:
4047:
4011:, the Castle of
4009:Castle of Tarifa
3960:multifoil arches
3886:Madinat al-Zahra
3878:Madinat al-Zahra
3851:
3848:
3833:
3831:
3819:wall. The first
3796:(today known as
3778:Abd al-Rahman II
3774:horseshoe arches
3739:Abd al-Rahman II
3697:The columns and
3669:
3657:
3645:
3629:
3613:
3459:
3449:
3447:
3397:Abbas ibn Firnas
3288:purchasing power
3253:
3247:
3237:
3219:
3213:
3206:
3199:
3195:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3133:
2964:
2927:Classical Arabic
2888:Tertius Chandler
2848:Taifa of Seville
2844:Taifa of Córdoba
2842:, including the
2834:Hammudid dynasty
2703:homes of paratge
2452:Emirate of Crete
2446:
2428:
2425:
2283:
2276:
2269:
2044:
2043:
2008:Nabahani dynasty
1953:Nabahani dynasty
1938:Makhzumi dynasty
1934:
1933:
1629:
1628:
1384:
1383:
1183:Emirate of Crete
1159:
1158:
1104:
1103:
1083:Kingdom of Kinda
1033:Kingdom of Hatra
983:Kingdom of Qedar
979:
978:
968:
956:
955:
946:
939:
932:
920:Islam portal
918:
917:
916:
897:Sokoto Caliphate
836:
827:
826:
824:
813:
812:
803:
796:
789:
757:Related articles
731:
730:
718:
717:
694:
693:
681:
680:
652:
651:
639:
638:
605:
604:
574:Siege of Córdoba
561:
560:
543:
542:
471:Balearic Islands
453:, from 929, the
412:
411:
400:
399:
387:
386:
373:
372:
366:
365:
350:
349:
211:
210:
161:
160:
98:Berber languages
93:Andalusi Romance
63:
48:
47:
40:
39:
30:
29:
21:
12506:
12505:
12501:
12500:
12499:
12497:
12496:
12495:
12416:
12415:
12406:
12404:
12400:
12397:
12392:
12389:
12387:
12385:
12384:
12382:
12377:
12357:
12355:
12339:
12261:Cultural Muslim
12232:
12199:
12145:Other religions
12135:
12131:
12113:
12048:
12015:
11962:
11905:
11903:Islamic studies
11899:
11881:
11715:
11660:
11637:
11584:
11529:
11528:
11501:
11450:Moral teachings
11393:
11375:
11349:Nation of Islam
11262:Twelver Shi'ism
11199:
11165:Religious texts
11159:
11077:Early conquests
11060:
11042:
10994:
10914:
10903:
10897:
10867:
10862:
10851:American Empire
10836:
10832:African empires
10784:
10667:
10359:Central African
10305:
10123:Romano-Germanic
9709:
9443:Middle Assyrian
9416:
9408:
9403:
9373:
9368:
9364:Military orders
9304:Suebic monarchs
9286:
9270:Crown of Aragon
9250:
9178:Kingdom of León
9165:
9146:
9087:
9067:
9020:
9005:
9000:
8970:
8965:
8954:
8933:Abd al-Rahman V
8852:
8844:
8805:Abd al-Rahman I
8797:
8789:
8780:
8703:
8695:
8677:
8675:Umayyad dynasty
8672:
8604:
8602:Further reading
8599:
8593:
8565:
8546:
8527:
8499:
8480:
8461:
8442:
8423:
8404:
8385:
8366:
8347:
8328:
8309:
8284:
8265:
8246:
8218:
8199:
8180:
8161:
8140:
8121:
8102:
8066:
8038:
8017:
8015:
8008:
7985:
7983:
7976:
7955:
7936:
7917:
7898:
7879:
7860:
7843:
7838:
7837:
7826:
7822:
7815:
7801:
7797:
7786:
7779:
7770:
7768:
7761:
7743:
7739:
7730:
7728:
7721:
7705:
7701:
7694:
7680:
7671:
7662:
7660:
7653:
7637:
7633:
7626:
7612:
7608:
7598:
7596:
7583:
7582:
7578:
7568:
7566:
7559:Arte en Córdoba
7551:
7547:
7540:
7526:
7522:
7513:
7511:
7504:
7488:
7484:
7477:
7463:
7459:
7452:
7438:
7427:
7416:
7412:
7403:
7401:
7382:
7378:
7368:
7366:
7353:
7352:
7348:
7339:
7337:
7330:
7314:
7310:
7273:
7269:
7262:
7248:
7244:
7213:
7209:
7198:
7189:
7179:
7177:
7162:
7158:
7135:
7128:
7118:
7116:
7103:
7102:
7098:
7088:
7086:
7073:
7072:
7068:
7058:
7056:
7041:
7037:
7027:
7025:
7012:
7011:
7007:
6998:
6996:
6989:
6973:
6958:
6950:
6946:
6938:
6934:
6927:
6913:
6909:
6901:
6897:
6888:
6886:
6882:
6867:
6861:
6854:
6846:
6842:
6834:
6830:
6822:
6818:
6810:
6801:
6793:
6789:
6781:
6777:
6770:
6756:
6745:
6731:
6729:
6714:
6710:
6702:
6698:
6690:
6686:
6678:
6674:
6666:
6662:
6654:
6647:
6639:
6635:
6628:
6616:
6615:
6611:
6603:
6599:
6592:
6578:
6571:
6563:
6559:
6551:
6547:
6539:
6532:
6521:
6517:
6509:
6505:
6486:Islamic Studies
6482:
6471:
6462:
6460:
6453:
6435:
6426:
6417:
6415:
6408:
6392:
6379:
6371:
6367:
6359:
6355:
6347:
6343:
6335:
6331:
6323:
6319:
6311:
6307:
6298:
6296:
6289:
6273:
6269:
6261:
6257:
6246:
6239:
6230:
6228:
6221:
6205:
6198:
6189:
6187:
6180:
6164:
6157:
6149:
6145:
6128:
6124:
6116:
6112:
6104:
6097:
6089:
6085:
6077:
6073:
6064:
6060:
6052:
6048:
6040:
6036:
6027:
6025:
6018:
6002:
5991:
5982:
5980:
5973:
5955:
5944:
5936:
5929:
5921:
5917:
5909:
5905:
5897:
5890:
5882:
5878:
5870:
5866:
5858:
5854:
5847:
5831:
5827:
5819:
5815:
5808:
5794:
5777:
5771:Wayback Machine
5759:
5750:
5742:
5738:
5730:
5726:
5718:
5714:
5706:
5702:
5694:
5687:
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5675:
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5663:
5655:
5651:
5643:
5636:
5628:
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5612:
5604:
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5592:
5588:
5580:
5576:
5568:
5564:
5556:
5552:
5544:
5540:
5532:
5528:
5511:
5507:
5499:
5495:
5487:
5483:
5475:
5468:
5460:
5453:
5445:
5441:
5433:
5429:
5421:
5417:
5409:
5400:
5392:
5388:
5380:
5369:
5361:
5357:
5349:
5345:
5337:
5322:
5314:
5310:
5302:
5298:
5290:
5283:
5275:
5268:
5260:
5256:
5248:
5244:
5236:
5227:
5219:
5212:
5204:
5200:
5192:
5188:
5180:
5173:
5165:
5156:
5148:
5144:
5136:
5132:
5124:
5117:
5109:
5102:
5094:
5087:
5079:
5072:
5064:
5053:
5045:
5032:
5024:
5020:
5013:
4999:
4995:
4987:
4983:
4975:
4971:
4963:
4959:
4951:
4947:
4939:
4928:
4920:
4913:
4905:
4901:
4892:
4890:
4883:
4867:
4858:
4847:
4840:
4832:
4828:
4820:
4816:
4807:
4805:
4801:
4778:
4772:
4768:
4760:
4749:
4741:
4737:
4729:
4725:
4710:
4696:
4692:
4684:
4680:
4675:
4671:
4656:
4642:
4638:
4630:
4626:
4618:
4614:
4606:
4599:
4590:
4588:
4581:
4565:
4561:
4553:
4549:
4539:
4537:
4500:Taagepera, Rein
4497:
4493:
4488:
4483:
4482:
4473:
4469:
4455:
4451:
4446:
4441:
4433:Sara al-Qutiyya
4379:
4077:Abd al-Rahman I
4046:
3945:) of Córdoba's
3870:
3868:Caliphal period
3849:
3828:
3731:Tariq ibn Ziyad
3691:
3686:
3680:
3673:
3670:
3661:
3658:
3649:
3646:
3637:
3630:
3621:
3614:
3536:Pyxis of Zamora
3509:
3361:
3327:
3260:
3225:the slave trade
3188:
3179:Richard Bulliet
3171:
3151:Visigothic rite
3110:Catholic Church
3086:
3035:
3030:
2944:
2931:Andalusi Arabic
2923:
2880:
2864:
2804:
2755:(idolaters) or
2585:
2532:Abul-Aish Ahmad
2486:
2480:circa 902–903.
2459:Abd al-Rahman I
2440:
2426:
2358:Abd al-Rahman I
2354:
2314:Tariq ibn Ziyad
2302:
2296:
2287:
2258:
2257:
2041:
2033:
2032:
1968:Mahdali dynasty
1931:
1923:
1922:
1863:Muscat and Oman
1633:Imamate of Oman
1626:
1618:
1617:
1381:
1373:
1372:
1156:
1148:
1147:
1101:
1093:
1092:
1023:Emesene Dynasty
976:
950:
914:
912:
907:
906:
877:
869:
868:
844:
843:Main caliphates
819:
807:
728:
727:
726:
715:
714:
713:
691:
690:
689:
678:
677:
676:
649:
648:
647:
636:
635:
634:
613:Abd al-Rahman I
602:
601:
600:
584:Battle of Tours
558:
557:
556:
554:Muslim conquest
541:
494:Abd al-Rahman I
459:Umayyad dynasty
440:
436:
432:
409:
391:Idrisid dynasty
384:
370:
327:
291:
277:
268:Abd al-Rahman I
238:
225:
224:• 929–961
208:
207:
206:
188:
187:• 912–929
179:Abd al-Rahman I
175:
174:• 756–788
158:
157:
156:
137:
131:
126:
112:
107:Medieval Hebrew
88:Andalusi Arabic
66:
49:
45:
44:
43:
41:
37:
36:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
12504:
12494:
12493:
12488:
12483:
12478:
12473:
12468:
12463:
12458:
12453:
12448:
12443:
12438:
12433:
12428:
12402:37.88°N 4.78°W
12379:
12378:
12376:
12375:
12365:
12352:
12349:
12348:
12345:
12344:
12341:
12340:
12338:
12337:
12332:
12327:
12322:
12317:
12312:
12307:
12302:
12297:
12296:
12295:
12285:
12284:
12283:
12278:
12273:
12263:
12258:
12257:
12256:
12251:
12240:
12238:
12237:Related topics
12234:
12233:
12231:
12230:
12225:
12220:
12215:
12209:
12207:
12201:
12200:
12198:
12197:
12192:
12187:
12182:
12177:
12172:
12171:
12170:
12165:
12160:
12149:
12147:
12137:
12136:
12123:
12122:
12119:
12118:
12115:
12114:
12112:
12111:
12106:
12099:
12094:
12093:
12092:
12082:
12077:
12072:
12067:
12062:
12056:
12054:
12050:
12049:
12047:
12046:
12041:
12036:
12031:
12025:
12023:
12017:
12016:
12014:
12013:
12008:
12003:
11998:
11993:
11988:
11983:
11978:
11972:
11970:
11964:
11963:
11961:
11960:
11955:
11950:
11945:
11940:
11935:
11930:
11925:
11919:
11917:
11907:
11906:
11891:
11890:
11887:
11886:
11883:
11882:
11880:
11879:
11874:
11873:
11872:
11860:
11858:Sources of law
11855:
11850:
11849:
11848:
11838:
11831:
11826:
11819:
11814:
11807:
11802:
11797:
11792:
11787:
11782:
11777:
11772:
11765:
11758:
11757:
11756:
11751:
11746:
11736:
11731:
11723:
11721:
11717:
11716:
11714:
11713:
11706:
11699:
11692:
11685:
11678:
11671:
11663:
11661:
11659:
11658:
11653:
11648:
11642:
11639:
11638:
11636:
11635:
11628:
11623:
11616:
11609:
11602:
11594:
11592:
11586:
11585:
11583:
11582:
11575:
11568:
11561:
11554:
11549:
11543:
11541:
11531:
11530:
11527:
11526:
11521:
11515:
11507:
11506:
11503:
11502:
11500:
11499:
11494:
11489:
11484:
11482:Social welfare
11479:
11474:
11467:
11462:
11457:
11452:
11447:
11442:
11437:
11432:
11427:
11422:
11417:
11412:
11407:
11402:
11396:
11394:
11392:
11391:
11386:
11380:
11377:
11376:
11374:
11373:
11368:
11363:
11362:
11361:
11351:
11346:
11345:
11344:
11339:
11338:
11337:
11332:
11331:
11330:
11325:
11320:
11307:
11293:
11292:
11291:
11286:
11285:
11284:
11274:
11269:
11264:
11254:
11249:
11248:
11247:
11246:
11245:
11235:
11230:
11225:
11220:
11209:
11207:
11201:
11200:
11198:
11197:
11190:
11185:
11180:
11175:
11169:
11167:
11161:
11160:
11158:
11157:
11156:
11155:
11150:
11145:
11140:
11135:
11130:
11125:
11120:
11108:
11103:
11096:
11089:
11087:Historiography
11084:
11079:
11074:
11069:
11063:
11061:
11059:
11058:
11053:
11047:
11044:
11043:
11041:
11040:
11033:
11026:
11019:
11012:
11004:
11002:
10996:
10995:
10993:
10992:
10987:
10982:
10975:
10970:
10965:
10960:
10959:
10958:
10948:
10941:
10940:
10939:
10928:
10926:
10916:
10915:
10908:
10905:
10904:
10896:
10895:
10888:
10881:
10873:
10864:
10863:
10861:
10860:
10859:
10858:
10853:
10844:
10842:
10838:
10837:
10835:
10834:
10829:
10824:
10819:
10814:
10809:
10808:
10807:
10796:
10794:
10790:
10789:
10786:
10785:
10783:
10782:
10777:
10772:
10767:
10762:
10761:
10760:
10750:
10745:
10740:
10735:
10730:
10725:
10720:
10715:
10710:
10705:
10704:
10703:
10698:
10688:
10683:
10677:
10675:
10666:
10665:
10664:
10663:
10658:
10653:
10648:
10643:
10633:
10628:
10627:
10626:
10616:
10611:
10610:
10609:
10604:
10599:
10589:
10584:
10583:
10582:
10577:
10567:
10566:
10565:
10560:
10555:
10550:
10545:
10535:
10534:
10533:
10528:
10518:
10513:
10508:
10503:
10502:
10501:
10496:
10491:
10486:
10481:
10471:
10470:
10469:
10464:
10454:
10449:
10448:
10447:
10442:
10432:
10431:
10430:
10425:
10415:
10414:
10413:
10408:
10398:
10393:
10392:
10391:
10386:
10381:
10376:
10371:
10361:
10356:
10355:
10354:
10349:
10341:
10336:
10331:
10326:
10321:
10315:
10313:
10307:
10306:
10304:
10303:
10298:
10293:
10288:
10287:
10286:
10281:
10276:
10271:
10266:
10261:
10256:
10246:
10241:
10240:
10239:
10234:
10229:
10224:
10219:
10214:
10204:
10203:
10202:
10197:
10192:
10187:
10177:
10172:
10167:
10162:
10157:
10152:
10147:
10142:
10137:
10136:
10135:
10130:
10120:
10119:
10118:
10113:
10108:
10103:
10098:
10093:
10080:
10075:
10070:
10065:
10064:
10063:
10058:
10053:
10043:
10042:
10041:
10036:
10031:
10026:
10016:
10011:
10006:
10001:
9996:
9991:
9990:
9989:
9984:
9979:
9974:
9964:
9963:
9962:
9957:
9952:
9947:
9937:
9936:
9935:
9930:
9925:
9915:
9910:
9905:
9900:
9895:
9894:
9893:
9888:
9883:
9873:
9868:
9867:
9866:
9861:
9856:
9851:
9846:
9841:
9831:
9830:
9829:
9824:
9814:
9813:
9812:
9807:
9802:
9797:
9787:
9782:
9781:
9780:
9770:
9769:
9768:
9763:
9755:
9750:
9745:
9740:
9735:
9730:
9725:
9719:
9717:
9715:Post-classical
9711:
9710:
9708:
9707:
9706:
9705:
9695:
9690:
9689:
9688:
9683:
9673:
9672:
9671:
9661:
9660:
9659:
9654:
9649:
9644:
9639:
9634:
9624:
9619:
9614:
9613:
9612:
9607:
9602:
9597:
9587:
9586:
9585:
9580:
9570:
9565:
9564:
9563:
9558:
9553:
9548:
9543:
9533:
9528:
9523:
9522:
9521:
9516:
9514:Middle Kingdom
9511:
9501:
9496:
9495:
9494:
9489:
9484:
9474:
9473:
9472:
9470:Neo-Babylonian
9467:
9462:
9460:Old Babylonian
9452:
9451:
9450:
9445:
9435:
9430:
9424:
9422:
9410:
9409:
9402:
9401:
9394:
9387:
9379:
9370:
9369:
9367:
9366:
9361:
9356:
9351:
9346:
9341:
9336:
9331:
9326:
9321:
9316:
9311:
9306:
9301:
9295:
9292:
9291:
9288:
9287:
9285:
9284:
9283:
9282:
9277:
9259:
9258:
9257:
9245:
9240:
9226:
9213:
9212:
9211:
9192:
9191:
9190:
9185:
9170:
9167:
9166:
9152:
9151:
9148:
9147:
9145:
9144:
9139:
9132:
9127:
9120:
9115:
9108:
9103:
9098:
9092:
9089:
9088:
9073:
9072:
9069:
9068:
9066:
9065:
9060:
9055:
9050:
9049:
9048:
9038:
9037:
9036:
9025:
9022:
9021:
9007:
9006:
8999:
8998:
8991:
8984:
8976:
8967:
8966:
8959:
8956:
8955:
8953:
8952:
8947:
8940:
8935:
8930:
8923:
8916:
8909:
8902:
8897:
8892:
8887:
8882:
8877:
8872:
8867:
8862:
8856:
8854:
8846:
8845:
8843:
8842:
8837:
8832:
8827:
8822:
8817:
8812:
8807:
8801:
8799:
8791:
8790:
8783:
8781:
8779:
8778:
8773:
8768:
8763:
8758:
8753:
8748:
8743:
8738:
8733:
8728:
8723:
8718:
8713:
8707:
8705:
8697:
8696:
8694:
8693:
8688:
8682:
8679:
8678:
8671:
8670:
8663:
8656:
8648:
8642:
8641:
8627:
8603:
8600:
8598:
8597:
8591:
8578:
8569:
8563:
8550:
8544:
8531:
8525:
8512:
8503:
8497:
8484:
8478:
8465:
8459:
8446:
8440:
8427:
8421:
8408:
8403:978-8470900945
8402:
8389:
8384:978-8434445345
8383:
8370:
8364:
8351:
8346:978-9968936965
8345:
8332:
8326:
8313:
8308:978-8423948000
8307:
8288:
8283:978-0582495159
8282:
8269:
8263:
8250:
8245:978-8477371830
8244:
8231:
8222:
8216:
8203:
8197:
8189:La España mora
8184:
8179:978-8489569294
8178:
8165:
8159:
8144:
8138:
8125:
8120:978-8477374640
8119:
8106:
8100:
8087:
8077:(39): 97–114.
8070:
8065:978-8472326354
8064:
8051:
8042:
8036:
8023:
8006:
7991:
7974:
7959:
7954:978-8478239672
7953:
7940:
7934:
7921:
7915:
7902:
7896:
7883:
7878:978-8433594235
7877:
7864:
7859:978-8478132706
7858:
7844:
7842:
7839:
7836:
7835:
7820:
7813:
7795:
7777:
7759:
7737:
7720:978-0812207286
7719:
7699:
7692:
7669:
7651:
7631:
7624:
7606:
7576:
7545:
7538:
7520:
7502:
7482:
7475:
7457:
7450:
7425:
7410:
7376:
7346:
7328:
7308:
7287:(3): 161–165.
7267:
7260:
7242:
7223:(3): 349–373.
7207:
7187:
7156:
7145:(2): 152–198.
7126:
7109:www.mia.org.qa
7096:
7066:
7035:
7005:
6987:
6956:
6944:
6932:
6925:
6907:
6905:, p. 167.
6895:
6878:(4): 323–327.
6852:
6840:
6838:, p. 169.
6828:
6826:, p. 168.
6816:
6814:, p. 166.
6799:
6787:
6785:, p. 165.
6775:
6769:978-0195309911
6768:
6743:
6708:
6696:
6684:
6672:
6660:
6658:, p. 164.
6645:
6633:
6626:
6609:
6597:
6590:
6569:
6557:
6545:
6530:
6515:
6503:
6469:
6451:
6424:
6406:
6377:
6365:
6353:
6341:
6329:
6317:
6305:
6287:
6267:
6265:, p. 150.
6255:
6237:
6219:
6196:
6178:
6155:
6143:
6122:
6110:
6095:
6083:
6071:
6058:
6056:, p. 202.
6046:
6034:
6016:
5989:
5971:
5942:
5940:, p. 104.
5927:
5925:, p. 134.
5915:
5903:
5888:
5886:, p. 109.
5876:
5864:
5852:
5845:
5825:
5823:, p. 107.
5813:
5806:
5775:
5748:
5736:
5724:
5722:, p. 119.
5712:
5710:, p. 119.
5700:
5685:
5681:Ballestín 2004
5673:
5671:, p. 431.
5661:
5659:, p. 354.
5649:
5647:, p. 135.
5634:
5632:, p. 100.
5622:
5620:, p. 152.
5618:Ballestín 2004
5610:
5598:
5586:
5574:
5562:
5560:, p. 166.
5550:
5548:, p. 130.
5538:
5536:, p. 195.
5526:
5505:
5503:, p. 153.
5501:Ballestín 2004
5493:
5491:, p. 403.
5481:
5479:, p. 146.
5466:
5464:, p. 113.
5451:
5449:, p. 111.
5439:
5427:
5415:
5413:, p. 140.
5398:
5386:
5384:, p. 173.
5367:
5365:, p. 172.
5355:
5353:, p. 138.
5343:
5320:
5318:, p. 116.
5308:
5306:, p. 137.
5296:
5281:
5266:
5254:
5252:, p. 118.
5242:
5240:, p. 134.
5225:
5223:, p. 133.
5210:
5208:, p. 129.
5198:
5196:, p. 134.
5186:
5184:, p. 130.
5171:
5154:
5152:, p. 131.
5142:
5138:Fernández 1999
5130:
5115:
5113:, p. 126.
5100:
5085:
5081:Fernández 1999
5070:
5068:, p. 128.
5051:
5049:, p. 117.
5030:
5026:Fernández 1999
5018:
5011:
4993:
4981:
4969:
4957:
4945:
4926:
4911:
4899:
4881:
4856:
4838:
4826:
4814:
4766:
4764:, p. 326.
4747:
4745:, p. 124.
4735:
4733:, p. 239.
4723:
4709:978-1473856431
4708:
4690:
4678:
4669:
4655:978-0231531924
4654:
4636:
4624:
4612:
4597:
4579:
4559:
4547:
4490:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4481:
4480:
4467:
4448:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4436:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4385:
4378:
4375:
4372:
4371:
4365:
4364:
4361:
4355:
4354:
4345:
4344:
4341:
4335:
4334:
4321:
4320:
4317:
4311:
4310:
4307:
4301:
4300:
4291:
4290:
4287:
4281:
4280:
4277:
4271:
4270:
4267:
4261:
4260:
4257:
4251:
4250:
4241:
4240:
4237:
4231:
4230:
4227:
4221:
4220:
4217:
4211:
4210:
4207:
4201:
4200:
4197:
4191:
4190:
4187:
4181:
4180:
4177:
4171:
4170:
4167:
4161:
4160:
4157:
4153:
4152:
4149:
4143:
4142:
4139:
4133:
4132:
4129:
4123:
4122:
4119:
4113:
4112:
4109:
4103:
4102:
4099:
4093:
4092:
4089:
4083:
4082:
4079:
4073:
4072:
4069:
4065:
4064:
4055:
4054:
4045:
4044:List of rulers
4042:
4017:Caliphal Baths
3955:call to prayer
3921:arches of the
3869:
3866:
3832: 888–912
3794:Bab al-Wuzara'
3690:
3689:Emirate period
3687:
3679:
3676:
3675:
3674:
3671:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3640:
3638:
3631:
3624:
3622:
3615:
3608:
3508:
3505:
3381:Arabic grammar
3360:
3357:
3326:
3323:
3259:
3256:
3187:
3184:
3170:
3167:
3128:, from Arabic
3085:
3082:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
2943:
2940:
2922:
2919:
2905:, Almería and
2884:Constantinople
2879:
2876:
2863:
2860:
2803:
2800:
2794:and replaced.
2757:al-Urdumaniyun
2714:Alcácer do Sal
2651:colonization.
2584:
2581:
2485:
2482:
2353:
2350:
2295:
2292:
2289:
2288:
2286:
2285:
2278:
2271:
2263:
2260:
2259:
2254:
2253:
2250:
2239:
2238:
2235:
2224:
2223:
2220:
2209:
2208:
2205:
2194:
2193:
2190:
2179:
2178:
2175:
2164:
2163:
2160:
2149:
2148:
2145:
2134:
2133:
2130:
2119:
2118:
2115:
2104:
2103:
2100:
2089:
2088:
2085:
2074:
2073:
2070:
2067:Ras al Khaymah
2059:
2058:
2055:
2042:
2039:
2038:
2035:
2034:
2029:
2028:
2025:
2019:
2018:
2015:
2004:
2003:
2000:
1994:
1993:
1990:
1983:Mazrui dynasty
1979:
1978:
1975:
1964:
1963:
1960:
1949:
1948:
1945:
1932:
1929:
1928:
1925:
1924:
1919:
1918:
1915:
1909:
1908:
1905:
1899:
1898:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1885:
1879:
1878:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1865:
1859:
1858:
1855:
1849:
1848:
1845:
1839:
1838:
1835:
1829:
1828:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1815:
1809:
1808:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1795:
1789:
1788:
1785:
1779:
1778:
1775:
1769:
1768:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1755:
1749:
1748:
1745:
1739:
1738:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1725:
1719:
1718:
1715:
1709:
1708:
1705:
1699:
1698:
1695:
1689:
1688:
1685:
1679:
1678:
1675:
1669:
1668:
1665:
1659:
1658:
1655:
1649:
1648:
1645:
1639:
1638:
1635:
1627:
1624:
1623:
1620:
1619:
1614:
1613:
1610:
1604:
1603:
1600:
1594:
1593:
1590:
1584:
1583:
1580:
1574:
1573:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1560:
1554:
1553:
1550:
1544:
1543:
1540:
1534:
1533:
1530:
1524:
1523:
1520:
1514:
1513:
1510:
1504:
1503:
1500:
1494:
1493:
1490:
1484:
1483:
1480:
1474:
1473:
1470:
1464:
1463:
1460:
1454:
1453:
1450:
1444:
1443:
1440:
1434:
1433:
1430:
1424:
1423:
1420:
1414:
1413:
1410:
1404:
1403:
1400:
1398:Fihrid Emirate
1394:
1393:
1390:
1382:
1379:
1378:
1375:
1374:
1369:
1368:
1365:
1359:
1358:
1355:
1349:
1348:
1345:
1339:
1338:
1335:
1329:
1328:
1325:
1319:
1318:
1315:
1309:
1308:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1295:
1289:
1288:
1285:
1279:
1278:
1275:
1269:
1268:
1265:
1259:
1258:
1255:
1249:
1248:
1245:
1239:
1238:
1235:
1229:
1228:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1215:
1209:
1208:
1205:
1199:
1198:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1185:
1179:
1178:
1175:
1169:
1168:
1165:
1157:
1154:
1153:
1150:
1149:
1144:
1143:
1140:
1134:
1133:
1130:
1124:
1123:
1120:
1114:
1113:
1110:
1102:
1099:
1098:
1095:
1094:
1089:
1088:
1085:
1079:
1078:
1075:
1069:
1068:
1065:
1059:
1058:
1055:
1049:
1048:
1045:
1039:
1038:
1035:
1029:
1028:
1025:
1019:
1018:
1015:
1009:
1008:
1005:
999:
998:
995:
989:
988:
985:
977:
974:
973:
970:
969:
961:
960:
952:
951:
949:
948:
941:
934:
926:
923:
922:
909:
908:
905:
904:
899:
894:
889:
884:
878:
875:
874:
871:
870:
867:
866:
861:
856:
851:
845:
842:
841:
838:
837:
829:
828:
809:
808:
806:
805:
798:
791:
783:
780:
779:
778:
777:
772:
767:
759:
758:
754:
753:
752:
751:
746:
741:
739:Nasrid dynasty
733:
732:
720:
719:
707:
706:
705:
704:
696:
695:
683:
682:
670:
669:
668:
667:
662:
654:
653:
645:Almoravid rule
641:
640:
628:
627:
626:
625:
620:
615:
607:
606:
594:
593:
592:
591:
586:
581:
576:
571:
563:
562:
550:
549:
540:
537:
445:
444:
426:
422:
421:
418:
417:
414:
413:
406:
404:Taifa kingdoms
397:
394:
393:
388:
380:
379:
374:
362:
361:
356:
346:
345:
340:
336:
335:
332:
331:
328:
325:
322:
321:
318:
317:
313:
312:
309:
305:
304:
300:
299:
296:
295:
292:
285:
282:
281:
278:
265:
262:
261:
258:
257:
254:
250:
249:
246:
245:
239:
236:
233:
232:
226:
223:
220:
219:
216:
215:
212:
200:
199:
196:
195:
189:
186:
183:
182:
176:
173:
170:
169:
166:
165:
162:
150:
149:
143:
139:
138:
136:
135:
134:
133:
128:
120:
118:
114:
113:
111:
110:
100:
95:
90:
84:
82:
78:
77:
72:
68:
67:
64:
56:
55:
51:
50:
33:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
12503:
12492:
12489:
12487:
12484:
12482:
12479:
12477:
12474:
12472:
12469:
12467:
12464:
12462:
12459:
12457:
12454:
12452:
12449:
12447:
12444:
12442:
12439:
12437:
12434:
12432:
12429:
12427:
12424:
12423:
12421:
12414:
12411:
12374:
12366:
12364:
12354:
12353:
12350:
12336:
12333:
12331:
12328:
12326:
12323:
12321:
12318:
12316:
12313:
12311:
12308:
12306:
12303:
12301:
12298:
12294:
12291:
12290:
12289:
12286:
12282:
12279:
12277:
12276:Post-Islamism
12274:
12272:
12269:
12268:
12267:
12264:
12262:
12259:
12255:
12252:
12250:
12247:
12246:
12245:
12242:
12241:
12239:
12235:
12229:
12226:
12224:
12221:
12219:
12216:
12214:
12211:
12210:
12208:
12206:
12202:
12196:
12193:
12191:
12188:
12186:
12183:
12181:
12178:
12176:
12173:
12169:
12168:Protestantism
12166:
12164:
12161:
12159:
12156:
12155:
12154:
12151:
12150:
12148:
12146:
12142:
12138:
12128:
12124:
12110:
12107:
12105:
12104:
12100:
12098:
12095:
12091:
12088:
12087:
12086:
12083:
12081:
12078:
12076:
12073:
12071:
12068:
12066:
12063:
12061:
12058:
12057:
12055:
12051:
12045:
12042:
12040:
12037:
12035:
12032:
12030:
12027:
12026:
12024:
12022:
12018:
12012:
12009:
12007:
12006:Ophthalmology
12004:
12002:
11999:
11997:
11994:
11992:
11989:
11987:
11984:
11982:
11979:
11977:
11974:
11973:
11971:
11969:
11965:
11959:
11956:
11954:
11951:
11949:
11946:
11944:
11941:
11939:
11936:
11934:
11931:
11929:
11926:
11924:
11921:
11920:
11918:
11916:
11912:
11908:
11904:
11896:
11892:
11878:
11875:
11871:
11870:
11866:
11865:
11864:
11861:
11859:
11856:
11854:
11851:
11847:
11844:
11843:
11842:
11839:
11837:
11836:
11832:
11830:
11827:
11825:
11824:
11820:
11818:
11815:
11813:
11812:
11808:
11806:
11803:
11801:
11798:
11796:
11793:
11791:
11788:
11786:
11783:
11781:
11778:
11776:
11773:
11771:
11770:
11766:
11764:
11763:
11759:
11755:
11754:Death penalty
11752:
11750:
11747:
11745:
11742:
11741:
11740:
11737:
11735:
11732:
11730:
11729:
11725:
11724:
11722:
11720:Other aspects
11718:
11712:
11711:
11707:
11705:
11704:
11700:
11698:
11697:
11693:
11691:
11690:
11686:
11684:
11683:
11679:
11677:
11676:
11672:
11670:
11669:
11665:
11664:
11662:
11657:
11654:
11652:
11649:
11647:
11644:
11643:
11640:
11634:
11633:
11629:
11627:
11624:
11622:
11621:
11617:
11615:
11614:
11610:
11608:
11607:
11603:
11601:
11600:
11596:
11595:
11593:
11591:
11587:
11581:
11580:
11576:
11574:
11573:
11569:
11567:
11566:
11562:
11560:
11559:
11555:
11553:
11550:
11548:
11545:
11544:
11542:
11540:
11536:
11532:
11525:
11524:Jurisprudence
11522:
11520:
11517:
11516:
11512:
11508:
11498:
11495:
11493:
11490:
11488:
11485:
11483:
11480:
11478:
11475:
11473:
11472:
11468:
11466:
11463:
11461:
11458:
11456:
11453:
11451:
11448:
11446:
11443:
11441:
11438:
11436:
11433:
11431:
11428:
11426:
11423:
11421:
11418:
11416:
11413:
11411:
11408:
11406:
11403:
11401:
11398:
11397:
11395:
11390:
11387:
11385:
11382:
11381:
11378:
11372:
11369:
11367:
11364:
11360:
11357:
11356:
11355:
11352:
11350:
11347:
11343:
11340:
11336:
11333:
11329:
11326:
11324:
11321:
11319:
11316:
11315:
11314:
11311:
11310:
11308:
11306:
11303:
11302:
11301:
11297:
11294:
11290:
11287:
11283:
11280:
11279:
11278:
11275:
11273:
11270:
11268:
11265:
11263:
11260:
11259:
11258:
11255:
11253:
11250:
11244:
11241:
11240:
11239:
11236:
11234:
11231:
11229:
11226:
11224:
11221:
11219:
11216:
11215:
11214:
11211:
11210:
11208:
11206:
11205:Denominations
11202:
11196:
11195:
11191:
11189:
11186:
11184:
11181:
11179:
11176:
11174:
11171:
11170:
11168:
11166:
11162:
11154:
11151:
11149:
11146:
11144:
11141:
11139:
11136:
11134:
11131:
11129:
11126:
11124:
11121:
11119:
11118:
11114:
11113:
11112:
11109:
11107:
11104:
11102:
11101:
11097:
11095:
11094:
11090:
11088:
11085:
11083:
11080:
11078:
11075:
11073:
11070:
11068:
11065:
11064:
11062:
11057:
11054:
11052:
11049:
11048:
11045:
11039:
11038:
11034:
11032:
11031:
11027:
11025:
11024:
11020:
11018:
11017:
11013:
11011:
11010:
11006:
11005:
11003:
11001:
10997:
10991:
10990:Holiest sites
10988:
10986:
10985:Judgement Day
10983:
10981:
10980:
10976:
10974:
10971:
10969:
10966:
10964:
10961:
10957:
10954:
10953:
10952:
10949:
10947:
10946:
10942:
10938:
10935:
10934:
10933:
10930:
10929:
10927:
10925:
10921:
10917:
10913:
10912:
10906:
10901:
10894:
10889:
10887:
10882:
10880:
10875:
10874:
10871:
10857:
10856:Soviet empire
10854:
10852:
10849:
10848:
10846:
10845:
10843:
10841:Miscellaneous
10839:
10833:
10830:
10828:
10825:
10823:
10820:
10818:
10815:
10813:
10810:
10806:
10803:
10802:
10801:
10798:
10797:
10795:
10791:
10781:
10778:
10776:
10773:
10771:
10768:
10766:
10763:
10759:
10756:
10755:
10754:
10751:
10749:
10746:
10744:
10741:
10739:
10736:
10734:
10731:
10729:
10726:
10724:
10721:
10719:
10716:
10714:
10711:
10709:
10706:
10702:
10699:
10697:
10694:
10693:
10692:
10689:
10687:
10684:
10682:
10679:
10678:
10676:
10674:
10670:
10662:
10659:
10657:
10654:
10652:
10649:
10647:
10644:
10642:
10639:
10638:
10637:
10634:
10632:
10629:
10625:
10622:
10621:
10620:
10617:
10615:
10612:
10608:
10605:
10603:
10600:
10598:
10595:
10594:
10593:
10590:
10588:
10585:
10581:
10578:
10576:
10573:
10572:
10571:
10568:
10564:
10561:
10559:
10556:
10554:
10551:
10549:
10546:
10544:
10541:
10540:
10539:
10536:
10532:
10529:
10527:
10524:
10523:
10522:
10519:
10517:
10514:
10512:
10509:
10507:
10504:
10500:
10497:
10495:
10492:
10490:
10487:
10485:
10482:
10480:
10477:
10476:
10475:
10472:
10468:
10465:
10463:
10460:
10459:
10458:
10455:
10453:
10450:
10446:
10443:
10441:
10440:German Empire
10438:
10437:
10436:
10433:
10429:
10426:
10424:
10421:
10420:
10419:
10416:
10412:
10409:
10407:
10404:
10403:
10402:
10399:
10397:
10394:
10390:
10387:
10385:
10382:
10380:
10377:
10375:
10372:
10370:
10367:
10366:
10365:
10362:
10360:
10357:
10353:
10350:
10348:
10345:
10344:
10342:
10340:
10337:
10335:
10332:
10330:
10327:
10325:
10322:
10320:
10317:
10316:
10314:
10312:
10308:
10302:
10299:
10297:
10294:
10292:
10289:
10285:
10282:
10280:
10277:
10275:
10272:
10270:
10267:
10265:
10262:
10260:
10257:
10255:
10252:
10251:
10250:
10247:
10245:
10242:
10238:
10235:
10233:
10230:
10228:
10225:
10223:
10220:
10218:
10215:
10213:
10210:
10209:
10208:
10205:
10201:
10198:
10196:
10193:
10191:
10188:
10186:
10183:
10182:
10181:
10180:Turco-Persian
10178:
10176:
10173:
10171:
10168:
10166:
10163:
10161:
10158:
10156:
10153:
10151:
10148:
10146:
10143:
10141:
10138:
10134:
10131:
10129:
10126:
10125:
10124:
10121:
10117:
10114:
10112:
10109:
10107:
10104:
10102:
10099:
10097:
10094:
10092:
10089:
10088:
10087:
10084:
10081:
10079:
10076:
10074:
10071:
10069:
10066:
10062:
10059:
10057:
10054:
10052:
10049:
10048:
10047:
10044:
10040:
10037:
10035:
10032:
10030:
10027:
10025:
10022:
10021:
10020:
10017:
10015:
10012:
10010:
10007:
10005:
10002:
10000:
9997:
9995:
9992:
9988:
9985:
9983:
9980:
9978:
9975:
9973:
9970:
9969:
9968:
9965:
9961:
9958:
9956:
9953:
9951:
9948:
9946:
9943:
9942:
9941:
9938:
9934:
9931:
9929:
9926:
9924:
9921:
9920:
9919:
9916:
9914:
9911:
9909:
9906:
9904:
9901:
9899:
9896:
9892:
9889:
9887:
9884:
9882:
9879:
9878:
9877:
9874:
9872:
9869:
9865:
9862:
9860:
9857:
9855:
9852:
9850:
9847:
9845:
9842:
9840:
9837:
9836:
9835:
9832:
9828:
9825:
9823:
9820:
9819:
9818:
9815:
9811:
9808:
9806:
9803:
9801:
9798:
9796:
9793:
9792:
9791:
9788:
9786:
9783:
9779:
9776:
9775:
9774:
9771:
9767:
9764:
9762:
9759:
9758:
9756:
9754:
9751:
9749:
9746:
9744:
9741:
9739:
9736:
9734:
9731:
9729:
9726:
9724:
9721:
9720:
9718:
9716:
9712:
9704:
9701:
9700:
9699:
9696:
9694:
9691:
9687:
9684:
9682:
9679:
9678:
9677:
9674:
9670:
9667:
9666:
9665:
9662:
9658:
9655:
9653:
9650:
9648:
9645:
9643:
9640:
9638:
9635:
9633:
9630:
9629:
9628:
9625:
9623:
9620:
9618:
9615:
9611:
9608:
9606:
9603:
9601:
9598:
9596:
9593:
9592:
9591:
9588:
9584:
9581:
9579:
9576:
9575:
9574:
9571:
9569:
9566:
9562:
9559:
9557:
9554:
9552:
9549:
9547:
9544:
9542:
9539:
9538:
9537:
9534:
9532:
9529:
9527:
9524:
9520:
9517:
9515:
9512:
9510:
9507:
9506:
9505:
9502:
9500:
9497:
9493:
9490:
9488:
9485:
9483:
9480:
9479:
9478:
9475:
9471:
9468:
9466:
9463:
9461:
9458:
9457:
9456:
9453:
9449:
9446:
9444:
9441:
9440:
9439:
9436:
9434:
9431:
9429:
9426:
9425:
9423:
9420:
9415:
9411:
9407:
9400:
9395:
9393:
9388:
9386:
9381:
9380:
9377:
9365:
9362:
9360:
9357:
9355:
9352:
9350:
9347:
9345:
9342:
9340:
9337:
9335:
9332:
9330:
9327:
9325:
9322:
9320:
9317:
9315:
9312:
9310:
9307:
9305:
9302:
9300:
9297:
9296:
9293:
9281:
9278:
9276:
9273:
9272:
9271:
9267:
9263:
9260:
9254:
9249:
9246:
9244:
9241:
9239:
9236:
9235:
9234:
9230:
9227:
9225:
9221:
9217:
9214:
9210:
9207:
9206:
9204:
9200:
9196:
9193:
9189:
9186:
9184:
9181:
9180:
9179:
9175:
9172:
9171:
9168:
9164:
9163:
9157:
9153:
9143:
9140:
9138:
9137:
9133:
9131:
9128:
9126:
9125:
9121:
9119:
9116:
9114:
9113:
9109:
9107:
9104:
9102:
9099:
9097:
9094:
9093:
9090:
9085:
9084:
9078:
9074:
9064:
9061:
9059:
9056:
9054:
9051:
9047:
9044:
9043:
9042:
9039:
9035:
9032:
9031:
9030:
9027:
9026:
9023:
9019:
9018:
9012:
9008:
9004:
8997:
8992:
8990:
8985:
8983:
8978:
8977:
8974:
8963:
8957:
8951:
8948:
8946:
8945:
8941:
8939:
8936:
8934:
8931:
8929:
8928:
8924:
8922:
8921:
8917:
8915:
8914:
8910:
8908:
8907:
8903:
8901:
8898:
8896:
8893:
8891:
8888:
8886:
8883:
8881:
8878:
8876:
8873:
8871:
8868:
8866:
8863:
8861:
8858:
8857:
8855:
8851:
8847:
8841:
8838:
8836:
8833:
8831:
8828:
8826:
8823:
8821:
8818:
8816:
8813:
8811:
8808:
8806:
8803:
8802:
8800:
8796:
8792:
8787:
8777:
8774:
8772:
8769:
8767:
8764:
8762:
8759:
8757:
8754:
8752:
8749:
8747:
8744:
8742:
8739:
8737:
8734:
8732:
8729:
8727:
8724:
8722:
8719:
8717:
8714:
8712:
8709:
8708:
8706:
8702:
8698:
8692:
8689:
8687:
8684:
8683:
8680:
8676:
8669:
8664:
8662:
8657:
8655:
8650:
8649:
8646:
8640:
8636:
8632:
8628:
8624:
8620:
8616:
8612:
8606:
8605:
8594:
8588:
8584:
8579:
8575:
8570:
8566:
8560:
8556:
8551:
8547:
8541:
8537:
8532:
8528:
8522:
8518:
8513:
8509:
8504:
8500:
8494:
8490:
8485:
8481:
8475:
8471:
8466:
8462:
8456:
8452:
8447:
8443:
8437:
8433:
8428:
8424:
8418:
8414:
8409:
8405:
8399:
8395:
8390:
8386:
8380:
8376:
8371:
8367:
8361:
8357:
8352:
8348:
8342:
8338:
8333:
8329:
8323:
8319:
8314:
8310:
8304:
8300:
8296:
8295:
8289:
8285:
8279:
8275:
8270:
8266:
8260:
8256:
8251:
8247:
8241:
8237:
8232:
8228:
8223:
8219:
8213:
8209:
8204:
8200:
8194:
8190:
8185:
8181:
8175:
8171:
8166:
8162:
8156:
8152:
8151:
8150:Moorish Spain
8145:
8141:
8135:
8131:
8126:
8122:
8116:
8112:
8107:
8103:
8097:
8093:
8088:
8084:
8080:
8076:
8071:
8067:
8061:
8057:
8052:
8048:
8043:
8039:
8033:
8029:
8024:
8013:
8009:
8007:9780465055876
8003:
7999:
7998:
7992:
7981:
7977:
7971:
7967:
7966:
7960:
7956:
7950:
7946:
7941:
7937:
7931:
7927:
7922:
7918:
7912:
7908:
7903:
7899:
7893:
7889:
7884:
7880:
7874:
7870:
7865:
7861:
7855:
7851:
7846:
7845:
7831:
7824:
7816:
7810:
7806:
7799:
7791:
7784:
7782:
7766:
7762:
7756:
7752:
7748:
7741:
7726:
7722:
7716:
7712:
7711:
7703:
7695:
7689:
7685:
7678:
7676:
7674:
7658:
7654:
7648:
7644:
7643:
7635:
7627:
7625:9780190624552
7621:
7617:
7610:
7594:
7590:
7589:ArqueoCordoba
7586:
7580:
7564:
7560:
7556:
7549:
7541:
7535:
7531:
7524:
7509:
7505:
7503:9780300218701
7499:
7495:
7494:
7486:
7478:
7472:
7468:
7461:
7453:
7447:
7443:
7436:
7434:
7432:
7430:
7421:
7414:
7399:
7395:
7391:
7387:
7380:
7364:
7360:
7356:
7350:
7335:
7331:
7329:9788882654337
7325:
7321:
7320:
7312:
7304:
7300:
7295:
7290:
7286:
7282:
7278:
7271:
7263:
7261:9780195309911
7257:
7253:
7246:
7238:
7234:
7230:
7226:
7222:
7218:
7211:
7203:
7196:
7194:
7192:
7175:
7171:
7167:
7160:
7152:
7148:
7144:
7140:
7133:
7131:
7114:
7110:
7106:
7100:
7084:
7080:
7076:
7070:
7054:
7050:
7046:
7039:
7023:
7019:
7015:
7009:
6994:
6990:
6984:
6980:
6979:
6971:
6969:
6967:
6965:
6963:
6961:
6953:
6948:
6942:, p. 91.
6941:
6936:
6928:
6926:9780195309911
6922:
6918:
6911:
6904:
6899:
6881:
6877:
6873:
6866:
6859:
6857:
6849:
6844:
6837:
6832:
6825:
6820:
6813:
6808:
6806:
6804:
6796:
6791:
6784:
6779:
6771:
6765:
6761:
6754:
6752:
6750:
6748:
6740:
6727:
6723:
6719:
6712:
6706:, p. 42.
6705:
6700:
6693:
6688:
6682:, p. 94.
6681:
6676:
6669:
6664:
6657:
6652:
6650:
6643:, p. 97.
6642:
6637:
6629:
6623:
6619:
6613:
6606:
6601:
6593:
6591:9780195309911
6587:
6583:
6576:
6574:
6566:
6561:
6555:, p. 63.
6554:
6553:Fletcher 1992
6549:
6542:
6541:Fletcher 1992
6537:
6535:
6526:
6519:
6513:, p. 62.
6512:
6511:Fletcher 1992
6507:
6499:
6495:
6491:
6487:
6480:
6478:
6476:
6474:
6458:
6454:
6448:
6444:
6440:
6433:
6431:
6429:
6413:
6409:
6403:
6399:
6398:
6390:
6388:
6386:
6384:
6382:
6374:
6373:Fletcher 1992
6369:
6363:, p. 68.
6362:
6357:
6351:, p. 36.
6350:
6349:Fletcher 1992
6345:
6339:, p. 67.
6338:
6333:
6326:
6325:Fletcher 1992
6321:
6314:
6309:
6294:
6290:
6284:
6280:
6279:
6271:
6264:
6259:
6251:
6244:
6242:
6226:
6222:
6216:
6212:
6211:
6203:
6201:
6185:
6181:
6175:
6171:
6170:
6162:
6160:
6152:
6147:
6140:
6139:0-7818-1015-9
6136:
6132:
6126:
6119:
6114:
6108:, p. 56.
6107:
6102:
6100:
6092:
6087:
6080:
6075:
6068:
6062:
6055:
6050:
6044:, p. 25.
6043:
6042:Fletcher 1992
6038:
6023:
6019:
6013:
6009:
6008:
6000:
5998:
5996:
5994:
5978:
5974:
5968:
5964:
5960:
5953:
5951:
5949:
5947:
5939:
5934:
5932:
5924:
5919:
5913:, p. 66.
5912:
5907:
5901:, p. 48.
5900:
5895:
5893:
5885:
5880:
5874:, p. 49.
5873:
5872:Aizpurúa 2012
5868:
5862:, p. 50.
5861:
5860:Aizpurúa 2012
5856:
5848:
5842:
5838:
5837:
5829:
5822:
5817:
5809:
5807:9789004161658
5803:
5799:
5792:
5790:
5788:
5786:
5784:
5782:
5780:
5772:
5768:
5765:
5764:
5757:
5755:
5753:
5745:
5740:
5733:
5728:
5721:
5716:
5709:
5704:
5698:, p. 40.
5697:
5696:Fletcher 1999
5692:
5690:
5682:
5677:
5670:
5665:
5658:
5653:
5646:
5641:
5639:
5631:
5626:
5619:
5614:
5608:, p. 66.
5607:
5602:
5596:, p. 62.
5595:
5590:
5584:, p. 78.
5583:
5578:
5572:, p. 93.
5571:
5566:
5559:
5554:
5547:
5542:
5535:
5530:
5523:
5519:
5515:
5509:
5502:
5497:
5490:
5485:
5478:
5473:
5471:
5463:
5458:
5456:
5448:
5443:
5437:, p. 93.
5436:
5431:
5425:, p. 15.
5424:
5419:
5412:
5407:
5405:
5403:
5395:
5390:
5383:
5378:
5376:
5374:
5372:
5364:
5359:
5352:
5347:
5341:, p. 77.
5340:
5339:Fletcher 2000
5335:
5333:
5331:
5329:
5327:
5325:
5317:
5312:
5305:
5300:
5294:, p. 72.
5293:
5288:
5286:
5279:, p. 70.
5278:
5273:
5271:
5263:
5258:
5251:
5246:
5239:
5234:
5232:
5230:
5222:
5217:
5215:
5207:
5202:
5195:
5190:
5183:
5178:
5176:
5169:, p. 45.
5168:
5163:
5161:
5159:
5151:
5146:
5140:, p. 14.
5139:
5134:
5128:, p. 95.
5127:
5126:Fletcher 2000
5122:
5120:
5112:
5107:
5105:
5098:, p. 46.
5097:
5092:
5090:
5083:, p. 15.
5082:
5077:
5075:
5067:
5062:
5060:
5058:
5056:
5048:
5043:
5041:
5039:
5037:
5035:
5028:, p. 37.
5027:
5022:
5014:
5012:84-7013-007-2
5008:
5004:
4997:
4991:, p. 23.
4990:
4985:
4978:
4973:
4967:, p. 30.
4966:
4961:
4954:
4949:
4943:, p. 39.
4942:
4941:Fletcher 1999
4937:
4935:
4933:
4931:
4924:, p. 23.
4923:
4922:Fletcher 1991
4918:
4916:
4909:, p. 35.
4908:
4903:
4888:
4884:
4878:
4874:
4873:
4865:
4863:
4861:
4852:
4845:
4843:
4836:, p. 84.
4835:
4830:
4824:, p. 38.
4823:
4818:
4800:
4796:
4792:
4788:
4784:
4777:
4770:
4763:
4758:
4756:
4754:
4752:
4744:
4739:
4732:
4727:
4719:
4715:
4711:
4705:
4701:
4694:
4688:, p. 37.
4687:
4682:
4673:
4665:
4661:
4657:
4651:
4647:
4640:
4634:, p. 29.
4633:
4628:
4621:
4616:
4609:
4604:
4602:
4586:
4582:
4576:
4573:. Routledge.
4572:
4571:
4563:
4556:
4551:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4515:
4511:
4510:
4505:
4501:
4495:
4491:
4477:
4471:
4464:
4460:
4453:
4449:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4380:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4346:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4327:
4322:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4312:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4292:
4288:
4286:
4283:
4282:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4272:
4268:
4266:
4263:
4262:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4242:
4238:
4236:
4233:
4232:
4228:
4226:
4223:
4222:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4212:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4202:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4192:
4188:
4186:
4183:
4182:
4178:
4176:
4173:
4172:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4162:
4158:
4155:
4154:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4144:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4134:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4124:
4120:
4118:
4115:
4114:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4104:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4094:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4084:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4074:
4070:
4067:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4056:
4053:
4049:
4041:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4024:
4022:
4021:Baths of Jaen
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4002:
4001:former mosque
3998:
3994:
3990:
3985:
3983:
3979:
3975:
3971:
3970:
3965:
3961:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3943:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3925:
3920:
3916:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3901:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3879:
3874:
3865:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3844:
3839:
3837:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3817:
3812:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3758:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3704:
3700:
3695:
3685:
3668:
3663:
3656:
3651:
3644:
3639:
3635:
3628:
3623:
3619:
3612:
3607:
3606:
3605:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3570:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3543:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3520:
3516:
3515:
3504:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3493:jurisprudence
3490:
3486:
3485:
3478:
3476:
3472:
3467:
3461:
3458:
3452:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3434:Ahmad al-Razi
3431:
3427:
3423:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3410:
3404:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3356:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3340:
3338:
3334:
3333:
3322:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3295:
3291:
3289:
3283:
3281:
3277:
3269:
3264:
3255:
3252:
3246:
3241:
3233:
3232:
3226:
3221:
3218:
3212:
3207:
3205:
3194:
3186:Social status
3183:
3180:
3175:
3166:
3164:
3158:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3120:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3104:
3103:
3098:
3096:
3091:
3081:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3069:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3055:
3050:
3049:
3039:
3025:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2978:
2975:
2970:
2968:
2960:
2958:
2953:
2949:
2939:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2918:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2889:
2885:
2875:
2873:
2869:
2859:
2858:(1027–1031).
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2840:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2824:The death of
2822:
2820:
2816:
2811:
2808:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2768:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2741:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2690:
2687:
2681:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2665:
2663:
2658:
2655:
2652:
2648:
2641:
2640:
2634:
2630:
2628:
2624:
2618:
2616:
2612:
2607:
2605:
2601:
2596:
2594:
2590:
2580:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2565:
2563:
2558:
2556:
2551:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2536:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2512:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2481:
2479:
2474:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2455:
2454:in the 820s.
2453:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2435:
2430:
2421:
2417:
2412:
2410:
2406:
2401:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2349:
2347:
2346:
2341:
2340:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2301:
2284:
2279:
2277:
2272:
2270:
2265:
2264:
2262:
2261:
2251:
2248:
2244:
2241:
2240:
2236:
2233:
2229:
2226:
2225:
2221:
2218:
2214:
2211:
2210:
2206:
2203:
2199:
2196:
2195:
2191:
2188:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2176:
2173:
2169:
2166:
2165:
2161:
2158:
2157:Umm al-Quwain
2154:
2151:
2150:
2146:
2143:
2139:
2136:
2135:
2131:
2128:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2113:
2109:
2106:
2105:
2101:
2098:
2094:
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1458:Muslim Sicily
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1126:
1125:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1111:
1109:
1106:
1105:
1097:
1096:
1087:450 AD–550 AD
1086:
1084:
1081:
1080:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1070:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1046:
1044:
1041:
1040:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1030:
1027:64 BC–300s AD
1026:
1024:
1021:
1020:
1017:132 BC–244 AD
1016:
1014:
1011:
1010:
1007:400 BC–106 AD
1006:
1004:
1001:
1000:
997:600 BC–100 BC
996:
994:
991:
990:
987:800 BC–300 BC
986:
984:
981:
980:
972:
971:
967:
963:
962:
958:
957:
947:
942:
940:
935:
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928:
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484:
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443:
439:
435:
430:
427:
425:Today part of
423:
407:
405:
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401:
398:
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389:
382:
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378:
375:
368:
367:
364:
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263:
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205:
201:
197:
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155:
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147:
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140:
129:
124:
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121:
119:
115:
108:
104:
101:
99:
96:
94:
91:
89:
86:
85:
83:
79:
76:
73:
69:
62:
57:
52:
31:
19:
12407:37.88; -4.78
12383:
12288:Islamophobia
12153:Christianity
12101:
12034:Contemporary
11928:Architecture
11867:
11833:
11821:
11809:
11767:
11760:
11726:
11708:
11703:Nikah mut'ah
11701:
11694:
11687:
11680:
11673:
11666:
11630:
11618:
11611:
11604:
11597:
11577:
11570:
11563:
11556:
11469:
11192:
11116:
11098:
11091:
11035:
11028:
11021:
11014:
11007:
11000:Five Pillars
10977:
10943:
10932:God in Islam
10909:
10607:Contemporary
10457:Indo-Persian
10445:Nazi Germany
10389:Contemporary
10291:Vijayanagara
10190:Great Seljuk
10101:Thessalonica
10029:Golden Horde
9669:Carthaginian
9448:Neo-Assyrian
9433:Neo-Sumerian
9203:Castile-León
9202:
9160:
9134:
9124:Second Taifa
9122:
9110:
9081:
9015:
8942:
8938:Muhammad III
8925:
8918:
8911:
8904:
8731:Abd al-Malik
8630:
8614:
8610:
8582:
8573:
8554:
8535:
8516:
8507:
8488:
8469:
8450:
8431:
8412:
8393:
8374:
8355:
8336:
8317:
8293:
8273:
8254:
8235:
8226:
8207:
8188:
8169:
8149:
8129:
8110:
8091:
8074:
8055:
8046:
8027:
8016:. Retrieved
7996:
7984:. Retrieved
7964:
7944:
7925:
7906:
7887:
7868:
7849:
7841:Bibliography
7829:
7823:
7804:
7798:
7789:
7769:. Retrieved
7750:
7740:
7729:. Retrieved
7709:
7702:
7683:
7661:. Retrieved
7641:
7634:
7615:
7609:
7597:. Retrieved
7588:
7579:
7567:. Retrieved
7558:
7548:
7529:
7523:
7512:. Retrieved
7492:
7485:
7466:
7460:
7441:
7419:
7413:
7402:. Retrieved
7393:
7389:
7379:
7367:. Retrieved
7358:
7349:
7338:. Retrieved
7318:
7311:
7284:
7280:
7270:
7251:
7245:
7220:
7216:
7210:
7201:
7178:. Retrieved
7169:
7159:
7142:
7138:
7117:. Retrieved
7108:
7099:
7087:. Retrieved
7078:
7069:
7057:. Retrieved
7048:
7038:
7026:. Retrieved
7017:
7008:
6997:. Retrieved
6977:
6947:
6935:
6916:
6910:
6898:
6887:. Retrieved
6875:
6871:
6843:
6831:
6819:
6790:
6778:
6759:
6737:
6730:. Retrieved
6721:
6711:
6699:
6687:
6675:
6663:
6636:
6617:
6612:
6600:
6581:
6560:
6548:
6524:
6518:
6506:
6489:
6485:
6461:. Retrieved
6442:
6416:. Retrieved
6396:
6368:
6356:
6344:
6332:
6320:
6308:
6297:. Retrieved
6277:
6270:
6258:
6249:
6229:. Retrieved
6209:
6188:. Retrieved
6168:
6146:
6130:
6125:
6118:Kennedy 1996
6113:
6106:Kennedy 1996
6091:Kennedy 1996
6086:
6074:
6061:
6049:
6037:
6026:. Retrieved
6006:
5981:. Retrieved
5962:
5918:
5911:Ríu Ríu 1988
5906:
5879:
5867:
5855:
5835:
5828:
5821:Kennedy 1996
5816:
5797:
5762:
5739:
5727:
5720:Kennedy 1996
5715:
5703:
5676:
5664:
5652:
5625:
5613:
5601:
5589:
5577:
5565:
5553:
5541:
5529:
5513:
5508:
5496:
5484:
5442:
5430:
5418:
5411:Bariani 2003
5389:
5358:
5351:Bariani 2003
5346:
5311:
5299:
5292:Ríu Ríu 1988
5257:
5250:Kennedy 1996
5245:
5201:
5194:Bariani 2003
5189:
5150:Bariani 2003
5145:
5133:
5111:Bariani 2003
5047:Kennedy 1996
5021:
5002:
4996:
4984:
4972:
4960:
4948:
4902:
4891:. Retrieved
4871:
4850:
4829:
4817:
4806:. Retrieved
4786:
4782:
4769:
4738:
4726:
4699:
4693:
4681:
4672:
4645:
4639:
4627:
4615:
4608:Kennedy 1996
4589:. Retrieved
4569:
4562:
4550:
4538:. Retrieved
4513:
4507:
4494:
4470:
4452:
4368:
4348:
4324:
4294:
4244:
4219:1010 – 1013
4058:
4051:
4037:Andalusiyyin
4025:
3986:
3967:
3947:Great Mosque
3940:
3938:
3922:
3912:
3883:
3857:
3840:
3820:
3814:
3808:
3804:
3802:
3797:
3793:
3759:
3753:) along the
3718:
3714:
3708:
3678:Architecture
3634:Leyre Casket
3585:
3571:
3546:
3544:
3540:Leyre Casket
3518:
3512:
3510:
3482:
3479:
3462:
3437:
3419:
3413:
3405:
3362:
3341:
3336:
3330:
3328:
3296:
3292:
3284:
3273:
3230:
3222:
3189:
3176:
3172:
3159:
3123:
3119:heterodoxies
3107:
3100:
3094:
3087:
3067:
3052:
3046:
3044:
3021:
3009:
3005:
2979:
2973:
2971:
2967:Thomas Glick
2956:
2945:
2924:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2881:
2872:Islamization
2865:
2837:
2823:
2812:
2809:
2805:
2796:
2792:
2769:
2756:
2752:
2742:
2721:
2710:
2707:
2702:
2694:
2691:
2682:
2669:
2666:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2637:
2626:
2619:
2608:
2597:
2586:
2577:Al-Hassan II
2566:
2559:
2552:
2544:East Francia
2540:West Francia
2537:
2522:in 931, and
2513:
2487:
2475:
2462:
2456:
2438:rose against
2431:
2413:
2402:
2355:
2343:
2337:
2333:
2303:
2252:1921–present
2237:1900–present
2222:1868–present
2207:1833–present
2192:1810–present
2177:1783–present
2162:1775–present
2147:1761–present
2132:1752–present
2117:1749–present
2102:1744–present
2097:Saudi Arabia
2087:1727–present
2072:1727–present
2057:1631–present
1407:
1067:300s–500s AD
687:Almohad rule
597:
530:
528:(kingdoms).
523:
513:
491:
454:
450:
448:
359:Succeeded by
358:
353:
271:
12405: /
12158:Catholicism
12053:Other areas
12044:Theological
12039:Eschatology
11996:Mathematics
11933:Calligraphy
11863:Theological
11817:Inheritance
11734:Cleanliness
11106:Shi'a Imams
11100:Ahl al-Bayt
10195:Khwarezmian
10128:Carolingian
9933:Rashtrakuta
9637:Shaishunaga
9536:Hellenistic
9519:New Kingdom
9509:Old Kingdom
9251: [
9136:Third Taifa
9112:First Taifa
8875:Muhammad II
8865:Al-Hakam II
8761:Al-Walid II
8721:Mu'awiya II
8686:Family tree
7686:. Taschen.
7369:20 February
7119:16 November
7105:"Doha Hind"
7089:16 November
7079:Qantara-med
7059:16 November
7028:16 November
6952:Catlos 2018
6940:Catlos 2018
6903:Catlos 2018
6848:Catlos 2018
6836:Catlos 2018
6824:Catlos 2018
6812:Catlos 2018
6795:Catlos 2018
6783:Catlos 2018
6704:Barton 2004
6692:Catlos 2018
6680:Catlos 2018
6668:Barton 2004
6656:Catlos 2018
6641:Catlos 2018
6605:Catlos 2018
6565:Catlos 2018
6361:Catlos 2018
6337:Catlos 2018
6313:Catlos 2018
6263:Catlos 2018
6151:Catlos 2018
6079:Catlos 2018
5938:Catlos 2018
5744:Reilly 1993
5732:Chejne 1974
5423:Weiner 2001
4989:Catlos 2014
4977:Chejne 1974
4965:Catlos 2014
4953:Chejne 1974
4907:Chejne 1974
4834:Reilly 1993
4822:Barton 2004
4686:Barton 2004
4676:Barton, 37.
4632:Catlos 2018
4620:Chejne 1974
4555:Catlos 2018
4540:7 September
4428:Reconquista
4330:Interregnum
4189:976 – 1009
3933:al-Hakam II
3919:interlacing
3911:-decorated
3836:al-Hakam II
3751:waterwheels
3723:Roman villa
3497:calligraphy
3489:Islamic law
3487:(expert on
3311:watermelons
3136:مُسْتَعْرَب
3002:transhumant
2994:Extremadura
2982:Tagus River
2868:Arabization
2778:, Count of
2562:Al-Hakam II
2441: [
1957:Pate Island
1930:East Africa
1723:Sulaymanids
1663:Ukhaidhirds
1448:Sulaymanids
1418:Muhallabids
1323:Munqidhites
1223:Shirvanshah
1077:300s–602 AD
1047:196–1100 AD
1037:100s–241 AD
775:Convivencia
770:Reconquista
749:Granada War
729:(1232–1492)
716:(1232–1287)
692:(1147–1238)
679:(1140–1203)
650:(1085–1145)
637:(1009–1110)
354:Preceded by
276:of Córdoba
270:proclaimed
12420:Categories
12218:Ex-Muslims
12103:Shu'ubiyya
12097:Psychology
12085:Literature
12075:Inventions
12021:Philosophy
11829:Leadership
11805:Honorifics
11460:Philosophy
11267:Isma'ilism
11228:Maturidism
11111:Caliphates
11082:Golden Age
10973:Revelation
10765:Portuguese
10646:Revival Le
10636:Vietnamese
10279:Later Tran
10249:Vietnamese
10145:Singhasari
10133:Holy Roman
9757:Bulgarian
9693:Satavahana
9664:Phoenician
9600:Achaemenid
9561:Indo-Greek
9541:Macedonian
9455:Babylonian
9086:(711-1492)
9083:Al-Andalus
8960:indicates
8950:Hisham III
8853:(929–1031)
8830:al-Mundhir
8825:Muhammad I
8815:Al-Hakam I
8736:Al-Walid I
8711:Mu'awiya I
8639:8421120166
8441:0521394368
8037:0816606889
8018:2021-11-25
7986:2020-09-22
7814:0521337674
7771:2021-11-25
7731:2021-11-25
7693:3822876348
7663:2024-07-25
7539:3822876348
7514:2024-07-25
7476:0870996371
7451:3822876348
7404:2024-07-25
7340:2024-07-25
6999:2024-07-29
6988:0870996371
6889:2021-11-16
6722:Britannica
6463:2024-07-29
6418:2024-07-29
6299:2024-07-29
6231:2024-07-29
6190:2024-08-27
6067:Glick 2005
6054:Glick 2005
6028:2024-07-29
5983:2024-07-29
5606:Frers 2008
5546:Allen 2002
4893:2021-10-28
4882:0521337674
4808:2024-08-17
4591:2024-07-25
4516:(3): 495.
4463:Castilians
4459:Almoravids
4439:References
4363:1026–1031
4343:1025–1026
4319:1024–1025
4309:1023–1024
4279:1021–1023
4269:1018–1021
4259:1016–1018
4229:1013–1016
4209:1009–1010
4179:961 – 976
4169:929 – 961
4151:912 – 929
4141:888 – 912
4131:886 – 888
4127:al-Mundhir
4121:852 – 886
4117:Muhammad I
4111:822 – 852
4101:796 – 822
4097:al-Hakam I
4091:788 – 796
4081:756 – 788
4033:Qarawiyyin
3850: 830
3786:Al-Mundhir
3782:Muhammad I
3745:and other
3584:(known as
3538:, and the
3528:epigraphic
3524:figurative
3421:Muwashshah
3319:cash crops
3303:hard wheat
3169:Conversion
3018:Ebro River
2856:Hisham III
2784:Roussillon
2776:Gausfred I
2699:Borrell II
2471:Muhammad I
2467:Al-Hakam I
2448:Al-Hakam I
2427: 900
2298:See also:
2294:Background
2243:Hashemites
2198:Al Maktoum
2168:Al Khalifa
1853:Upper Yafa
1843:Ya'arubids
1683:Qarmatians
1568:Sumadihids
1057:220–638 AD
1053:Ghassanids
603:(756–1031)
467:al-Andalus
330:10,000,000
316:Population
242:Hisham III
209:(929–1031)
142:Government
46:(929–1031)
12335:Symbolism
12293:Incidents
12271:Criticism
12163:Mormonism
12060:Astrology
11986:Cosmology
11981:Astronomy
11923:Arabesque
11790:Etiquette
11749:Blasphemy
11539:Economics
11354:Ahmadiyya
11296:Muhakkima
11243:Wahhabism
11233:Mu'tazili
11218:Ash'arism
10758:Couronian
10396:Ethiopian
10384:Manchukuo
10339:Brazilian
10185:Ghaznavid
10155:Srivijaya
10106:Trebizond
10091:Byzantine
10073:North Sea
10068:Norwegian
10056:Almoravid
10039:Ilkhanate
10009:Majapahit
9982:Muromachi
9891:Solomonic
9876:Ethiopian
9790:Caliphate
9723:Aragonese
9551:Ptolemaic
9029:Visigoths
8885:Hisham II
8870:Hisham II
8798:(756–929)
8776:Marwan II
8766:Yazid III
8704:(661–750)
8083:0212-467X
7599:8 October
7569:6 October
7303:108444717
7237:202373296
6732:5 October
5800:. Brill.
5522:0763-7608
5304:Arié 1984
5262:Vara 2012
4795:0212-7458
4743:Arié 1984
4731:Dozy 2010
4718:905696269
4664:833763900
4486:Citations
3978:Byzantine
3935:after 962
3770:hypostyle
3743:Albolafia
3715:ar-Ruṣāfa
3602:ablutions
3598:Marrakesh
3586:ataurique
3501:astronomy
3451:romanized
3401:polymaths
3389:astrology
3276:monetized
3234:(Arabic:
3196:(Arabic:
3153:, and to
3134:(Arabic:
3131:must'arab
3004:, and of
2961:(Arabic:
2734:dockyards
2722:saqalibas
2662:Dar Jihad
2589:Hisham II
2484:Caliphate
2398:Barcelona
2228:Al Sharqi
2183:Al Nuaimi
2153:Al Mualla
2142:Abu Dhabi
2138:Al Nahyan
2078:Al Qasimi
2063:Al Qasimi
2027:1860–1887
2017:1858–1895
2002:1856–1964
1992:1746–1828
1977:1277–1495
1962:1203–1894
1917:1926–1970
1907:1906–1934
1897:1903–1967
1887:1858–1967
1883:Qu'aitids
1877:1836–1921
1873:Rashidids
1867:1820–1970
1857:1800–1967
1847:1624–1742
1837:1597–1872
1827:1463–1521
1817:1454–1526
1807:1395–1967
1803:Kathirids
1797:1305–1487
1793:Jarwanids
1787:1253–1320
1777:1229–1454
1767:1159–1174
1757:1154–1624
1753:Nabhanids
1747:1083–1174
1737:1076–1253
1727:1063–1174
1717:1047–1138
1713:Sulayhids
1612:1837–1969
1608:Senussids
1602:1554–1659
1592:1230–1492
1582:1049–1078
1572:1041–1091
1562:1039–1110
1552:1031–1091
1548:Jawharids
1542:1027–1063
1538:Muzaynids
1532:1026–1057
1528:Hammudids
1522:1023–1062
1518:Yahsubids
1512:1023–1091
1502:1020–1086
1492:1013–1039
1482:1012–1051
1472:1004–1412
1438:Aghlabids
1367:1697–1842
1357:1517–1865
1347:1480–1677
1337:1517–1697
1327:1025–1157
1317:1024–1080
1313:Mirdasids
1303:Numayrids
1283:Jarrahids
1273:Mazyadids
1253:Hamdanids
1243:Hashimids
1203:Habbarids
1193:Dulafids
1043:Tanukhids
817:Caliphate
559:(711–732)
520:Al-Mansur
510:Hisham II
429:Gibraltar
308:1000 est.
290:kingdoms
159:(756–929)
130:Minority:
125:Official:
117:Religion
38:(756–929)
12373:Category
12266:Islamism
12249:Muhammad
12205:Apostasy
12180:Hinduism
12070:Feminism
12001:Medicine
11841:Military
11795:Gambling
11744:Apostasy
11739:Criminal
11651:Marriage
11620:Tayammum
11572:Murabaha
11445:Madrasas
11435:Holidays
11425:Clothing
11420:Children
11415:Calendar
11366:Quranism
11300:Khawarij
11272:Alawites
11223:Atharism
11117:Rashidun
10956:In Islam
10951:Muhammad
10738:Japanese
10701:Scottish
10681:American
10673:Colonial
10602:Imperial
10570:Moroccan
10506:Japanese
10484:Afsharid
10343:Burmese
10329:Austrian
10284:Later Le
10259:Early Le
10244:Venetian
10170:Tiwanaku
10083:Hellenic
10046:Moroccan
9977:Kamakura
9967:Japanese
9950:Saffarid
9903:Georgian
9817:Chalukya
9795:Rashidun
9785:Calakmul
9753:Bruneian
9632:Haryanka
9610:Sasanian
9605:Parthian
9556:Bactrian
9546:Seleucid
9526:Goguryeo
9504:Egyptian
9438:Assyrian
9428:Akkadian
9419:Colonies
8964:usurpers
8962:Hammudid
8890:Sulayman
8880:Sulayman
8835:Abdullah
8810:Hisham I
8751:Yazid II
8741:Sulayman
8726:Marwan I
8623:21874703
8012:Archived
7980:Archived
7907:Almanzor
7765:Archived
7725:Archived
7657:Archived
7593:Archived
7563:Archived
7508:Archived
7398:Archived
7390:Meridies
7363:Archived
7334:Archived
7174:Archived
7113:Archived
7083:Archived
7053:Archived
7022:Archived
6993:Archived
6880:Archived
6726:Archived
6498:20840029
6457:Archived
6412:Archived
6293:Archived
6225:Archived
6184:Archived
6022:Archived
5977:Archived
5767:Archived
4887:Archived
4799:Archived
4585:Archived
4534:Archived
4377:See also
4326:Hammudid
4246:Hammudid
4156:Caliphs
4087:Hisham I
3825:Abdallah
3810:maqsurah
3790:Abdallah
3574:capitals
3565:and the
3475:Arabized
3428:and the
3393:medicine
3251:ṣaqāliba
3231:ṣaqāliba
3126:Mozarabs
3115:orthodox
3061:and the
3028:Religion
3022:Muwallad
3016:and the
3014:Zaragoza
3010:Muwallad
3006:Muwallad
2990:Pyrenees
2974:Muwallad
2957:Muwallad
2921:Language
2911:Valencia
2802:Collapse
2788:Galician
2780:Empurias
2772:Catalans
2753:al-Magus
2627:saqaliba
2623:saqaliba
2593:Almanzor
2567:Another
2518:in 927,
2509:Muhammad
2478:Abdullah
2463:saqaliba
2394:Pamplona
2390:Zaragoza
2378:fiefdoms
2370:Damascus
2356:In 756,
2330:province
2232:Fujairah
2213:Al Thani
2123:Al Sabah
2012:Wituland
1947:896–1279
1903:Idrisids
1833:Qasimids
1813:Tahirids
1783:Usfurids
1773:Rasulids
1743:Zurayids
1707:968–1925
1693:Wajihids
1687:899–1077
1677:897–1962
1667:865–1066
1653:Yufirids
1647:819–1138
1643:Ziyadids
1637:751–1970
1578:Tahirids
1508:Abbadids
1488:Tujibids
1462:831–1091
1428:Idrisids
1412:756–1031
1392:710–1019
1388:Salihids
1353:Harfushs
1343:Turabays
1307:990–1081
1297:990–1096
1293:Uqaylids
1287:970–1107
1277:961–1150
1267:955–1071
1263:Rawadids
1257:890–1004
1247:869–1075
1227:861–1538
1213:Kaysites
1207:854–1011
1177:736–1122
1142:909–1171
1138:Fatimids
1132:750–1258
1128:Abbasids
1118:Umayyads
1108:Rashidun
1073:Lakhmids
1063:Salihids
660:Conquest
489:in 929.
438:Portugal
339:Currency
148:monarchy
54:756–1031
12390:37°53′N
12320:Nursing
12281:Qutbism
12195:Sikhism
12190:Judaism
12185:Jainism
12175:Druzism
12011:Physics
11958:Pottery
11943:Gardens
11938:Carpets
11853:Slavery
11775:Divorce
11762:Dhabiĥa
11590:Hygiene
11565:Takaful
11547:Banking
11477:Science
11471:Qurbani
11440:Mosques
11400:Animals
11389:Culture
11323:Nukkari
11318:Azzabas
11305:Azariqa
11289:Zaydism
11277:Alevism
11153:Ottoman
11143:Almohad
11138:Fatimid
11133:Córdoba
11128:Abbasid
11123:Umayyad
11056:Leaders
11051:History
11009:Shahada
10924:Beliefs
10805:largest
10800:Empires
10780:Swedish
10775:Spanish
10770:Russian
10733:Italian
10708:Chinese
10696:English
10691:British
10686:Belgian
10661:Vietnam
10651:Tay son
10597:Tsarist
10592:Russian
10587:Ottoman
10553:Dzungar
10548:Khoshut
10521:Mexican
10516:Maratha
10499:Pahlavi
10479:Safavid
10474:Iranian
10401:Haitian
10364:Chinese
10324:Ashanti
10296:Wagadou
10222:Eastern
10217:Western
10200:Timurid
10160:Tibetan
10150:Songhai
10140:Serbian
10061:Almohad
10051:Idrisid
9955:Samanid
9945:Tahirid
9940:Iranian
9918:Kannauj
9898:Genoese
9834:Chinese
9827:Eastern
9822:Western
9810:Fatimid
9805:Abbasid
9800:Umayyad
9773:Burmese
9733:Ayyubid
9728:Angevin
9698:Xianbei
9686:Eastern
9681:Western
9627:Magadha
9590:Iranian
9583:Xiongnu
9568:Hittite
9477:Chinese
9465:Kassite
9414:Ancient
9406:Empires
8771:Ibrahim
8716:Yazid I
6141:, p. 73
4789:: 419.
4530:2600793
4350:Umayyad
4296:Umayyad
4060:Umayyad
3982:mosaics
3976:) with
3951:minaret
3927:in the
3924:maqsura
3843:Seville
3735:Alcázar
3453::
3348:Baghdad
3325:Culture
3307:bananas
3258:Economy
3240:eunuchs
3208:(sing.
3143:
3074:Shafi'i
3068:maddhab
2952:Berbers
2907:Granada
2862:Society
2790:coast.
2765:Algarve
2761:Vikings
2749:Pechina
2738:Tortosa
2730:Almería
2726:Coimbra
2674:Astorga
2611:Tangier
2604:Berbers
2569:Fatimid
2528:Idrisid
2524:Tangier
2516:Melilla
2497:Shiʿite
2434:Corsica
2416:Maghreb
2382:emirate
2352:Emirate
2326:Roderic
2172:Bahrain
2108:Al Said
2093:Al Saud
2082:Sharjah
2052:Morocco
2048:'Alawis
1987:Mombasa
1823:Jabrids
1763:Mahdids
1733:Uyunids
1697:926–965
1673:Rassids
1657:847–997
1598:Saadids
1588:Nasrids
1498:Amirids
1478:Bakrids
1468:Kanzids
1452:814–922
1442:800–909
1432:788–974
1422:771–793
1402:745-757
1363:Shihabs
1333:Ma'nids
1237:864–928
1233:Alavids
1217:860–964
1197:840–897
1187:824–961
1167:654–884
1122:661–750
1112:632–661
825:
589:Fihrids
498:Umayyad
479:emirate
475:Córdoba
469:), the
434:Morocco
377:Fihrids
266:•
253:History
231:(first)
181:(first)
146:Islamic
75:Córdoba
71:Capital
12393:4°47′W
12132:
12090:poetry
11900:
11785:Ethics
11769:Dhimmi
11728:Baligh
11689:Mahram
11646:Family
11626:Toilet
11606:Miswak
11359:Lahori
11342:Najdat
11238:Salafi
11188:Seerah
11183:Tafsir
11178:Hadith
11148:Sokoto
11093:Sahaba
10968:Angels
10945:Tawhid
10902:topics
10743:Mongol
10728:German
10723:French
10713:Danish
10656:Dainam
10631:Tongan
10619:Somali
10614:Sokoto
10580:'Alawi
10558:Kalmyk
10538:Mongol
10531:Second
10511:Korean
10462:Mughal
10452:Indian
10435:German
10428:Second
10418:French
10411:Second
10347:Second
10319:Afghan
10311:Modern
10237:Kyrgyz
10232:Uighur
10227:Second
10207:Turkic
10175:Toltec
10111:Epirus
10096:Nicaea
10019:Mongol
9972:Yamato
9908:Huetar
9766:Second
9703:Rouran
9652:Shunga
9647:Maurya
9622:Kushan
9595:Median
9573:Hunnic
9531:Harsha
8756:Hisham
8637:
8621:
8589:
8561:
8542:
8523:
8495:
8476:
8457:
8438:
8419:
8400:
8381:
8362:
8343:
8324:
8305:
8280:
8261:
8242:
8214:
8195:
8176:
8170:El Cid
8157:
8136:
8117:
8098:
8081:
8062:
8034:
8004:
7972:
7951:
7932:
7913:
7894:
7875:
7856:
7811:
7757:
7717:
7690:
7649:
7622:
7536:
7500:
7473:
7448:
7326:
7301:
7258:
7235:
7180:5 June
6985:
6923:
6766:
6739:books.
6624:
6588:
6496:
6449:
6404:
6285:
6217:
6176:
6137:
6014:
5969:
5843:
5804:
5520:
5009:
4879:
4793:
4716:
4706:
4662:
4652:
4577:
4528:
4159:Reign
4071:Reign
4068:Emirs
4007:, the
3993:Toledo
3969:mihrab
3914:mihrab
3909:mosaic
3821:sabbat
3805:sabbat
3788:, and
3747:norias
3727:Berber
3711:villas
3590:spolia
3551:bronze
3534:, the
3526:, and
3442:Arabic
3385:poetry
3373:Hebrew
3365:Arabic
3352:Ziryab
3344:Syrian
3315:norias
3236:صقالبة
3204:mawālī
3193:khāṣṣa
3095:dhimmi
3078:Zahiri
3063:Hanafi
3059:Maliki
3054:fuqaha
2998:Mérida
2915:Málaga
2903:Toledo
2839:taifas
2745:Elvira
2732:. The
2575:, and
2573:Jawhar
2555:dinars
2546:, and
2505:caliph
2409:sultan
2407:" or "
2396:, and
2386:Toledo
2334:wilāya
2247:Jordan
2127:Kuwait
1558:Hudids
823:خِلافة
487:caliph
481:until
343:Dirham
256:
244:(last)
214:
204:Caliph
194:(last)
164:
103:Hebrew
12254:Quran
12134:Other
12029:Early
11953:Music
11869:Kalam
11823:Jizya
11811:Hudud
11696:Nikah
11613:Najis
11599:Ghusl
11558:Sukuk
11487:Women
11455:Music
11430:Flags
11335:Sufri
11328:Wahbi
11313:Ibadi
11213:Sunni
11173:Quran
11030:Zakat
11016:Salah
10979:Qadar
10937:Allah
10900:Islam
10793:Lists
10748:Omani
10718:Dutch
10624:Isaaq
10575:Saadi
10543:Oirat
10526:First
10494:Qajar
10423:First
10406:First
10379:China
10352:Third
10212:First
10165:Tikal
10116:Morea
10086:Roman
10004:Latin
9999:Khmer
9994:Kanem
9960:Buyid
9886:Zagwe
9881:Aksum
9871:Chola
9778:First
9761:First
9748:Bornu
9743:Benin
9738:Aztec
9676:Roman
9657:Gupta
9642:Nanda
9578:White
9255:]
9041:Suebi
8691:Media
7299:S2CID
7233:S2CID
6883:(PDF)
6868:(PDF)
6494:JSTOR
6133:2003
4802:(PDF)
4779:(PDF)
4526:JSTOR
4444:Notes
4289:1023
4239:1017
4199:1009
3964:domes
3898:baths
3816:qibla
3547:tiraz
3514:tiraz
3484:faqih
3369:Latin
3268:dinar
3266:Gold
3245:'abīd
3217:mawlā
3211:mawlā
3198:الخاص
3102:jizya
3048:ulama
3033:Islam
2948:Arabs
2670:sūdān
2530:emir
2520:Ceuta
2501:Tunis
2457:Emir
2445:]
2217:Qatar
2202:Dubai
2187:Ajman
1972:Kilwa
1942:Shewa
525:taifa
515:hajib
496:, an
442:Spain
288:taifa
127:Islam
11915:Arts
11846:POWs
11780:Diet
11710:Zina
11682:Mahr
11668:Haya
11632:Wudu
11579:Riba
11492:LGBT
11384:Life
11257:Shia
11252:Sufi
11037:Hajj
11023:Sawm
10563:Bogd
10489:Zand
10467:Sikh
10374:Qing
10369:Ming
10301:Wari
10269:Tran
10254:Dinh
10024:Yuan
10014:Mali
9923:Pala
9913:Inca
9864:Yuan
9854:Song
9849:Liao
9844:Tang
9617:Kush
9499:Dʿmt
9222:) →
8746:Umar
8635:ISBN
8619:PMID
8587:ISBN
8559:ISBN
8540:ISBN
8521:ISBN
8493:ISBN
8474:ISBN
8455:ISBN
8436:ISBN
8417:ISBN
8398:ISBN
8379:ISBN
8360:ISBN
8341:ISBN
8322:ISBN
8303:ISBN
8278:ISBN
8259:ISBN
8240:ISBN
8212:ISBN
8193:ISBN
8174:ISBN
8155:ISBN
8134:ISBN
8115:ISBN
8096:ISBN
8079:ISSN
8060:ISBN
8032:ISBN
8002:ISBN
7970:ISBN
7949:ISBN
7930:ISBN
7911:ISBN
7892:ISBN
7873:ISBN
7854:ISBN
7809:ISBN
7755:ISBN
7715:ISBN
7688:ISBN
7647:ISBN
7620:ISBN
7601:2020
7571:2020
7534:ISBN
7498:ISBN
7471:ISBN
7446:ISBN
7371:2021
7324:ISBN
7256:ISBN
7182:2020
7121:2021
7091:2021
7061:2021
7030:2021
6983:ISBN
6921:ISBN
6764:ISBN
6734:2022
6622:ISBN
6586:ISBN
6447:ISBN
6402:ISBN
6283:ISBN
6215:ISBN
6174:ISBN
6135:ISBN
6012:ISBN
5967:ISBN
5841:ISBN
5802:ISBN
5518:ISSN
5007:ISBN
4877:ISBN
4791:ISSN
4714:OCLC
4704:ISBN
4660:OCLC
4650:ISBN
4575:ISBN
4542:2018
4035:and
3942:sahn
3907:The
3894:mint
3717:. Ar
3616:The
3555:stag
3507:Arts
3491:and
3371:and
3337:adab
3332:adab
3297:The
3141:lit.
3076:and
2963:مولد
2913:and
2870:and
2850:and
2782:and
2747:and
2678:León
2676:and
2600:Subh
2405:emir
2345:emīr
2339:wāli
2304:The
2112:Oman
449:The
431:(UK)
303:Area
294:1031
273:emir
154:Emir
11656:Sex
11519:Law
11405:Art
10641:Mac
10078:Oyo
9987:Edo
9859:Jīn
9839:Sui
9492:Jin
9487:Han
9482:Qin
8299:523
7289:doi
7225:doi
7147:doi
4518:doi
3596:in
3436:'s
2615:Fes
2342:or
280:756
12422::
10274:Ho
10264:Ly
9268:→
9264:→
9253:eu
9231:→
9205:)
9197:→
9176:→
8615:34
8613:.
8301:.
8010:.
7978:.
7780:^
7763:.
7723:.
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