2293:. Tropical SSTs during the late Albian most likely averaged around 30 °C. Despite this high SST, seawater was not hypersaline at this time, as this would have required significantly higher temperatures still. On land, arid zones in the Albian regularly expanded northward in tandem with expansions of subtropical high pressure belts. The Cedar Mountain Formation's Soap Wash flora indicates a mean annual temperature of between 19 and 26 °C in Utah at the Albian-Cenomanian boundary. Tropical SSTs during the Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum were at least 30 °C, though one study estimated them as high as between 33 and 42 °C. An intermediate estimate of ~33-34 °C has also been given. Meanwhile, deep ocean temperatures were as much as 15 to 20 °C (27 to 36 °F) warmer than today's; one study estimated that deep ocean temperatures were between 12 and 20 °C during the MKH. The poles were so warm that
1766:
1961:
2419:
3189:
3149:
2778:
3220:
2851:
3167:
3128:
2795:
2868:
2813:
2830:
3104:
2339:
3257:
9138:
2934:
2407:
9127:
2897:
1740:
2264:
latest Albian. Approximately 94 Ma, the
Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum occurred, with this hyperthermal being the most extreme hothouse interval of the Cretaceous and being associated with a sea level highstand. Temperatures cooled down slightly over the next few million years, but then another thermal maximum, the Coniacian Thermal Maximum, happened, with this thermal event being dated to around 87 Ma. Atmospheric CO
1731:, were semiaquatic and had access to detritus. Modern crocodilians can live as scavengers and can survive for months without food and go into hibernation when conditions are unfavorable, and their young are small, grow slowly, and feed largely on invertebrates and dead organisms or fragments of organisms for their first few years. These characteristics have been linked to crocodilian survival at the end of the Cretaceous.
1404:
114:
2301:
known formally as the Late
Cretaceous-Early Palaeogene Cool Interval (LKEPCI). Tropical SSTs declined from around 35 °C in the early Campanian to around 28 °C in the Maastrichtian. Deep ocean temperatures declined to 9 to 12 °C, though the shallow temperature gradient between tropical and polar seas remained. Regional conditions in the
2925:. The cause of the decline of Rhynchocephalia remains unclear, but has often been suggested to be due to competition with advanced lizards and mammals. They appear to have remained diverse in high-latitude southern South America during the Late Cretaceous, where lizards remained rare, with their remains outnumbering terrestrial lizards 200:1.
1708:, few groups of animals became extinct. Stream communities rely less on food from living plants and more on detritus that washes in from land. This particular ecological niche buffered them from extinction. Similar, but more complex patterns have been found in the oceans. Extinction was more severe among animals living in the
2300:
Beginning in the
Santonian, near the end of the MKH, the global climate began to cool, with this cooling trend continuing across the Campanian. This period of cooling, driven by falling levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, caused the end of the MKH and the transition into a cooler climatic interval,
2258:
until the early
Campanian. Faster rates of seafloor spreading and entry of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere are believed to have initiated this period of extreme warmth, along with high flood basalt activity. The MKH was punctuated by multiple thermal maxima of extreme warmth. The Leenhardt Thermal
1782:
The high sea level and warm climate of the
Cretaceous meant large areas of the continents were covered by warm, shallow seas, providing habitat for many marine organisms. The Cretaceous was named for the extensive chalk deposits of this age in Europe, but in many parts of the world, the deposits from
2276:
to the poles; the latitudinal temperature gradient during the
Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum was 0.54 °C per °âlatitude for the Southern Hemisphere and 0.49 °C per °âlatitude for the Northern Hemisphere, in contrast to present day values of 1.07 and 0.69 °C per °âlatitude for the
2095:
beds. Bivalve palaeobiogeography also indicates that Africa was split in half by a shallow sea during the
Coniacian and Santonian, connecting the Tethys with the South Atlantic by way of the central Sahara and Central Africa, which were then underwater. Yet another shallow seaway ran between what is
5354:
O'Brien, Charlotte L.; Robinson, Stuart A.; Pancost, Richard D.; Sinninghe Damsté, Jaap S.; Schouten, Stefan; Lunt, Daniel J.; Alsenz, Heiko; Bornemann, André; Bottini, Cinzia; Brassell, Simon C.; Farnsworth, Alexander; Forster, Astrid; Huber, Brian T.; Inglis, Gordon N.; Jenkyns, Hugh C.; Linnert,
2313:
concentrations. Laramidia likewise had a seasonal, monsoonal climate. The
Maastrichtian was a time of chaotic, highly variable climate. Two upticks in global temperatures are known to have occurred during the Maastrichtian, bucking the trend of overall cooler temperatures during the LKEPCI. Between
2241:
measurements from the equatorial
Pacific. During the Aptian, Milankovitch cycles governed the occurrence of anoxic events by modulating the intensity of the hydrological cycle and terrestrial runoff. The early Aptian was also notable for its millennial scale hyperarid events in the mid-latitudes of
8126:
Yuichiro
Kashiyama; Nanako O. Ogawa; Junichiro Kuroda; Motoo Shiro; Shinya Nomoto; Ryuji Tada; Hiroshi Kitazato; Naohiko Ohkouchi (May 2008). "Diazotrophic cyanobacteria as the major photoautotrophs during mid-Cretaceous oceanic anoxic events: Nitrogen and carbon isotopic evidence from sedimentary
2546:, with the family having diversified into modern groups by the end of the Cretaceous. The oldest large angiosperm trees are known from the Turonian (c. 90 Mya) of New Jersey, with the trunk having a preserved diameter of 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) and an estimated height of 50 metres (160 ft).
2196:
The cooling trend of the last epoch of the Jurassic, the Tithonian, continued into the Berriasian, the first age of the Cretaceous. The North Atlantic seaway opened and enabled the flow of cool water from the Boreal Ocean into the Tethys. There is evidence that snowfalls were common in the higher
1823:
Stagnation of deep sea currents in middle Cretaceous times caused anoxic conditions in the sea water leaving the deposited organic matter undecomposed. Half of the world's petroleum reserves were laid down at this time in the anoxic conditions of what would become the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of
4914:
Hasegawa, Hitoshi; Katsuta, Nagayoshi; Muraki, Yasushi; Heimhofer, Ulrich; Ichinnorov, Niiden; Asahi, Hirofumi; Ando, Hisao; Yamamoto, Koshi; Murayama, Masafumi; Ohta, Tohru; Yamamoto, Masanobu; Ikeda, Masayuki; Ishikawa, Kohki; Kuma, Ryusei; Hasegawa, Takashi; Hasebe, Noriko; Nishimoto, Shoji;
2263:
around 106 Ma, during the middle Albian. Then, around a million years after that, occurred the Petite Verol Thermal Event (PVTE). Afterwards, around 102.5 Ma, the Event 6 Thermal Event (EV6) took place; this event was itself followed by the Breistroffer Thermal Maximum around 101 Ma, during the
2192:
evidence indicates the Cretaceous climate had three broad phases: a BerriasianâBarremian warm-dry phase, an AptianâSantonian warm-wet phase, and a CampanianâMaastrichtian cool-dry phase. As in the Cenozoic, the 400,000 year eccentricity cycle was the dominant orbital cycle governing carbon flux
2389:
Age, based on isotopic evidence. However, this has subsequently been suggested to be the result of inconsistent isotopic proxies, with evidence of polar rainforests during this time interval at 82° S. Rafting by ice of stones into marine environments occurred during much of the Cretaceous, but
2217:
Hauptblatterton Thermal Event (HTE). The HTE marked the ultimate end of the Tithonian-early Barremian Cool Interval (TEBCI). During this interval, precession was the dominant orbital driver of environmental changes in the Vocontian Basin. For much of the TEBCI, northern Gondwana experienced a
2537:
are known from the Aptian. Flowering plants underwent a rapid radiation beginning during the middle Cretaceous, becoming the dominant group of land plants by the end of the period, coincident with the decline of previously dominant groups such as conifers. The oldest known fossils of
6548:
Gao, Yuan; Ibarra, Daniel E.; Caves Rubenstein, Jeremy K.; Chen, Jiuquan; Kukla, Tyler; Methner, Katharina; Gao, Youfeng; Huang, He; Lin, Zhipeng; Zhang, Laiming; Xi, Dangpeng; Wu, Huaichun; Carroll, Alan R.; Graham, Stephan A.; Chamberlain, C. Page; Wang, Changshan (May 2021).
7956:
7045:
Trevisan L. 1988. Angiospermous pollen (monosulcateâtrichotomosulcate phase) from the very early Lower Cretaceous of southern Tuscany (Italy): some aspects. 7th International Palynological Congress Abstracts Volume. Brisbane, Australia: University of Queensland,
3377:
From page 373: "La troisiÚme, qui correspond à ce qu'on a déja appelé formation de la craie, sera désigné par le nom de terrain crétacé." (The third, which corresponds to what was already called the "chalk formation", will be designated by the name "chalky
1968:
During the Cretaceous, the present North American continent was isolated from the other continents. In the Jurassic, the North Atlantic already opened, leaving a proto-ocean between Europe and North America. From north to south across the continent, the
6782:
the Science Team of Expedition PS104; Klages, Johann P.; Salzmann, Ulrich; Bickert, Torsten; Hillenbrand, Claus-Dieter; Gohl, Karsten; Kuhn, Gerhard; Bohaty, Steven M.; Titschack, JĂŒrgen; MĂŒller, Juliane; Frederichs, Thomas (April 2020).
3049:
were also particularly notable among Cretaceous bivalves, and they have been used to identify major biotic turnovers such as at the Turonian-Coniacian boundary. Predatory gastropods with drilling habits were widespread. Globotruncanid
2305:
changed little between the MKH and the LKEPCI. During this period of relatively cool temperatures, the ITCZ became narrower, while the strength of both summer and winter monsoons in East Asia was directly correlated to atmospheric
1467:, coinciding with the base of the eponymous Alpina subzone, has been proposed as the definition of the base of the Cretaceous. The working definition for the boundary has often been placed as the first appearance of the ammonite
3592:
Lena, Luis; LĂłpez-MartĂnez, Rafael; Lescano, Marina; Aguire-Urreta, Beatriz; Concheyro, Andrea; Vennari, VerĂłnica; Naipauer, Maximiliano; Samankassou, Elias; Pimentel, MĂĄrcio; Ramos, Victor A.; Schaltegger, Urs (2019-01-08).
5355:
Christan; Littler, Kate; Markwick, Paul; McAnena, Alison; Mutterlose, Jörg; Naafs, B. David A.; PĂŒttmann, Wilhelm; Sluijs, Appy; Van Helmond, Niels A.G.M.; Wellekoop, Johan; Wagner, Thomas; Wrobel, Neil E. (September 2017).
811:
continued to dominate on land. The world was largely ice-free, although there is some evidence of brief periods of glaciation during the cooler first half, and forests extended to the poles. During this time, new groups of
2500:
angiosperms during the Late Triassic or the Jurassic, but such estimates are difficult to reconcile with the heavily sampled pollen record and the distinctive tricolpate to tricolporoidate (triple grooved) pollen of
3188:
2330:
was accompanied by a ~0.6 °C increase in temperature. The latter warming interval, occurring at the very end of the Cretaceous, was triggered by the activity of the Deccan Traps. The LKEPCI lasted into the
3947:
Aberhan, M; Weidemeyer, S; Kieesling, W; Scasso, RA & Medina, FA (2007). "Faunal evidence for reduced productivity and uncoordinated recovery in Southern Hemisphere CretaceousâPaleogene boundary sections".
7062:
2242:
Asia. The BAWI itself was followed by the Aptian-Albian Cold Snap (AACS) that began about 118 Ma. A short, relatively minor ice age may have occurred during this so-called "cold snap", as evidenced by glacial
6143:
Linnert, Christian; Robinson, Stuart A.; Lees, Jackie A.; Bown, Paul R.; PĂ©rez-RodrĂguez, Irene; Petrizzo, Maria Rose; Falzoni, Francesca; Littler, Kate; Arz, JosĂ© Antonio; Russell, Ernest E. (17 June 2014).
2201:
mountains, though seasonal snow may have existed farther from the poles. After the end of the first age, however, temperatures began to increase again, with a number of thermal excursions, such as the middle
2253:
Temperatures increased drastically after the end of the AACS, which ended around 111 Ma with the Paquier/Urbino Thermal Maximum, giving way to the Mid-Cretaceous Hothouse (MKH), which lasted from the early
4098:
1460:
briefly abundant during the latest Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous, have been suggested as the most promising candidates for fixing the JurassicâCretaceous boundary. In particular, the first appearance
4143:
Mutterlose, Jörg; Brumsack, Hans; Flögel, Sascha; Hay, William; Klein, Christian; Langrock, Uwe; Lipinski, Marcus; Ricken, Werner; Söding, Emanuel; Stein, RĂŒdiger; Swientek, Oliver (26 February 2003).
3503:
Wimbledon, William A.P.; Rehakova, Daniela; SvobodovĂĄ, Andrea; Schnabl, Petr; Pruner, Petr; Elbra, Tiiu; Ć ifnerovĂĄ, KristĂœna; KdĂœr, Ć imon; Frau, Camille; Schnyder, Johann; Galbrun, Bruno (2020-02-11).
2268:
levels may have varied by thousands of ppm throughout the MKH. Mean annual temperatures at the poles during the MKH exceeded 14 °C. Such hot temperatures during the MKH resulted in a very gentle
3219:
2777:
4550:
Martinez, Mathieu; Aguirre-Urreta, Beatriz; Dera, Guillaume; Lescano, Marina; Omarini, Julieta; Tunik, Maisa; O'Dogherty, Luis; Aguado, Roque; Company, Miguel; Bodin, Stéphane (April 2023).
5120:"Paleoclimate of the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian-Turonian) Portion of the Winton Formation, Central-Western Queensland, Australia: New Observations Based on Clamp and Bioclimatic Analysis"
2218:
monsoonal climate. A shallow thermocline existed in the mid-latitude Tethys. The TEBCI was followed by the Barremian-Aptian Warm Interval (BAWI). This hot climatic interval coincides with
5815:
5408:"Deciphering Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian to Campanian) coastline dynamics in the southwestern MĂŒnsterland (northwest Germany) by using calcareous nannofossils: Eustasy vs local tectonics"
1675:-eaters survived the extinction event, perhaps because of the increased availability of their food sources. At the end of the Cretaceous, there seem to have been no purely herbivorous or
3127:
2794:
2246:
in the western parts of the Tethys Ocean and the expansion of calcareous nannofossils that dwelt in cold water into lower latitudes. The AACS is associated with an arid period in the
3148:
3166:
2829:
1981:
in the east. Three dinosaur clades found in Laramidia (troodontids, therizinosaurids and oviraptorosaurs) are absent from Appalachia from the Coniacian through the Maastrichtian.
2445:(angiosperms) make up around 90% of living plant species today. Prior to the rise of angiosperms, during the Jurassic and the Early Cretaceous, the higher flora was dominated by
2694:) in China is an important site, full of preserved remains of numerous types of small dinosaurs, birds and mammals, that provides a glimpse of life in the Early Cretaceous. The
2973:
was widely distributed across western North America. Due to the extreme climatic warmth in the Arctic, choristoderans were able to colonise it too during the Late Cretaceous.
1694:, and snails, which in turn fed on dead plant and animal matter. Scientists theorise that these organisms survived the collapse of plant-based food chains because they fed on
2656:
were common in the early and middle Cretaceous, but as the Cretaceous proceeded they declined for poorly understood reasons (once thought to be due to competition with early
1521:(formerly known as the KâT boundary). Earth's biodiversity required substantial time to recover from this event, despite the probable existence of an abundance of vacant
6551:"Terrestrial climate in mid-latitude East Asia from the latest Cretaceous to the earliest Paleogene: A multiproxy record from the Songliao Basin in northeastern China"
5985:
Pucéat, Emmanuelle; Lécuyer, Christophe; Donnadieu, Yannick; Naveau, Philippe; Cappetta, Henri; Ramstein, Gilles; Huber, Brian T.; Kriwet, Juergen (1 February 2007).
7013:
Brenner, G.J. (1996). "Evidence for the Earliest Stage of Angiosperm Pollen Evolution: A Paleoequatorial Section from Israel". In Taylor, D.W.; Hickey, L.J. (eds.).
8077:"The calcareous nannofossil record across the Late Cretaceous Turonian/Coniacian boundary, including new data from Germany, Poland, the Czech Republic and England"
6264:
Wang, Chengshan; Scott, Robert W.; Wan, Xiaoqiao; Graham, Stephan A.; Huang, Yongjian; Wang, Pujun; Wu, Huaichun; Dean, Walter E.; Zhang, Laiming (November 2013).
5986:
5921:
1517:
during the Maastrichtian age. The result was the extinction of three-quarters of Earth's plant and animal species. The impact created the sharp break known as the
5663:
3660:
Vennari, VerĂłnica V.; Lescano, Marina; Naipauer, Maximiliano; Aguirre-Urreta, Beatriz; Concheyro, Andrea; Schaltegger, Urs; Armstrong, Richard; Pimentel, Marcio;
2850:
5119:
4984:"Glacial dropstones in the western Tethys during the late Aptianâearly Albian cold snap: Palaeoclimate and palaeogeographic implications for the mid-Cretaceous"
4780:
3103:
2259:
Event (LTE) occurred around 110 Ma, followed shortly by the lâArboudeyesse Thermal Event (ATE) a million years later. Following these two hyperthermals was the
7882:"The Turonian-Coniacian stage boundary in Lower Saxony (Germany) and adjacent areas: the Salzgitter-Salder Quarry as a proposed international standard section"
7826:"Inoceramid bivalves from the Turonian/Coniacian (Cretaceous) boundary in Romania: revisions of Simonescu's (1899) material from Ărmös (Ormenis), Transylvania"
5313:"Tropical warming and intermittent cooling during the Cenomanian/Turonian oceanic anoxic event 2: Sea surface temperature records from the equatorial Atlantic"
3086:. Calcareous nannoplankton were important components of the marine microbiota and important as biostratigraphic markers and recorders of environmental change.
2867:
2193:
between different reservoirs and influencing global climate. The location of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) was roughly the same as in the present.
6386:. Environmental/Climate Change in the Cretaceous Greenhouse World: records from terrestrial scientific drilling of Songliao Basin and adjacent area of China.
8507:
4628:"Climatic precession is the main driver of Early Cretaceous sedimentation in the Vocontian Basin (France): Evidence from the Valanginian Orpierre succession"
3066:
were abundant in Cretaceous marine settings; ostracod species characterised by high male sexual investment had the highest rates of extinction and turnover.
2481:. The exact origins of angiosperms are uncertain, although molecular evidence suggests that they are not closely related to any living group of gymnosperms.
2043:
had begun to break up during the Jurassic Period, but its fragmentation accelerated during the Cretaceous and was largely complete by the end of the period.
1487:
to be approximately 145 million years ago, but other estimates have been proposed based on U-Pb geochronology, ranging as young as 140 million years ago.
1429:
The lower boundary of the Cretaceous is currently undefined, and the JurassicâCretaceous boundary is currently the only system boundary to lack a defined
4099:"Bivalves (Mollusca) from the Coniacian-Santonian Anguille Formation from Cap Esterias, Northern Gabon, with notes on paleoecology and paleobiogeography"
6203:
O'Connor, Lauren K.; Robinson, Stuart A.; Naafs, B. David A.; Jenkyns, Hugh C.; Henson, Sam; Clarke, Madeleine; Pancost, Richard D. (27 February 2019).
3504:
5776:"Paleoclimatic reconstruction for the AlbianâCenomanian transition based on a dominantly angiosperm flora from the Cedar Mountain Formation, Utah, USA"
5036:
4704:
Wang, Tianyang; Hoffmann, René; He, Songlin; Zhang, Qinghai; Li, Guobiao; Randrianaly, Hasina Nirina; Xie, Jing; Yue, Yahui; Ding, Lin (October 2023).
2812:
2096:
now Norway and Greenland, connecting the Tethys to the Arctic Ocean and enabling biotic exchange between the two oceans. At the peak of the Cretaceous
1236:
1765:
6644:
Bornemann, Norris R. D.; Friedrich, O.; Beckmann, B.; Schouten, Stefan; Sinnighe Damsté, Jaap S.; Vogel, J.; Hofmann, P.; Wagner, T. (January 2008).
6382:
6094:"Late Cretaceous Paleoceanographic Evolution and the Onset of Cooling in the Santonian at Southern High Latitudes (IODP Site U1513, SE Indian Ocean)"
5269:
4988:
1433:(GSSP). Placing a GSSP for this boundary has been difficult because of the strong regionality of most biostratigraphic markers, and the lack of any
3372:
7294:"Heinrichsia cheilanthoides gen. et sp. nov., a fossil fern in the family Pteridaceae (Polypodiales) from the Cretaceous amber forests of Myanmar"
989:, all originating from European stratigraphy, is now used worldwide. In many parts of the world, alternative local subdivisions are still in use.
6869:
Alley, N. F.; Frakes, L. A. (2003). "First known Cretaceous glaciation: Livingston Tillite Member of the Cadna-owie Formation, South Australia".
6855:
3818:
Wilf, P; Johnson KR (2004). "Land plant extinction at the end of the Cretaceous: a quantitative analysis of the North Dakota megafloral record".
3595:"High-precision UâPb ages in the early Tithonian to early Berriasian and implications for the numerical age of the JurassicâCretaceous boundary"
1960:
4779:
Schouten, Stefan; Hopmans, Ellen C.; Forster, Astrid; Van Breugel, Yvonne; Kuypers, Marcel M. M.; Sinninghe Damsté, Jaap S. (1 December 2003).
3540:"Revision of the ammonite index species Berriasella jacobi Mazenot, 1939 and its consequences for the biostratigraphy of the Berriasian Stage"
879:
4706:"Early Cretaceous climate for the southern Tethyan Ocean: Insights from the geochemical and paleoecological analyses of extinct cephalopods"
4288:
Giorgioni, Martino; Weissert, Helmut; Bernasconi, Stefano M.; Hochuli, Peter A.; Coccioni, Rodolfo; Keller, Christina E. (21 January 2012).
1528:
Despite the severity of the K-Pg extinction event, there were significant variations in the rate of extinction between and within different
4746:"Onset of the Mid-Cretaceous greenhouse in the Barremian-Aptian: Igneous events and the biological, sedimentary, and geochemical responses"
3985:
Sheehan, PM; Fastovsky, DE (1992). "Major extinctions of land-dwelling vertebrates at the CretaceousâPaleogene boundary, eastern Montana".
2473:
or "seed ferns", a collective term that refers to disparate groups of extinct seed plants with fern-like foliage, including groups such as
1430:
1200:
8371:
1955:
8341:
5816:"Testing the Cretaceous greenhouse hypothesis using glassy foraminiferal calcite from the core of the Turonian tropics on Demerara Rise"
3505:"Fixing a J/K boundary: A comparative account of key TithonianâBerriasian profiles in the departments of DrĂŽme and Hautes-Alpes, France"
6523:
Nordt, Lee; Atchley, Stacy; Dworkin, Steve (December 2003). "Terrestrial Evidence for Two Greenhouse Events in the Latest Cretaceous".
5619:
Pucéat, Emmanuelle; Lécuyer, Christophe; Sheppard, Simon M. F.; Dromart, Gilles; Reboulet, Stéphane; Grandjean, Patricia (3 May 2003).
2277:
Southern and Northern hemispheres, respectively. This meant weaker global winds, which drive the ocean currents, and resulted in less
8500:
6914:
Frakes, L. A.; Francis, J. E. (1988). "A guide to Phanerozoic cold polar climates from high-latitude ice-rafting in the Cretaceous".
3270:
2953:
in Asia during the Early Cretaceous, which represents the high point of choristoderan diversity, including long necked forms such as
1424:
1416:
840:
437:
8180:"Quantitative changes of calcareous nannoflora in the Saratov region (Russian Platform) during the late Maastrichtian warming event"
7957:"Changes in Late Cretaceousâearly Tertiary benthic marine assemblages: analyses from the North American coastal plain shallow shelf"
7225:
Jud, Nathan A.; DâEmic, Michael D.; Williams, Scott A.; Mathews, Josh C.; Tremaine, Katie M.; Bhattacharya, Janok (September 2018).
4386:
2342:
A computer-simulated model of surface conditions in Middle Cretaceous, 100 mya, displaying the approximate shoreline and calculated
7166:
Prasad, V.; Strömberg, C. a. E.; Leaché, A. D.; Samant, B.; Patnaik, R.; Tang, L.; Mohabey, D. M.; Ge, S.; Sahni, A. (2011-09-20).
1484:
504:
454:
2618:
were common in the Early Cretaceous, but by the Late Cretaceous northern mammalian faunas were dominated by multituberculates and
2418:
2197:
latitudes during this age, and the tropics became wetter than during the Triassic and Jurassic. Glaciation was restricted to high-
1556:
animals, which depended on plants and plankton as their food, died out as their food sources became scarce; consequently, the top
4917:"Decadalâcentennial-scale solar-linked climate variations and millennial-scale internal oscillations during the Early Cretaceous"
5561:
Laugié, Marie; Donnadieu, Yannick; Ladant, Jean-Baptiste; Green, J. A. Mattias; Bopp, Laurent; Raisson, François (5 June 2020).
4781:"Extremely high sea-surface temperatures at low latitudes during the middle Cretaceous as revealed by archaeal membrane lipids"
4482:
1798:. Because of the relatively young age and great thickness of the system, Cretaceous rocks are evident in many areas worldwide.
8179:
4982:
RodrĂguez-LĂłpez, Juan Pedro; Liesa, Carlos L.; Pardo, Gonzalo; MelĂ©ndez, Nieves; Soria, Ana R.; Skilling, Ian (15 June 2016).
8223:
7030:
6616:
6209:
6098:
5868:
5625:
5476:
5317:
5180:
5076:
4851:
4750:
4337:
4294:
4149:
3443:
1649:, as well as organisms whose food chain included these shell builders, became extinct or suffered heavy losses. For example,
7370:"Eutherians experienced elevated evolutionary rates in the immediate aftermath of the CretaceousâPalaeogene mass extinction"
7292:
Regalado, Ledis; Schmidt, Alexander R.; MĂŒller, Patrick; Niedermeier, Lisa; Krings, Michael; Schneider, Harald (July 2019).
5862:
Bice, Karen L.; Birgel, Daniel; Meyers, Philip A.; Dahl, Kristina A.; Hinrichs, Kai-Uwe; Norris, Richard D. (8 April 2006).
4668:"Early Cretaceous monsoonal upwelling along the northern margin of the Gondwana continent: Evidence from radiolarian cherts"
8493:
7298:
6871:
3286:
1849:
4290:"Orbital control on carbon cycle and oceanography in the mid-Cretaceous greenhouse: LONG ECCENTRICITY CYCLES IN C-ISOTOPE"
7446:"Late Maastrichtian pterosaurs from North Africa and mass extinction of Pterosauria at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary"
6433:
6314:"Evolution of atmospheric circulation across the CretaceousâPaleogene (KâPg) boundary interval in low-latitude East Asia"
3017:
lived during the period and survived the extinction event. Panchelonioidea is today represented by a single species; the
1479:, but its use as a stratigraphic indicator has been questioned, as its first appearance does not correlate with that of
7428:
7374:
2533:
in China. Tricolpate pollen distinctive of eudicots first appears in the Late Barremian, while the earliest remains of
7533:"Lepidosaurian diversity in the Mesozoic-Palaeogene: the potential roles of sampling biases and environmental drivers"
5621:"Thermal evolution of Cretaceous Tethyan marine waters inferred from oxygen isotope composition of fish tooth enamels"
8266:
8247:
7709:"A sphenodontine (Rhynchocephalia) from the Miocene of New Zealand and palaeobiogeography of the tuatara (Sphenodon)"
7352:
6266:"Late Cretaceous climate changes recorded in Eastern Asian lacustrine deposits and North American Epieric sea strata"
4200:
3775:
2437:
1055:
860:
723:
17:
7227:"A new fossil assemblage shows that large angiosperm trees grew in North America by the Turonian (Late Cretaceous)"
6092:
Petrizzo, Maria Rose; MacLeod, Kenneth G.; Watkins, David K.; Wolfgring, Erik; Huber, Brian T. (27 December 2021).
5357:"Cretaceous sea-surface temperature evolution: Constraints from TEX86 and planktonic foraminiferal oxygen isotopes"
5311:
Forster, Astrid; Schouten, Stephan; Moriya, Kazuyoshi; Wilson, Paul A.; Sinninghe Damsté, Jaap S. (14 March 2007).
2998:
1790:, a rock type that is formed under warm, shallow marine conditions. Due to the high sea level, there was extensive
8166:
4145:"The Greenland-Norwegian Seaway: A key area for understanding Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous paleoenvironments"
8364:
5716:
4847:"Astronomically Driven Variations in Depositional Environments in the South Atlantic During the Early Cretaceous"
2357:, further pushed sea levels up, so that large areas of the continental crust were covered with shallow seas. The
682:
7974:
6494:
5947:
5841:
5689:
4006:
3885:
3833:
3664:(2014). "New constraints on the JurassicâCretaceous boundary in the High Andes using high-precision UâPb data".
2209:(WTX), which was caused by the ParanĂĄ-Etendeka Large Igneous Province's activity. It was followed by the middle
634:
3769:
MacLeod, N; Rawson, PF; Forey, PL; Banner, FT; Boudagher-Fadel, MK; Bown, PR; Burnett, JA; et al. (1997).
3711:
Renne, Paul R.; et al. (2013). "Time scales of critical events around the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary".
2429:
6469:"Global environmental changes preceding the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary: Early-late Maastrichtian transition"
3933:
2949:, a group of freshwater aquatic reptiles that first appeared during the preceding Jurassic, underwent a major
1712:
than among animals living on or in the seafloor. Animals in the water column are almost entirely dependent on
8011:
Fernandes Martins, Maria JoĂŁo; Puckett, Mark; Lockwood, Rowan; Swaddle, John P.; Hunt, Gene (11 April 2018).
6534:
5176:"Oceanic anoxic events and plankton evolution: Biotic response to tectonic forcing during the mid-Cretaceous"
4632:
926:
863:(KâPg boundary), a geologic signature associated with the mass extinction that lies between the Mesozoic and
8323:
6378:"Modeling East Asian climate and impacts of atmospheric CO2 concentration during the Late Cretaceous (66Ma)"
6036:
Tarduno, J. A.; Brinkman, D. B.; Renne, P. R.; Cottrell, R. D.; Scher, H.; Castillo, P. (18 December 1998).
5864:"A multiple proxy and model study of Cretaceous upper ocean temperatures and atmospheric CO2 concentrations"
3538:
Frau, Camille; Bulot, Luc G.; RehĂĄkovĂĄ, Daniela; Wimbledon, William A.P.; Ifrim, Christina (November 2016).
4845:
Behrooz, L.; Naafs, B. D. A.; Dickson, A. J.; Love, G. D.; Batenburg, S. J.; Pancost, R. D. (August 2018).
4063:
6550:
6429:"Integrated climate model-oxygen isotope evidence for a North American monsoon during the Late Cretaceous"
6265:
5712:"Middle Albian climate fluctuation recorded in the carbon isotope composition of terrestrial plant matter"
5514:
5265:"A fossil champsosaur population from the high Arctic: Implications for Late Cretaceous paleotemperatures"
5071:
4983:
4551:
4528:
4417:
4241:
3353:[Observations on a trial geological map of France, the Low Countries, and neighboring countries].
9166:
8516:
6714:
6318:
5664:"Low-latitude sea-surface temperatures for the mid-Cretaceous and the evolution of planktic foraminifera"
5563:"Stripping back the modern to reveal the CenomanianâTuronian climate and temperature gradient underneath"
4710:
4422:
3910:
Shehan, P; Hansen, TA (1986). "Detritus feeding as a buffer to extinction at the end of the Cretaceous".
493:
6468:
5863:
5175:
4144:
8357:
8215:
8187:
7762:
5513:
Wang, Yongdong; Huang, Chengmin; Sun, Bainian; Quan, Cheng; Wu, Jingyu; Lin, Zhicheng (February 2014).
4068:
3275:
1125:
7825:
6313:
5711:
5407:
3857:"Mosasaur Predation on Upper Cretaceous Nautiloids and Ammonites from the United States Pacific Coast"
2079:
continued to narrow. During most of the Late Cretaceous, North America would be divided in two by the
2071:
were newly formed. Such active rifting lifted great undersea mountain chains along the welts, raising
6709:
6606:
6241:
4883:
3388:
3423:
3351:"Observations sur un essai de carte géologique de la France, des Pays-Bas, et des contrées voisines"
2520:
8318:
7344:
5223:
4552:"Synchrony of carbon cycle fluctuations, volcanism and orbital forcing during the Early Cretaceous"
4481:
Scotese, Christopher R.; Song, Haijun; Mills, Benjamin J. W.; van der Meer, Douwe G. (April 2021).
2424:
2115:
activityâor rather, the circulation of seawater through the enlarged ridgesâenriched the oceans in
2664:
is not consistent with pterosaur decline). By the end of the period only three highly specialized
8789:
8784:
8335:
8076:
7928:
7650:"A stem acrodontan lizard in the Cretaceous of Brazil revises early lizard evolution in Gondwana"
7506:
7168:"Late Cretaceous origin of the rice tribe provides evidence for early diversification in Poaceae"
6428:
5775:
5416:. Advances in Cretaceous palaeontology and stratigraphy â Christopher John Wood Memorial Volume.
5118:
Fletcher, Tamara L.; Greenwood, David R.; Moss, Patrick T.; Salisbury, Steven W. (1 March 2014).
4705:
4667:
4627:
3241:
2361:
connecting the tropical oceans east to west also helped to warm the global climate. Warm-adapted
2343:
2302:
2231:
2097:
2080:
2067:
remained attached to each other until around 80 million years ago); thus, the South Atlantic and
1970:
1791:
1510:
855:, died out, widely thought to have been caused by the impact of a large asteroid that formed the
7056:
Condamine, Fabien L.; Silvestro, Daniele; Koppelhus, Eva B.; Antonelli, Alexandre (2020-11-17).
4048:
3661:
3579:
3539:
1938:
did not yet exist in the Cretaceous, these deposits formed on the southern edge of the European
1326:
7961:
4483:"Phanerozoic paleotemperatures: The earth's changing climate during the last 540 million years"
3820:
3018:
2950:
2652:
also diversified. They inhabited every continent, and were even found in cold polar latitudes.
2091:
to the east, then receded late in the period, leaving thick marine deposits sandwiched between
1897:
and the Chalk Group still consists of loose sediments in many places. The group also has other
580:
4612:
3350:
7654:
7172:
6849:
6555:
6270:
6150:
5987:"Fish tooth ÎŽ18O revising Late Cretaceous meridional upper ocean water temperature gradients"
5519:
5361:
5228:
4600:
4556:
4487:
3366:
2354:
2088:
1978:
1859:
1754:
970:
613:
538:
118:
Map of Earth as it appeared 100 million years ago during the mid-Cretaceous, Cenomanian stage
8125:
7336:
6037:
5072:"Floristic and vegetational changes in the Iberian Peninsula during Jurassic and Cretaceous"
3082:) in the oceans occurred during the Cretaceous; freshwater diatoms did not appear until the
1854:
In northwestern Europe, chalk deposits from the Upper Cretaceous are characteristic for the
8292:
8136:
8090:
8026:
7839:
7771:
7663:
7604:
7544:
7240:
7181:
7071:
6966:"How deep is the conflict between molecular and fossil evidence on the age of angiosperms?"
6925:
6880:
6798:
6723:
6659:
6564:
6482:
6391:
6327:
6279:
6218:
6205:"Late Cretaceous Temperature Evolution of the Southern High Latitudes: A TEX86 Perspective"
6159:
6051:
6000:
5935:
5877:
5829:
5725:
5677:
5634:
5576:
5528:
5485:
5421:
5370:
5326:
5278:
5189:
5133:
5085:
4997:
4930:
4860:
4794:
4565:
4496:
4431:
4346:
4333:"ITCZ controls on Late Cretaceous black shale sedimentation in the tropical Atlantic Ocean"
4158:
3994:
3959:
3921:
3873:
3784:
3722:
3675:
3606:
3553:
3509:
3280:
2484:
The earliest widely accepted evidence of flowering plants are monosulcate (single-grooved)
2470:
2269:
2184:
2148:
1927:
1894:
1874:
1469:
1442:
1389:
1098:
1067:
986:
789:
6708:
Huber, Brian T.; MacLeod, Kenneth G.; Watkins, David K.; Coffin, Millard F. (2018-08-01).
3397:] (in Russian) (3rd ed.). Moscow: Sovetskaya Enciklopediya. 1974. vol. 16, p. 50.
3070:, a class of crustaceans, went extinct in the Late Cretaceous. The first radiation of the
1499:
8:
9161:
9120:
8081:
7830:
7337:
7127:"Dinosaur-associated Poaceae epidermis and phytoliths from the Early Cretaceous of China"
6781:
6376:
Chen, Junming; Zhao, Ping; Wang, Chengshan; Huang, Yongjian; Cao, Ke (1 September 2013).
5920:
Norris, Richard D.; Bice, Karen L.; Magno, Elizabeth A.; Wilson, Paul A. (1 April 2002).
5780:
5567:
5412:
5049:
4418:"Late Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous palaeoclimatic evolution of the southern North Sea"
4394:
3544:
3262:
3022:
2223:
2022:
1804:
is a rock type characteristic for (but not restricted to) the Cretaceous. It consists of
1513:
with the Earth may have been the punctuation mark at the end of a progressive decline in
930:
8296:
8140:
8094:
8030:
7843:
7775:
7667:
7608:
7548:
7244:
7185:
7075:
6929:
6884:
6802:
6727:
6663:
6568:
6486:
6395:
6331:
6283:
6222:
6163:
6055:
6004:
5939:
5881:
5833:
5729:
5681:
5638:
5580:
5532:
5489:
5425:
5406:
PĂŒttmann, Tobias; Linnert, Christian; Dölling, Bettina; Mutterlose, Jörg (1 July 2018).
5374:
5330:
5282:
5193:
5137:
5089:
5001:
4934:
4864:
4798:
4569:
4500:
4435:
4350:
4162:
3998:
3963:
3925:
3877:
3788:
3726:
3679:
3610:
3557:
2390:
evidence of deposition directly from glaciers is limited to the Early Cretaceous of the
785:
8050:
7986:
7799:
7733:
7708:
7684:
7649:
7625:
7592:
7565:
7532:
7480:
7445:
7396:
7369:
7269:
7226:
7126:
7102:
7057:
6941:
6896:
6830:
6757:
6683:
6580:
6351:
6246:
6180:
6145:
6120:
6093:
5749:
5594:
5445:
5388:
5149:
4959:
4921:
4916:
4896:
4820:
4581:
4520:
4313:
4263:
4118:
3889:
3837:
3800:
3746:
3642:
3435:
2661:
2136:
1713:
1695:
588:
8304:
4443:
3856:
8918:
8882:
8277:
8262:
8243:
8219:
8148:
8054:
8042:
8012:
7990:
7978:
7923:
7904:
7855:
7738:
7689:
7630:
7570:
7485:
7467:
7424:
7401:
7348:
7317:
7274:
7256:
7207:
7199:
7148:
7107:
7089:
7026:
6995:
6987:
6900:
6892:
6834:
6822:
6814:
6761:
6749:
6687:
6675:
6650:
6612:
6584:
6498:
6473:
6409:
6355:
6343:
6250:
6185:
6125:
6067:
6042:
5991:
5926:
5820:
5753:
5741:
5668:
5598:
5449:
5437:
5264:
5245:
5153:
5031:
4964:
4946:
4888:
4824:
4815:
4785:
4626:
Boulila, Slah; Charbonnier, Guillaume; Galbrun, Bruno; Gardin, Silvia (1 July 2015).
4585:
4524:
4512:
4364:
4317:
4267:
4196:
4122:
3950:
3912:
3893:
3804:
3738:
3713:
3666:
3646:
3634:
3485:
3465:
3439:
2648:, which were at their most diverse stage. Avians such as the ancestors of modern-day
2577:
2474:
2247:
1939:
1626:
1518:
1434:
899:
733:
528:
7784:
7757:
6735:
6576:
6339:
6291:
5540:
5392:
5383:
5356:
4900:
4723:
4577:
4508:
3841:
3770:
9012:
8887:
8856:
8653:
8393:
8300:
8236:
8196:
8144:
8098:
8034:
8017:
7970:
7896:
7847:
7779:
7728:
7720:
7679:
7671:
7620:
7612:
7560:
7552:
7475:
7457:
7391:
7383:
7307:
7264:
7248:
7231:
7189:
7138:
7097:
7079:
7018:
6977:
6945:
6933:
6916:
6888:
6806:
6789:
6784:
6739:
6731:
6667:
6645:
6572:
6530:
6490:
6442:
6399:
6335:
6287:
6236:
6226:
6175:
6167:
6115:
6107:
6059:
6008:
5943:
5893:
5885:
5837:
5789:
5733:
5685:
5642:
5584:
5536:
5493:
5472:"Possible atmospheric CO2 extremes of the Middle Cretaceous (late AlbianâTuronian)"
5429:
5378:
5334:
5286:
5237:
5197:
5141:
5097:
5093:
5045:
5005:
4954:
4938:
4878:
4868:
4810:
4802:
4759:
4719:
4683:
4679:
4641:
4573:
4504:
4439:
4354:
4303:
4255:
4166:
4110:
4077:
4044:
4002:
3967:
3929:
3881:
3829:
3792:
3750:
3730:
3691:
3683:
3624:
3614:
3561:
3518:
3477:
3431:
3411:(3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Geological Institute. 1972. p. 165.
2918:
2906:
a large herbivorous rhynchocephalian known from the mid-Cretaceous of South America
2691:
2665:
2530:
2219:
2164:
2144:
2132:
2124:
2034:
1642:
1522:
1495:
1262:
1218:
959:
856:
844:
688:
279:
8102:
6063:
5793:
5562:
5433:
5032:"The Aptian - Albian cold snap: Evidence for "mid" Cretaceous icehouse interludes"
4915:
Yamaguchi, Koichi; Abe, Fumio; Tada, Ryuji; Nakagawa, Takeshi (19 December 2022).
4064:"The biogeography and ecology of the Cretaceous non-avian dinosaurs of Appalachia"
3565:
2338:
9112:
9108:
9104:
8981:
8877:
8815:
8710:
8679:
8648:
8398:
8230:âdetailed coverage of various aspects of the evolutionary history of the insects.
7462:
6404:
6377:
5737:
5290:
5009:
4645:
4416:
Abbink, Oscar; Targarona, Jordi; Brinkhuis, Henk; Visscher, Henk (October 2001).
4259:
3075:
3014:
2960:
2922:
2910:
2788:, one of the largest land predators of all time, lived during the Late Cretaceous
2707:
2669:
2570:
2493:
2492:(~ 134 million years ago) found in Israel and Italy, initially at low abundance.
2442:
2120:
2112:
2026:
2002:
1813:
1611:
1038:
966:
963:
945:
between Neocomian and Aptian and the Cenomanian between the Albian and Turonian.
821:
767:', which is abundant in the latter half of the period. It is usually abbreviated
290:
41:
9137:
7881:
7022:
6312:
Ma, Mingming; He, Mei; Zhao, Mengting; Peng, Chao; Liu, Xiuming (1 April 2021).
2933:
9131:
8950:
8820:
8715:
8684:
8207:
8156:
Larson, Neal L; Jorgensen, Steven D; Farrar, Robert A; Larson, Peter L (1997).
7063:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
6446:
4942:
3334:
3329:
3177:
3111:
3067:
2938:
2857:
2840:
2711:
2391:
2332:
2307:
2206:
2030:
2010:
1994:
1935:
1758:
1533:
1503:
1457:
1347:
1152:
911:
852:
828:
across the Earth by the end of the Cretaceous, coincident with the decline and
796:
8485:
8038:
7880:
Wood, Christopher J.; Ernst, Gundolf; Rasemann, Gabriele (11 September 1984).
6810:
6038:"Evidence for Extreme Climatic Warmth from Late Cretaceous Arctic Vertebrates"
3481:
2726:
2687:
2406:
2107:; indeed, more chalk formed in the Cretaceous than in any other period in the
2072:
1552:
in the late Cretaceous, and all else that depended on them suffered, as well.
973:. In older literature, the Cretaceous is sometimes divided into three series:
9155:
8851:
8841:
8810:
8773:
8705:
8674:
8469:
7982:
7908:
7900:
7859:
7471:
7368:
Halliday, Thomas John Dixon; Upchurch, Paul; Goswami, Anjali (29 June 2016).
7321:
7260:
7203:
7152:
7093:
6991:
6818:
6753:
6502:
6413:
6347:
5745:
5441:
5249:
4950:
4892:
4516:
4368:
3946:
3796:
3687:
3638:
3523:
3489:
3041:
genus with a straight shell, flourished in the seas along with reef-building
2997:
in the early and mid-Cretaceous (becoming extinct during the late Cretaceous
2969:
2955:
2902:
2784:
2702:, which includes modern birds and their closest non-avian relatives, such as
2673:
2634:
2627:
2615:
2601:
2597:
2525:
2466:
2260:
2044:
1878:
1795:
1784:
1750:
1598:
1562:
1541:
1320:
1268:
1146:
1043:
867:
744:
649:
636:
399:
72:
8328:
7084:
6671:
4240:
Wang, Jing-Yu; Li, Xiang-Hui; Li, Li-Qin; Wang, Yong-Dong (September 2022).
3734:
2921:, and were absent from North Africa and northern South America by the early
2496:
estimates conflict with fossil estimates, suggesting the diversification of
2009:, although their positions were substantially different at the time. As the
1926:
In southern Europe, the Cretaceous is usually a marine system consisting of
1490:
The upper boundary of the Cretaceous is sharply defined, being placed at an
758:
9142:
9073:
8923:
8846:
8046:
8013:"High male sexual investment as a driver of extinction in fossil ostracods"
7851:
7742:
7724:
7693:
7648:
SimĂ”es TR, Wilner E, Caldwell MW, WeinschĂŒtz LC, Kellner AW (August 2015).
7634:
7574:
7489:
7405:
7387:
7278:
7252:
7211:
7111:
6999:
6826:
6679:
6189:
6129:
5589:
4968:
4035:
Weimar, R.J. (1960). "Upper Cretaceous Stratigraphy, Rocky Mountain Area".
3742:
3226:
3051:
3046:
2946:
2802:
2703:
2677:
2606:
2557:, which make up 80% of living fern species, would also begin to diversify.
2554:
2362:
2350:
2314:
70 and 69 Ma and 66â65 Ma, isotopic ratios indicate elevated atmospheric CO
2290:
2172:
2068:
1943:
1829:
1728:
1709:
1668:
1575:
1537:
1514:
1446:
1242:
1119:
978:
903:
878:
The Cretaceous as a separate period was first defined by Belgian geologist
574:
7058:"The rise of angiosperms pushed conifers to decline during global cooling"
6071:
5353:
5174:
Leckie, R. Mark; Bralower, Timothy J.; Cashman, Richard (23 August 2002).
5145:
3578:
Cohen, K.M., Finney, S.C., Gibbard, P.L. & Fan, J.-X. (2013; updated)
2844:, one of the largest animals to ever fly, lived during the Late Cretaceous
859:
in the Gulf of Mexico. The end of the Cretaceous is defined by the abrupt
9068:
8937:
8913:
8758:
8553:
8418:
8413:
7924:"The Turonian - Coniacian boundary in the United States Western interior"
7143:
6785:"Temperate rainforests near the South Pole during peak Cretaceous warmth"
6427:
Fricke, Henry C.; Foreman, Brady Z.; Sewall, Jacob O. (15 January 2010).
6231:
6204:
6111:
5898:
5889:
5647:
5620:
5498:
5471:
5339:
5312:
5241:
5201:
4873:
4846:
4764:
4745:
4359:
4332:
4308:
4289:
4246:
4170:
3619:
3594:
3196:
3156:
3117:
3094:
3055:
3010:
2994:
2896:
2874:
2819:
2764:
2748:
2715:
2699:
2695:
2623:
2611:
2506:
2497:
2489:
2478:
2458:
2294:
2227:
2210:
2203:
2108:
1855:
1837:
1833:
1724:
1717:
1705:
1602:
1594:
1475:
1463:
1382:
1374:
1334:
1307:
1289:
1173:
1061:
891:
752:
318:
309:
47:
8334:
7616:
7556:
6646:"Isotopic evidence for glaciation during the Cretaceous supergreenhouse"
2318:
pressures with levels of 1000â1400 ppmV and mean annual temperatures in
992:
From youngest to oldest, the subdivisions of the Cretaceous period are:
824:
appeared and began to rapidly diversify, becoming the dominant group of
612:-enriched layer associated with a major meteorite impact and subsequent
9063:
9023:
8966:
8866:
8763:
8537:
8444:
8408:
8170:
8010:
7675:
7194:
7167:
6171:
5814:
Wilson, Paul A.; Norris, Richard D.; Cooper, Matthew J. (1 July 2002).
5612:
5263:
Vandermark, Deborah; Tarduno, John A.; Brinkman, Donald B. (May 2007).
5224:"Present and past nonanthropogenic CO 2 degassing from the solid earth"
4242:"Cretaceous climate variations indicated by palynoflora in South China"
3768:
3696:
3629:
3236:
3134:
3090:
3079:
3059:
3002:
2883:
2836:
2589:
2574:
2511:
2462:
2446:
2382:
2378:
2358:
2319:
2189:
2076:
2064:
2048:
1919:
1906:
1745:
1650:
1549:
1494:-rich layer found worldwide that is believed to be associated with the
1361:
1187:
1092:
1071:
907:
833:
829:
737:
567:
354:
300:
57:
9126:
7444:
Longrich, Nicholas R.; Martill, David M.; Andres, Brian (2018-03-13).
7312:
7293:
6982:
6965:
6744:
6012:
4114:
3971:
3591:
1299:
9078:
9028:
9002:
8961:
8908:
8753:
8729:
8610:
8600:
8589:
8464:
8459:
8454:
8423:
8167:"Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's)"
6937:
6525:
4806:
3063:
3033:
2964:
2768:
2752:
2653:
2638:
2593:
2585:
2581:
2516:
2454:
2395:
2370:
2349:
The production of large quantities of magma, variously attributed to
2278:
2243:
2214:
2128:
2084:
2052:
2006:
1990:
1974:
1910:
1898:
1890:
1805:
1787:
1770:
1739:
1676:
1664:
1582:. The other Cretaceous groups that did not survive into the Cenozoic
1579:
1553:
1408:
1276:
1133:
1106:
1079:
1030:
974:
938:
848:
800:
390:
381:
372:
327:
269:
97:
8349:
7707:
Jones ME, Tennyson AJ, Worthy JP, Evans SE, Worthy TH (April 2009).
7339:
Mammals from the Age of Dinosaurs: Origins, Evolution, and Structure
7055:
4666:
Cui, Xiaohui; Li, Xin; Aitchison, Jonathan C.; Luo, Hui (May 2023).
3659:
3309:
9038:
9033:
8997:
8897:
8830:
8799:
8694:
8663:
8624:
8574:
8548:
8524:
8449:
7335:
Kielan-Jaworowska, Zofia; Cifelli, Richard L.; Luo, Zhe-Xi (2005).
4191:
Dixon, Dougal; Benton, M J; Kingsley, Ayala; Baker, Julian (2001).
3173:
3139:
3038:
3006:
2982:
2723:
2719:
2684:
2645:
2534:
2502:
2386:
2374:
2198:
2168:
2040:
2018:
1914:
1870:
1775:
1654:
1634:
1607:
1571:
1567:
1557:
1450:
1353:
1160:
982:
864:
808:
741:
584:
363:
247:
235:
222:
87:
82:
67:
62:
52:
27:
Third and last period of the Mesozoic Era, 145â66 million years ago
8278:"Palaeoecology and evolution of marine hard substrate communities"
6643:
6031:
6029:
5515:"Paleo-CO2 variation trends and the Cretaceous greenhouse climate"
4287:
3142:, carnivorous marine reptiles that emerged in the late Cretaceous.
3089:
The Cretaceous was also an important interval in the evolution of
2963:, which appear to have evolved in the regional absence of aquatic
1623:
were already extinct millions of years before the event occurred.
9052:
8992:
8742:
8579:
8563:
5124:
5070:
Diéguez, Carmen; Peyrot, Daniel; Barrón, Eduardo (October 2010).
4981:
4778:
4549:
4082:
3864:
3502:
3311:
3083:
2990:
2914:
2879:
2744:
2730:
2641:
2569:
were generally small sized, but a very relevant component of the
2539:
2273:
2116:
2014:
1998:
1973:
started forming. This inland sea separated the elevated areas of
1902:
1886:
1882:
1863:
1809:
1672:
1630:
1491:
1453:
1438:
1210:
887:
804:
793:
781:
751:
million years, it is the longest geological period of the entire
628:
609:
113:
102:
77:
7291:
6202:
5710:
Hong, Sung Kyung; Yi, Sangheon; Shinn, Young Jae (1 July 2020).
5405:
4415:
3466:"Developments with fixing a Tithonian/Berriasian (J/K) boundary"
2967:
crocodyliformes. During the Late Cretaceous the neochoristodere
2119:; this made the oceans more saturated, as well as increased the
9088:
8971:
8605:
8433:
8428:
6091:
6026:
4625:
3071:
3042:
2736:
2619:
2596:
had already begun to diversify greatly, ranging as carnivores (
2566:
2543:
2485:
2366:
2255:
2152:
2140:
2056:
1867:
1702:
1683:
1679:
1658:
1646:
1638:
1403:
1250:
1223:
813:
624:
345:
336:
7647:
5117:
4913:
2175:
were erupted in the very late Cretaceous and early Paleocene.
6547:
5922:"Jiggling the tropical thermostat in the Cretaceous hothouse"
5030:
Mutterlose, Jörg; Bornemann, André; Herrle, Jens (May 2009).
4018:
4016:
3231:
3210:
3182:, Owl Creek Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Ripley, Mississippi
3026:
3009:
appearing in the Late Cretaceous. Sea turtles in the form of
2986:
2760:
2649:
2450:
2322:
between 21 and 23 °C (70 and 73 °F). Atmospheric CO
2286:
2282:
2235:
2160:
2156:
2104:
2060:
1825:
1817:
1801:
1716:
from living phytoplankton, while animals living on or in the
1687:
1545:
1540:. As is the case today, photosynthesizing organisms, such as
1529:
1412:
1179:
915:
895:
825:
817:
764:
7591:
ApesteguĂa S, Daza JD, SimĂ”es TR, Rage JC (September 2016).
6710:"The rise and fall of the Cretaceous Hot Greenhouse climate"
6035:
5984:
5961:
5618:
4480:
2377:
fossils have been found within 15 degrees of the Cretaceous
1536:
declined or became extinct as atmospheric particles blocked
925:. The twofold division of the Cretaceous was implemented by
8155:
7975:
10.1666/0094-8373(2005)031[0459:CILCTB]2.0.CO;2
7334:
7165:
6495:
10.1130/0091-7613(1994)022<0877:GECPTC>2.3.CO;2
5948:
10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0299:JTTTIT>2.0.CO;2
5842:
10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0607:TTCGHU>2.0.CO;2
5690:
10.1130/0091-7613(1998)026<0823:LLSSTF>2.3.CO;2
5310:
4142:
4007:
10.1130/0091-7613(1992)020<0556:MEOLDV>2.3.CO;2
3886:
10.1669/0883-1351(2004)019<0096:MPOUCN>2.0.CO;2
3834:
10.1666/0094-8373(2004)030<0347:LPEATE>2.0.CO;2
2756:
2657:
2588:
existed until the very end, but a variety of non-marsupial
2550:
2092:
1931:
1691:
941:, Aptian, Albian, Turonian, and Senonian, later adding the
712:
706:
7922:
Walaszczyk, Ireneusz Piotr; Cobban, W. A. (January 1998).
7758:"Choristoderes and the freshwater assemblages of Laurasia"
6964:
Coiro, Mario; Doyle, James A.; Hilton, Jason (July 2019).
6625:
5560:
4221:
4013:
3537:
709:
7531:
Cleary TJ, Benson RB, Evans SE, Barrett PM (March 2018).
6707:
5262:
5029:
3934:
10.1130/0091-7613(1986)14<868:DFAABT>2.0.CO;2
2740:
697:
8158:
Ammonites and the other Cephalopods of the Pierre Seaway
7706:
7590:
7530:
7224:
6535:
10.1130/1052-5173(2003)013<4:TEFTGE>2.0.CO;2
5662:
Norris, Richard D.; Wilson, Paul A. (1 September 1998).
4190:
3984:
2739:
diversified during the Cretaceous, and the oldest known
2335:, when it gave way to another supergreenhouse interval.
2147:
Member and the terrestrial fauna of the late Cretaceous
2135:
make the Cretaceous rock record especially fine. Famous
2100:, one-third of Earth's present land area was submerged.
1832:
of western North America. These shales are an important
1682:. Mammals and birds that survived the extinction fed on
1445:) that could be used to define or correlate a boundary.
839:
The Cretaceous (along with the Mesozoic) ended with the
7593:"The first iguanian lizard from the Mesozoic of Africa"
7367:
6142:
5470:
Bice, Karen L.; Norris, Richard D. (24 December 2002).
4844:
2861:, a genus of crow-sized birds from the Early Cretaceous
2823:, one of the most recognizable genera of the Cretaceous
1661:
related to snakes that became extinct at the boundary.
8345:. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 414â418.
8238:
The Dynamic Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology
4209:
2917:) disappeared from North America and Europe after the
2139:
from North America include the rich marine fossils of
7443:
5919:
5173:
4476:
4474:
4472:
4470:
4468:
4466:
4464:
4462:
4460:
4380:
4378:
3348:
1824:
Mexico. In many places around the world, dark anoxic
847:
in which many groups, including non-avian dinosaurs,
724:
715:
691:
8324:
Cretaceous Microfossils: 180+ images of Foraminifera
6146:"Evidence for global cooling in the Late Cretaceous"
5861:
5774:
Arens, Nan Crystal; Harris, Elisha B. (March 2015).
3252:
3093:, the production of borings and scrapings in rocks,
3025:
were flightless, marine diving birds that swam like
2505:
angiosperms. Among the oldest records of Angiosperm
2326:
and temperature relations indicate a doubling of pCO
1720:
feed on detritus or can switch to detritus feeding.
1509:
At the end of the Cretaceous, the impact of a large
1415:
is today widely accepted as the main reason for the
703:
694:
7125:Wu, Yan; You, Hai-Lu; Li, Xiao-Qiang (2018-09-01).
6522:
6426:
5069:
4703:
4195:. New York: Barnes & Noble Books. p. 215.
3909:
2942:, a choristodere from the Early Cretaceous of China
2698:dinosaurs found there represent types of the group
2580:outnumbering dinosaurs in some sites. Neither true
780:The Cretaceous was a period with a relatively warm
700:
130:
8235:
7586:
7584:
6263:
5980:
5978:
5976:
5813:
4457:
4387:"Palaeos Mesozoic: Cretaceous: The Berriasian Age"
4375:
2285:than today. This is evidenced by widespread black
2013:widened, the convergent-margin mountain building (
1889:and in the subsurface of the southern part of the
1840:, for example in the subsurface of the North Sea.
1723:The largest air-breathing survivors of the event,
1498:, with its boundaries circumscribing parts of the
8242:(3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
8177:
7879:
7017:. New York: Chapman & Hall. pp. 91â115.
7015:Flowering Plant Origin, Evolution & Phylogeny
6383:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
6375:
5270:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
4989:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
4744:Larson, Roger L.; Erba, Elisabetta (4 May 2010).
4665:
4233:
3817:
9153:
7921:
6963:
5512:
4097:Moussavou, Benjamin Musavu (25 September 2015).
3905:
3903:
3154:Strong-swimming and toothed predatory waterbird
2151:. Other important Cretaceous exposures occur in
1566:, also perished. Yet only three major groups of
933:in 1840 divided the French Cretaceous into five
792:. These oceans and seas were populated with now-
8515:
8206:
7823:
7581:
7421:Pterosaurs: Natural History, Evolution, Anatomy
7418:
5973:
3580:The ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart
1964:Map of North America During the Late Cretaceous
1653:are thought to have been the principal food of
1483:. The boundary is officially considered by the
740:(Mya). It is the third and final period of the
453:Subdivision of the Cretaceous according to the
8234:Skinner, Brian J.; Porter, Stephen C. (1995).
7755:
7749:
4055:
3710:
3421:
2213:Faraoni Thermal Excursion (FTX) and the early
1828:were formed during this interval, such as the
8501:
8365:
8233:
7889:Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark
7824:Walaszczyk, I.; Szasz, L. (1 December 1997).
6959:
6957:
6955:
6913:
6604:
5967:
5037:Neues Jahrbuch fĂŒr Geologie und PalĂ€ontologie
4330:
3900:
8275:
6311:
5661:
4331:Hofmann, P.; Wagner, T. (23 December 2011).
4239:
3371:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2806:was feathered and roamed the Late Cretaceous
2465:and close relatives, as well as the extinct
1431:Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point
772:
7524:
6868:
6854:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
6608:Plates vs. Plumes: A Geological Controversy
5773:
5709:
4049:10.1306/0BDA5F6F-16BD-11D7-8645000102C1865D
3771:"The CretaceousâTertiary biotic transition"
3422:Ogg, J.G.; Hinnov, L.A.; Huang, C. (2012),
1956:Category:Cretaceous System of North America
1778:dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous of Italy
1506:. This layer has been dated at 66.043 Mya.
914:. The name Cretaceous was derived from the
756:
460:Vertical axis scale: millions of years ago.
8508:
8494:
8372:
8358:
7700:
6952:
5469:
4743:
4061:
3764:
3762:
3760:
3310:International Commission on Stratigraphy.
2959:and the first records of the gharial-like
2800:Up to 2 m long and 0.5 m high at the hip,
2729:are notable for the presence of hair-like
2365:are known from localities as far north as
2167:). In the area that is now India, massive
1877:is found in England, northern France, the
7783:
7732:
7683:
7624:
7564:
7479:
7461:
7395:
7311:
7268:
7193:
7142:
7101:
7083:
6981:
6743:
6403:
6242:1983/9c306756-d31c-4cda-b68e-4ba6f0bf9d44
6240:
6230:
6179:
6119:
5897:
5646:
5588:
5497:
5382:
5338:
4958:
4884:1983/dd9ce325-fc6b-44a0-bab0-e0aa68943adc
4882:
4872:
4814:
4763:
4358:
4307:
4096:
4081:
3695:
3628:
3618:
3522:
3463:
8178:Ovechkina, M.N.; Alekseev, A.S. (2005).
6529:. Vol. 13, no. 12. p. 4.
3854:
3848:
2993:became common. Marine reptiles included
2932:
2895:
2417:
2405:
2337:
2103:The Cretaceous is justly famous for its
1959:
1764:
1738:
1485:International Commission on Stratigraphy
1402:
1028:
873:
598:Lower boundary GSSP candidate section(s)
8256:
7955:Kosnik, Matthew A. (1 September 2005).
7800:"EVOLUTIONARY/GEOLOGICAL TIMELINE v1.0"
7501:
7499:
7124:
7012:
6631:
6598:
6466:
5222:Kerrick, Derrill M. (1 November 2001).
5221:
4227:
4215:
4022:
3757:
1820:that prospered in the Cretaceous seas.
820:appeared. During the Early Cretaceous,
14:
9154:
8261:. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
7954:
4034:
3464:WIMBLEDON, William A.P. (2017-12-27).
2722:. Fossils of these dinosaurs from the
2075:worldwide. To the north of Africa the
1734:
747:, as well as the longest. At around 79
450:
8489:
8379:
8353:
8329:Cretaceous (chronostratigraphy scale)
8276:Taylor, P. D.; Wilson, M. A. (2003).
7343:. Columbia University Press. p.
6467:Barrera, Enriqueta (1 October 1994).
6210:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
6099:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
5869:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
5626:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
5477:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
5318:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
5181:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
5077:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology
4852:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
4751:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
4338:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
4295:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
4150:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
3109:A scene from the early Cretaceous: a
1570:disappeared completely; the nonavian
1425:CretaceousâPaleogene extinction event
1417:CretaceousâPaleogene extinction event
841:CretaceousâPaleogene extinction event
755:. The name is derived from the Latin
8074:
7496:
7299:Journal of Systematics and Evolution
6872:Australian Journal of Earth Sciences
6456:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
5803:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
4733:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
4693:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
4655:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
3287:South Polar region of the Cretaceous
2891:
2560:
2297:reptiles were able to inhabit them.
2234:(SSTs) were 27â32 °C, based on
1905:. Among the fossils it contains are
1850:Category:Cretaceous System of Europe
1441:excursions (large sudden changes in
985:(upper/late). A subdivision into 12
910:), found in the upper Cretaceous of
894:and named for the extensive beds of
561:Lower boundary definition candidates
427:
9107:= kiloannum (thousands years ago);
8164:
6434:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2529:from the Barremian-Aptian boundary
2083:, a large interior sea, separating
24:
9111:= megaannum (millions years ago);
7375:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
4384:
3436:10.1016/b978-0-444-59425-9.00027-5
3005:throughout the entire period, and
2469:. Other groups of plants included
2428:specimen in the collection of the
2381:. It was suggested that there was
902:deposited by the shells of marine
25:
9178:
9115:= gigaannum (billions years ago).
8312:
8075:Lees, Jackie A. (February 2008).
3776:Journal of the Geological Society
2660:, but now it is understood avian
2614:). Various "archaic" groups like
2438:Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution
1984:
1548:, formed the primary part of the
736:that lasted from about 145 to 66
9136:
9125:
8149:10.1016/j.orggeochem.2007.11.010
8068:
8004:
7948:
7915:
7873:
7817:
7792:
7713:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
6893:10.1046/j.1440-0952.2003.00984.x
5050:10.1127/0077-7749/2009/0252-0217
3255:
3230:, one of the largest Cretaceous
3218:
3187:
3165:
3147:
3126:
3102:
2999:Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event
2866:
2849:
2828:
2811:
2793:
2776:
2414:from the Yixian Formation, China
1989:During the Cretaceous, the late-
1949:
969:, or Lower and Upper Cretaceous
687:
112:
45:
8119:
7785:10.5209/rev_jige.2010.v36.n2.11
7641:
7437:
7412:
7361:
7328:
7285:
7218:
7159:
7118:
7049:
7039:
7006:
6907:
6862:
6775:
6736:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2018.04.004
6701:
6637:
6577:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103572
6541:
6516:
6460:
6420:
6369:
6340:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103435
6305:
6292:10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.08.016
6257:
6196:
6136:
6085:
5913:
5855:
5807:
5767:
5717:Journal of Asian Earth Sciences
5703:
5655:
5554:
5541:10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.11.001
5506:
5463:
5399:
5384:10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.07.012
5347:
5304:
5256:
5215:
5167:
5111:
5063:
5023:
4975:
4907:
4838:
4772:
4737:
4724:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2023.104220
4697:
4659:
4619:
4578:10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104356
4543:
4509:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103503
4409:
4324:
4281:
4184:
4136:
4090:
4028:
3978:
3940:
3811:
3704:
3653:
3585:
3572:
3271:Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction
2976:
2928:
2913:(which today only includes the
1473:, formerly placed in the genus
996:Subdivisions of the Cretaceous
958:The Cretaceous is divided into
953:
7756:Matsumoto R, Evans SE (2010).
7423:. Princeton University Press.
5098:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2010.06.004
4684:10.1016/j.marmicro.2023.102247
3531:
3496:
3457:
3430:, Elsevier, pp. 793â853,
3415:
3401:
3381:
3349:dâHalloy, dâO., J.-J. (1822).
3342:
3322:
3303:
2430:Natural History Museum, Berlin
1930:limestone beds or incompetent
788:that created numerous shallow
426:
13:
1:
8554:Pleistocene (11.7 kaâ2.58 Ma)
8319:UCMP Berkeley Cretaceous page
8305:10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00131-9
8103:10.1016/j.cretres.2007.08.002
6064:10.1126/science.282.5397.2241
5794:10.1016/j.cretres.2014.11.004
5434:10.1016/j.cretres.2017.07.005
4444:10.1016/S0921-8181(01)00101-1
3566:10.1016/j.cretres.2016.05.007
3292:
3160:roamed late Cretacean oceans.
2005:breakup into the present-day
1398:
1120:Cladoceramus undulatoplicatus
1056:CretaceousâPaleogene boundary
861:CretaceousâPaleogene boundary
771:, for its German translation
8195:(1): 149â165. Archived from
7463:10.1371/journal.pbio.2001663
6405:10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.07.017
5738:10.1016/j.jseaes.2020.104363
5291:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.11.008
5010:10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.04.004
4646:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2015.04.014
4260:10.1016/j.palwor.2021.11.001
4062:Brownstein, Chase D (2018).
3297:
2017:) that had begun during the
1368:
1365:
1341:
1338:
1314:
1311:
1283:
1280:
1257:
1254:
1230:
1227:
1201:Rotalipora globotruncanoides
1194:
1191:
1167:
1164:
1140:
1137:
1113:
1110:
1086:
1083:
1054:top: iridium anomaly at the
1050:
1047:
7:
8517:Geological history of Earth
8257:Stanley, Steven M. (1999).
7023:10.1007/978-0-585-23095-5_5
6715:Global and Planetary Change
6319:Global and Planetary Change
4711:Global and Planetary Change
4423:Global and Planetary Change
3248:
1532:. Species that depended on
451:
215:
10:
9183:
8790:Mississippian (323â359 Ma)
8785:Pennsylvanian (299â323 Ma)
8549:Holocene (presentâ11.7 ka)
8216:Kluwer Academic Publishers
8188:Journal of Iberian Geology
7763:Journal of Iberian Geology
7597:Royal Society Open Science
7537:Royal Society Open Science
6447:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.10.018
4943:10.1038/s41598-022-25815-w
4069:Palaeontologia Electronica
3276:Cretaceous Thermal Maximum
2435:
2207:Weissert Thermal Excursion
2182:
2178:
1953:
1866:and similar cliffs on the
1847:
1743:Drawing of fossil jaws of
1657:, a group of giant marine
1422:
1372:base: first occurrence of
1345:base: first occurrence of
1318:base: first occurrence of
1287:base: first occurrence of
1237:Praediscosphaera columnata
1234:base: first occurrence of
1198:base: first occurrence of
1171:base: first occurrence of
1144:base: first occurrence of
1117:base: first occurrence of
948:
9102:
9087:
9074:Paleoarchean (3.2â3.6 Ga)
9051:
9011:
8980:
8949:
8936:
8924:Terreneuvian (521â539 Ma)
8896:
8865:
8829:
8798:
8772:
8741:
8728:
8693:
8662:
8636:
8623:
8588:
8562:
8536:
8523:
8387:
8336:"Cretaceous System"
8210:; Quicke, D.L.J. (2002).
8039:10.1038/s41586-018-0020-7
6811:10.1038/s41586-020-2148-5
5968:Skinner & Porter 1995
4816:21.11116/0000-0001-D1DF-8
3482:10.5604/01.3001.0010.7467
3395:Great Soviet Encyclopedia
3335:Dictionary.com Unabridged
2410:Facsimile of a fossil of
2385:marine glaciation in the
2023:North American Cordillera
1917:and sea reptiles such as
1843:
1456:with urn-shaped calcitic
1217:
1090:base: last occurrence of
1059:base:first occurrence of
1037:
1023:
1020:
1003:
1000:
832:of previously widespread
665:
619:
606:Upper boundary definition
605:
597:
560:
553:Lower boundary definition
552:
544:
534:
524:
519:
511:
499:
489:
484:
476:
471:
128:
123:
111:
37:
32:
9069:Mesoarchean (2.8â3.2 Ga)
8914:Miaolingian (497â509 Ma)
8759:Guadalupian (260â272 Ma)
8611:Paleocene (56.0â66.0 Ma)
8601:Oligocene (23.0â33.9 Ma)
7901:10.37570/bgsd-1984-33-21
7507:"Life of the Cretaceous"
7419:Wilton, Mark P. (2013).
4672:Marine Micropaleontology
3797:10.1144/gsjgs.154.2.0265
3688:10.1016/j.gr.2013.07.005
3524:10.31577/GeolCarp.71.1.3
3390:Sovetskaya Enciklopediya
3312:"ICS - Chart/Time Scale"
3058:such as sea urchins and
2886:from the Late Cretaceous
2425:Pluricarpellatia peltata
2401:
2289:deposition and frequent
2232:sea surface temperatures
2230:. Early Aptian tropical
1808:, microscopically small
1449:, an enigmatic group of
1147:Cremnoceramus rotundatus
1093:Marsupites testudinarius
133:
9064:Neoarchean (2.5â2.8 Ga)
9029:Orosirian (1.8â2.05 Ga)
9024:Statherian (1.6â1.8 Ga)
8967:Cryogenian (635â720 Ma)
8857:Llandovery (433â444 Ma)
8764:Cisuralian (272â299 Ma)
8575:Pliocene (2.59â5.33 Ma)
8342:EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
7929:Acta Geologica Polonica
7131:National Science Review
7085:10.1073/pnas.2005571117
6672:10.1126/science.1148777
3735:10.1126/science.1230492
3582:. Episodes 36: 199-204.
3428:The Geologic Time Scale
3242:Western Interior Seaway
2549:During the Cretaceous,
2303:Western Interior Seaway
2261:Amadeus Thermal Maximum
2226:volcanism and with the
2125:calcareous nanoplankton
2081:Western Interior Seaway
1971:Western Interior Seaway
1942:, at the margin of the
1502:and extending into the
1496:Chicxulub impact crater
1062:Pachydiscus neubergicus
880:Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy
176:−100 —
166:−110 —
156:−120 —
146:−130 —
136:−140 —
9034:Rhyacian (2.05â2.3 Ga)
9003:Calymmian (1.4â1.6 Ga)
8962:Ediacaran (539â635 Ma)
8909:Furongian (485â497 Ma)
8754:Lopingian (252â260 Ma)
8580:Miocene (5.33â23.0 Ma)
8394:Lower/Early Cretaceous
8165:Ogg, Jim (June 2004).
7852:10.1006/cres.1997.0086
7725:10.1098/rspb.2008.1785
7388:10.1098/rspb.2015.3026
7253:10.1126/sciadv.aar8568
6605:Foulger, G.R. (2010).
5590:10.5194/cp-16-953-2020
4193:Atlas of Life on Earth
3019:leatherback sea turtle
2951:evolutionary radiation
2943:
2907:
2433:
2415:
2346:
1965:
1936:Alpine mountain chains
1893:. Chalk is not easily
1862:on the south coast of
1783:the Cretaceous are of
1779:
1762:
1420:
1348:Calpionellites darderi
929:and Phillips in 1822.
773:
757:
206:−70 —
196:−80 —
186:−90 —
9039:Siderian (2.3â2.5 Ga)
8998:Ectasian (1.2â1.4 Ga)
8919:Series 2 (509â521 Ma)
8606:Eocene (33.9â56.0 Ma)
8399:Upper/Late Cretaceous
8285:Earth-Science Reviews
7655:Nature Communications
7511:www.ucmp.Berkeley.edu
7173:Nature Communications
6556:Earth-Science Reviews
6271:Earth-Science Reviews
6151:Nature Communications
5520:Earth-Science Reviews
5362:Earth-Science Reviews
5229:Reviews of Geophysics
5146:10.2110/palo.2013.080
4557:Earth-Science Reviews
4488:Earth-Science Reviews
3283:(with link directory)
3078:shelled, rather than
2936:
2899:
2600:), aquatic foragers (
2488:grains from the late
2421:
2409:
2355:extensional tectonics
2341:
2183:Further information:
1963:
1860:white cliffs of Dover
1768:
1757:, by Dutch geologist
1742:
1406:
1174:Watinoceras devonense
874:Etymology and history
614:K-Pg extinction event
9079:Eoarchean (3.6â4 Ga)
8972:Tonian (720 Maâ1 Ga)
8852:Wenlock (427â433 Ma)
8842:Pridoli (419â423 Ma)
8259:Earth System History
8129:Organic Geochemistry
6232:10.1029/2018PA003546
6112:10.1029/2021PA004353
6106:(1): e2021PA004353.
5890:10.1029/2005PA001203
5648:10.1029/2002PA000823
5499:10.1029/2002PA000778
5340:10.1029/2006PA001349
5242:10.1029/2001RG000105
5202:10.1029/2001PA000623
4874:10.1029/2018PA003338
4765:10.1029/1999PA900040
4360:10.1029/2011PA002154
4309:10.1029/2011PA002163
4171:10.1029/2001pa000625
3855:Kauffman, E (2004).
3620:10.5194/se-10-1-2019
3510:Geologica Carpathica
3316:www.stratigraphy.org
3281:List of fossil sites
3060:starfish (sea stars)
2903:Prosphenodon avelasi
2270:temperature gradient
2185:Cool tropics paradox
2149:Hell Creek Formation
2133:sedimentary deposits
2029:was followed by the
1746:Mosasaurus hoffmanni
1605:), and nonmammalian
1470:Strambergella jacobi
1380:first occurrence of
1068:Maastricht Formation
784:, resulting in high
556:Not formally defined
9134: •
9123: •
9121:Geologic time scale
8883:Middle (458â470 Ma)
8847:Ludlow (423â427 Ma)
8816:Middle (383â393 Ma)
8711:Middle (237â247 Ma)
8680:Middle (164â174 Ma)
8297:2003ESRv...62....1T
8202:on August 24, 2006.
8160:. Geoscience Press.
8141:2008OrGeo..39..532K
8095:2008CrRes..29...40L
8082:Cretaceous Research
8031:2018Natur.556..366M
7844:1997CrRes..18..767W
7831:Cretaceous Research
7804:www.TalkOrigins.org
7776:2010JIbG...36..253M
7668:2015NatCo...6.8149S
7617:10.1098/rsos.160462
7609:2016RSOS....360462A
7557:10.1098/rsos.171830
7549:2018RSOS....571830C
7245:2018SciA....4.8568J
7186:2011NatCo...2..480P
7076:2020PNAS..11728867C
7070:(46): 28867â28875.
6930:1988Natur.333..547F
6885:2003AuJES..50..139A
6803:2020Natur.580...81K
6728:2018GPC...167....1H
6664:2008Sci...319..189B
6611:. Wiley-Blackwell.
6569:2021ESRv..21603572G
6487:1994Geo....22..877B
6396:2013PPP...385..190C
6332:2021GPC...19903435M
6284:2013ESRv..126..275W
6223:2019PaPa...34..436O
6164:2014NatCo...5.4194L
6056:1998Sci...282.2241T
6050:(5397): 2241â2243.
6005:2007Geo....35..107P
5940:2002Geo....30..299N
5882:2006PalOc..21.2002B
5834:2002Geo....30..607W
5781:Cretaceous Research
5730:2020JAESc.19604363H
5682:1998Geo....26..823N
5639:2003PalOc..18.1029P
5581:2020CliPa..16..953L
5568:Climate of the Past
5533:2014ESRv..129..136W
5490:2002PalOc..17.1070B
5426:2018CrRes..87..174P
5413:Cretaceous Research
5375:2017ESRv..172..224O
5331:2007PalOc..22.1219F
5283:2007PPP...248...49V
5194:2002PalOc..17.1041L
5138:2014Palai..29..121F
5090:2010RPaPa.162..325D
5002:2016PPP...452...11R
4935:2022NatSR..1221894H
4865:2018PaPa...33..894B
4799:2003Geo....31.1069S
4633:Sedimentary Geology
4570:2023ESRv..23904356M
4501:2021ESRv..21503503S
4436:2001GPC....30..231A
4397:on 20 December 2010
4351:2011PalOc..26.4223H
4230:, pp. 279â281.
4163:2003PalOc..18.1010M
4025:, pp. 481â482.
3999:1992Geo....20..556S
3964:2007Geo....35..227A
3926:1986Geo....14..868S
3878:2004Palai..19...96K
3789:1997JGSoc.154..265M
3727:2013Sci...339..684R
3680:2014GondR..26..374V
3611:2019SolE...10....1L
3558:2016CrRes..66...94F
3545:Cretaceous Research
3409:Glossary of Geology
3263:Paleontology portal
3023:Hesperornithiformes
2224:Ontong Java Plateau
2127:. These widespread
2123:of the element for
2073:eustatic sea levels
1993:-to-early-Mesozoic
1735:Geologic formations
997:
786:eustatic sea levels
666:Upper GSSP ratified
646: /
620:Upper boundary GSSP
545:Time span formality
9167:Geological periods
9132:Geology portal
8993:Stenian (1â1.2 Ga)
8888:Early (470â485 Ma)
8821:Early (393â419 Ma)
8716:Early (247â252 Ma)
8685:Early (174â201 Ma)
8654:Early (100â145 Ma)
8649:Late (66.0â100 Ma)
8212:History of Insects
7676:10.1038/ncomms9149
7382:(1833): 20153026.
7195:10.1038/ncomms1482
7144:10.1093/nsr/nwx145
6634:, p. 480â482.
6172:10.1038/ncomms5194
4922:Scientific Reports
4611:has generic name (
3470:Volumina Jurassica
3207:Dercetis triqueter
2944:
2908:
2662:adaptive radiation
2604:) and herbivores (
2592:and non-placental
2523:beds of Spain and
2449:groups, including
2434:
2416:
2347:
2281:and more stagnant
2035:Laramide orogenies
1966:
1858:, which forms the
1780:
1763:
1714:primary production
1464:Calpionella alpina
1443:ratios of isotopes
1435:chemostratigraphic
1421:
1383:Calpionella alpina
1375:Berriasella jacobi
995:
650:36.1537°N 8.6486°E
589:Berriasella jacobi
535:Stratigraphic unit
525:Chronological unit
512:Time scale(s) used
9149:
9148:
9047:
9046:
9013:Paleoproterozoic
8932:
8931:
8878:Late (444â458 Ma)
8811:Late (359â383 Ma)
8724:
8723:
8706:Late (201â237 Ma)
8675:Late (145â164 Ma)
8619:
8618:
8540:(presentâ2.58 Ma)
8528:(presentâ66.0 Ma)
8483:
8482:
8478:
8477:
8381:Cretaceous Period
8225:978-1-4020-0026-3
8025:(7701): 366â369.
7719:(1660): 1385â90.
7313:10.1111/jse.12514
7032:978-0-585-23095-5
6983:10.1111/nph.15708
6924:(6173): 547â549.
6658:(5860): 189â192.
6618:978-1-4051-6148-0
6013:10.1130/G23103A.1
5484:(4): 22-1â22-17.
5188:(3): 13-1â13-29.
4793:(12): 1069â1072.
4531:on 8 January 2021
4157:(1): 10-1â10-25.
4115:10.5252/g2015n3a2
3972:10.1130/G23197A.1
3721:(6120): 684â688.
3667:Gondwana Research
3445:978-0-444-59425-9
3355:Annales des Mines
3115:is attacked by a
2911:Rhynchocephalians
2892:Rhynchocephalians
2785:Tyrannosaurus rex
2718:along with other
2578:multituberculates
2561:Terrestrial fauna
2475:Corystospermaceae
2248:Iberian Peninsula
2055:rifted away from
2021:continued in the
1940:continental shelf
1643:freshwater snails
1627:Coccolithophorids
1597:, last remaining
1563:Tyrannosaurus rex
1523:ecological niches
1500:YucatĂĄn Peninsula
1396:
1395:
1290:Spitidiscus hugii
900:calcium carbonate
738:million years ago
734:geological period
673:
672:
566:Magneticâbase of
485:Usage information
466:
465:
446:
445:
18:Cretaceous period
16:(Redirected from
9174:
9143:World portal
9141:
9140:
9130:
9129:
9092:
9056:
9016:
8985:
8982:Mesoproterozoic
8954:
8947:
8946:
8942:
8901:
8870:
8834:
8803:
8777:
8746:
8739:
8738:
8734:
8698:
8667:
8641:
8634:
8633:
8629:
8593:
8567:
8541:
8534:
8533:
8529:
8510:
8503:
8496:
8487:
8486:
8390:
8389:
8374:
8367:
8360:
8351:
8350:
8346:
8338:
8308:
8282:
8272:
8253:
8241:
8229:
8203:
8201:
8184:
8174:
8173:on 16 July 2006.
8169:. Archived from
8161:
8152:
8114:
8113:
8111:
8109:
8072:
8066:
8065:
8063:
8061:
8008:
8002:
8001:
7999:
7997:
7952:
7946:
7945:
7943:
7941:
7919:
7913:
7912:
7886:
7877:
7871:
7870:
7868:
7866:
7821:
7815:
7814:
7812:
7810:
7796:
7790:
7789:
7787:
7753:
7747:
7746:
7736:
7704:
7698:
7697:
7687:
7645:
7639:
7638:
7628:
7588:
7579:
7578:
7568:
7528:
7522:
7521:
7519:
7517:
7503:
7494:
7493:
7483:
7465:
7441:
7435:
7434:
7416:
7410:
7409:
7399:
7365:
7359:
7358:
7342:
7332:
7326:
7325:
7315:
7289:
7283:
7282:
7272:
7232:Science Advances
7222:
7216:
7215:
7197:
7163:
7157:
7156:
7146:
7122:
7116:
7115:
7105:
7087:
7053:
7047:
7043:
7037:
7036:
7010:
7004:
7003:
6985:
6961:
6950:
6949:
6938:10.1038/333547a0
6911:
6905:
6904:
6866:
6860:
6859:
6853:
6845:
6843:
6841:
6779:
6773:
6772:
6770:
6768:
6747:
6705:
6699:
6698:
6696:
6694:
6641:
6635:
6629:
6623:
6622:
6602:
6596:
6595:
6593:
6591:
6545:
6539:
6538:
6520:
6514:
6513:
6511:
6509:
6464:
6458:
6457:
6455:
6453:
6424:
6418:
6417:
6407:
6373:
6367:
6366:
6364:
6362:
6309:
6303:
6302:
6300:
6298:
6261:
6255:
6254:
6244:
6234:
6200:
6194:
6193:
6183:
6140:
6134:
6133:
6123:
6089:
6083:
6082:
6080:
6078:
6033:
6024:
6023:
6021:
6019:
5982:
5971:
5965:
5959:
5958:
5956:
5954:
5917:
5911:
5910:
5908:
5906:
5901:
5859:
5853:
5852:
5850:
5848:
5811:
5805:
5804:
5802:
5800:
5771:
5765:
5764:
5762:
5760:
5707:
5701:
5700:
5698:
5696:
5659:
5653:
5652:
5650:
5616:
5610:
5609:
5607:
5605:
5592:
5558:
5552:
5551:
5549:
5547:
5510:
5504:
5503:
5501:
5467:
5461:
5460:
5458:
5456:
5403:
5397:
5396:
5386:
5351:
5345:
5344:
5342:
5308:
5302:
5301:
5299:
5297:
5260:
5254:
5253:
5219:
5213:
5212:
5210:
5208:
5171:
5165:
5164:
5162:
5160:
5132:(3â4): 121â128.
5115:
5109:
5108:
5106:
5104:
5067:
5061:
5060:
5058:
5056:
5027:
5021:
5020:
5018:
5016:
4979:
4973:
4972:
4962:
4911:
4905:
4904:
4886:
4876:
4842:
4836:
4835:
4833:
4831:
4818:
4807:10.1130/G19876.1
4776:
4770:
4769:
4767:
4741:
4735:
4734:
4732:
4730:
4701:
4695:
4694:
4692:
4690:
4663:
4657:
4656:
4654:
4652:
4623:
4617:
4616:
4610:
4606:
4604:
4596:
4594:
4592:
4547:
4541:
4540:
4538:
4536:
4527:. Archived from
4478:
4455:
4454:
4452:
4450:
4430:(3â4): 231â256.
4413:
4407:
4406:
4404:
4402:
4393:. Archived from
4385:Kazlev, M.Alan.
4382:
4373:
4372:
4362:
4328:
4322:
4321:
4311:
4285:
4279:
4278:
4276:
4274:
4237:
4231:
4225:
4219:
4213:
4207:
4206:
4188:
4182:
4181:
4179:
4177:
4140:
4134:
4133:
4131:
4129:
4094:
4088:
4087:
4085:
4059:
4053:
4052:
4032:
4026:
4020:
4011:
4010:
3982:
3976:
3975:
3944:
3938:
3937:
3907:
3898:
3897:
3861:
3852:
3846:
3845:
3815:
3809:
3808:
3766:
3755:
3754:
3708:
3702:
3701:
3699:
3662:Ramos, Victor A.
3657:
3651:
3650:
3632:
3622:
3589:
3583:
3576:
3570:
3569:
3535:
3529:
3528:
3526:
3500:
3494:
3493:
3461:
3455:
3454:
3453:
3452:
3419:
3413:
3412:
3405:
3399:
3398:
3385:
3379:
3376:
3370:
3362:
3346:
3340:
3339:
3326:
3320:
3319:
3307:
3265:
3260:
3259:
3258:
3222:
3203:Pseudostacus sp.
3191:
3169:
3151:
3130:
3106:
2919:Early Cretaceous
2870:
2853:
2832:
2815:
2797:
2780:
2692:Yixian Formation
2531:Yixian Formation
2443:Flowering plants
2165:Yixian Formation
2145:Smoky Hill Chalk
2087:to the west and
1977:in the west and
1814:coccolithophores
1622:
1619:
1617:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1437:events, such as
1407:The impact of a
1378:(traditionally);
1263:magnetic anomaly
1219:Early Cretaceous
998:
994:
931:Alcide d'Orbigny
857:Chicxulub crater
822:flowering plants
776:
762:
750:
728:
722:
721:
718:
717:
714:
711:
708:
705:
702:
699:
696:
693:
686:
661:
660:
658:
657:
656:
651:
647:
644:
643:
642:
639:
623:El Kef Section,
433:
428:
402:
393:
384:
375:
366:
357:
348:
339:
330:
321:
312:
303:
294:
293:
283:
282:
263:
261:
241:
227:
225:
212:
207:
202:
197:
192:
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
162:
157:
152:
147:
142:
137:
131:
116:
107:
44:
40:~145.0 â 66.0
30:
29:
21:
9182:
9181:
9177:
9176:
9175:
9173:
9172:
9171:
9152:
9151:
9150:
9145:
9135:
9124:
9116:
9098:
9090:
9083:
9054:
9043:
9014:
9007:
8983:
8976:
8952:
8951:Neoproterozoic
8941:(539 Maâ2.5 Ga)
8940:
8939:
8938:Proterozoic Eon
8928:
8899:
8892:
8868:
8861:
8832:
8825:
8801:
8794:
8775:
8768:
8744:
8732:
8731:
8720:
8696:
8689:
8665:
8658:
8639:
8627:
8626:
8615:
8591:
8584:
8565:
8558:
8539:
8527:
8526:
8519:
8514:
8484:
8479:
8474:
8438:
8383:
8378:
8333:
8315:
8280:
8269:
8250:
8226:
8208:Rasnitsyn, A.P.
8199:
8182:
8122:
8117:
8107:
8105:
8073:
8069:
8059:
8057:
8009:
8005:
7995:
7993:
7953:
7949:
7939:
7937:
7920:
7916:
7884:
7878:
7874:
7864:
7862:
7822:
7818:
7808:
7806:
7798:
7797:
7793:
7754:
7750:
7705:
7701:
7646:
7642:
7589:
7582:
7529:
7525:
7515:
7513:
7505:
7504:
7497:
7456:(3): e2001663.
7442:
7438:
7431:
7417:
7413:
7366:
7362:
7355:
7333:
7329:
7290:
7286:
7239:(9): eaar8568.
7223:
7219:
7164:
7160:
7123:
7119:
7054:
7050:
7044:
7040:
7033:
7011:
7007:
6970:New Phytologist
6962:
6953:
6912:
6908:
6867:
6863:
6847:
6846:
6839:
6837:
6797:(7801): 81â86.
6780:
6776:
6766:
6764:
6706:
6702:
6692:
6690:
6642:
6638:
6630:
6626:
6619:
6603:
6599:
6589:
6587:
6546:
6542:
6521:
6517:
6507:
6505:
6481:(10): 877â880.
6465:
6461:
6451:
6449:
6425:
6421:
6374:
6370:
6360:
6358:
6310:
6306:
6296:
6294:
6262:
6258:
6201:
6197:
6141:
6137:
6090:
6086:
6076:
6074:
6034:
6027:
6017:
6015:
5983:
5974:
5966:
5962:
5952:
5950:
5918:
5914:
5904:
5902:
5860:
5856:
5846:
5844:
5812:
5808:
5798:
5796:
5772:
5768:
5758:
5756:
5708:
5704:
5694:
5692:
5660:
5656:
5617:
5613:
5603:
5601:
5559:
5555:
5545:
5543:
5511:
5507:
5468:
5464:
5454:
5452:
5404:
5400:
5352:
5348:
5309:
5305:
5295:
5293:
5261:
5257:
5220:
5216:
5206:
5204:
5172:
5168:
5158:
5156:
5116:
5112:
5102:
5100:
5068:
5064:
5054:
5052:
5028:
5024:
5014:
5012:
4980:
4976:
4912:
4908:
4843:
4839:
4829:
4827:
4777:
4773:
4742:
4738:
4728:
4726:
4702:
4698:
4688:
4686:
4664:
4660:
4650:
4648:
4624:
4620:
4608:
4607:
4598:
4597:
4590:
4588:
4548:
4544:
4534:
4532:
4479:
4458:
4448:
4446:
4414:
4410:
4400:
4398:
4383:
4376:
4329:
4325:
4286:
4282:
4272:
4270:
4238:
4234:
4226:
4222:
4214:
4210:
4203:
4189:
4185:
4175:
4173:
4141:
4137:
4127:
4125:
4095:
4091:
4060:
4056:
4033:
4029:
4021:
4014:
3983:
3979:
3945:
3941:
3920:(10): 868â870.
3908:
3901:
3859:
3853:
3849:
3816:
3812:
3767:
3758:
3709:
3705:
3658:
3654:
3590:
3586:
3577:
3573:
3536:
3532:
3501:
3497:
3462:
3458:
3450:
3448:
3446:
3420:
3416:
3407:
3406:
3402:
3387:
3386:
3382:
3364:
3363:
3347:
3343:
3328:
3327:
3323:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3295:
3261:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3244:
3223:
3214:
3192:
3183:
3170:
3161:
3152:
3143:
3131:
3122:
3107:
3015:Panchelonioidea
2979:
2961:Neochoristodera
2931:
2923:Late Cretaceous
2894:
2887:
2878:was a toothed,
2871:
2862:
2854:
2845:
2833:
2824:
2816:
2807:
2798:
2789:
2781:
2708:oviraptorosaurs
2670:Pteranodontidae
2563:
2494:Molecular clock
2440:
2404:
2333:Late Palaeocene
2329:
2325:
2317:
2311:
2267:
2239:
2187:
2181:
2121:bioavailability
2113:Mid-ocean ridge
2027:Nevadan orogeny
1987:
1958:
1952:
1852:
1846:
1737:
1620:
1615:
1612:Tritylodontidae
1606:
1590:
1585:
1583:
1427:
1401:
1379:
1058:
1039:Late Cretaceous
1015:
1008:
977:(lower/early),
964:Late Cretaceous
956:
951:
884:Terrain Crétacé
882:in 1822 as the
876:
853:marine reptiles
845:mass extinction
797:marine reptiles
748:
726:
690:
681:
680:
655:36.1537; 8.6486
654:
652:
648:
645:
640:
637:
635:
633:
632:
631:
467:
462:
461:
459:
442:
439:
431:
424:
423:
419:
418:
414:
413:
409:
408:
404:
403:
398:
395:
394:
389:
386:
385:
380:
377:
376:
371:
368:
367:
362:
359:
358:
353:
350:
349:
344:
341:
340:
335:
332:
331:
326:
323:
322:
317:
314:
313:
308:
305:
304:
299:
296:
295:
289:
288:
285:
284:
278:
277:
274:
273:
265:
264:
257:
255:
252:
251:
243:
242:
237:
233:
230:
229:
228:
221:
219:
213:
210:
208:
205:
203:
200:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
168:
165:
163:
160:
158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
135:
119:
106:
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
55:
50:
39:
38:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9180:
9170:
9169:
9164:
9147:
9146:
9103:
9100:
9099:
9096:
9094:
9085:
9084:
9082:
9081:
9076:
9071:
9066:
9060:
9058:
9049:
9048:
9045:
9044:
9042:
9041:
9036:
9031:
9026:
9020:
9018:
9009:
9008:
9006:
9005:
9000:
8995:
8989:
8987:
8978:
8977:
8975:
8974:
8969:
8964:
8958:
8956:
8944:
8934:
8933:
8930:
8929:
8927:
8926:
8921:
8916:
8911:
8905:
8903:
8894:
8893:
8891:
8890:
8885:
8880:
8874:
8872:
8863:
8862:
8860:
8859:
8854:
8849:
8844:
8838:
8836:
8827:
8826:
8824:
8823:
8818:
8813:
8807:
8805:
8796:
8795:
8793:
8792:
8787:
8781:
8779:
8774:Carboniferous
8770:
8769:
8767:
8766:
8761:
8756:
8750:
8748:
8736:
8726:
8725:
8722:
8721:
8719:
8718:
8713:
8708:
8702:
8700:
8691:
8690:
8688:
8687:
8682:
8677:
8671:
8669:
8660:
8659:
8657:
8656:
8651:
8645:
8643:
8631:
8621:
8620:
8617:
8616:
8614:
8613:
8608:
8603:
8597:
8595:
8592:(23.0â66.0 Ma)
8586:
8585:
8583:
8582:
8577:
8571:
8569:
8566:(2.58â23.0 Ma)
8560:
8559:
8557:
8556:
8551:
8545:
8543:
8531:
8521:
8520:
8513:
8512:
8505:
8498:
8490:
8481:
8480:
8476:
8475:
8473:
8472:
8467:
8462:
8457:
8452:
8447:
8441:
8439:
8437:
8436:
8431:
8426:
8421:
8416:
8411:
8405:
8402:
8401:
8396:
8388:
8385:
8384:
8377:
8376:
8369:
8362:
8354:
8348:
8347:
8331:
8326:
8321:
8314:
8313:External links
8311:
8310:
8309:
8273:
8267:
8254:
8248:
8231:
8224:
8204:
8175:
8162:
8153:
8135:(5): 532â549.
8121:
8118:
8116:
8115:
8067:
8003:
7969:(3): 459â479.
7947:
7914:
7872:
7838:(6): 767â787.
7816:
7791:
7770:(2): 253â274.
7748:
7699:
7640:
7580:
7523:
7495:
7436:
7430:978-0691150611
7429:
7411:
7360:
7353:
7327:
7306:(4): 329â338.
7284:
7217:
7158:
7137:(5): 721â727.
7117:
7048:
7038:
7031:
7005:
6951:
6906:
6879:(2): 139â144.
6861:
6774:
6700:
6636:
6624:
6617:
6597:
6540:
6515:
6459:
6441:(1â2): 11â21.
6419:
6368:
6304:
6256:
6217:(4): 436â454.
6195:
6135:
6084:
6025:
5999:(2): 107â110.
5972:
5970:, p. 557.
5960:
5934:(4): 299â302.
5912:
5854:
5828:(7): 607â610.
5806:
5766:
5702:
5676:(9): 823â826.
5654:
5611:
5575:(3): 953â971.
5553:
5505:
5462:
5398:
5346:
5303:
5277:(1â2): 49â59.
5255:
5236:(4): 565â585.
5214:
5166:
5110:
5084:(3): 325â340.
5062:
5044:(2): 217â225.
5022:
4974:
4906:
4859:(8): 894â912.
4837:
4771:
4758:(6): 663â678.
4736:
4696:
4658:
4618:
4542:
4456:
4408:
4374:
4323:
4280:
4254:(3): 507â520.
4232:
4220:
4218:, p. 280.
4208:
4201:
4183:
4135:
4109:(3): 315â324.
4089:
4054:
4027:
4012:
3993:(6): 556â560.
3977:
3958:(3): 227â230.
3939:
3899:
3847:
3828:(3): 347â368.
3810:
3783:(2): 265â292.
3756:
3703:
3674:(1): 374â385.
3652:
3584:
3571:
3530:
3495:
3476:(1): 107â112.
3456:
3444:
3414:
3400:
3380:
3341:
3338:(Online). n.d.
3321:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3290:
3289:
3284:
3278:
3273:
3267:
3266:
3250:
3247:
3246:
3245:
3234:, attacking a
3224:
3217:
3215:
3205:and a partial
3193:
3186:
3184:
3178:Discoscaphites
3171:
3164:
3162:
3153:
3146:
3144:
3132:
3125:
3123:
3112:Woolungasaurus
3108:
3101:
3068:Thylacocephala
2978:
2975:
2939:Philydrosaurus
2930:
2927:
2893:
2890:
2889:
2888:
2872:
2865:
2863:
2858:Confuciusornis
2855:
2848:
2846:
2841:Quetzalcoatlus
2834:
2827:
2825:
2817:
2810:
2808:
2799:
2792:
2790:
2782:
2775:
2712:therizinosaurs
2635:apex predators
2616:eutriconodonts
2562:
2559:
2436:Main article:
2403:
2400:
2392:Eromanga Basin
2327:
2323:
2315:
2309:
2265:
2237:
2180:
2177:
2011:Atlantic Ocean
2001:completed its
1995:supercontinent
1986:
1985:Paleogeography
1983:
1951:
1948:
1934:. Because the
1845:
1842:
1759:Pieter Harting
1736:
1733:
1534:photosynthesis
1504:Gulf of Mexico
1400:
1397:
1394:
1393:
1387:
1370:
1367:
1364:
1358:
1357:
1356:, Switzerland
1351:
1343:
1340:
1337:
1331:
1330:
1329:, Switzerland
1324:
1316:
1313:
1310:
1304:
1303:
1297:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1266:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1247:
1246:
1240:
1232:
1229:
1226:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1204:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1184:
1183:
1177:
1169:
1166:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1150:
1142:
1139:
1136:
1130:
1129:
1123:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1103:
1102:
1096:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1076:
1075:
1074:, Netherlands
1065:
1052:
1049:
1046:
1041:
1035:
1034:
1026:
1025:
1022:
1019:
1012:
1005:
1002:
955:
952:
950:
947:
937:(stages): the
912:Western Europe
906:, principally
875:
872:
671:
670:
667:
663:
662:
621:
617:
616:
607:
603:
602:
599:
595:
594:
593:
592:
578:
571:
562:
558:
557:
554:
550:
549:
546:
542:
541:
536:
532:
531:
526:
522:
521:
517:
516:
515:ICS Time Scale
513:
509:
508:
501:
500:Regional usage
497:
496:
491:
490:Celestial body
487:
486:
482:
481:
478:
477:Name formality
474:
473:
469:
468:
464:
463:
448:
447:
444:
443:
436:
434:
425:
421:
420:
416:
415:
411:
410:
406:
405:
397:
396:
388:
387:
379:
378:
370:
369:
361:
360:
352:
351:
343:
342:
334:
333:
325:
324:
316:
315:
307:
306:
298:
297:
287:
286:
276:
275:
267:
266:
254:
253:
245:
244:
232:
231:
218:
217:
216:
214:
209:
204:
199:
194:
189:
184:
179:
174:
169:
164:
159:
154:
149:
144:
139:
134:
129:
126:
125:
121:
120:
117:
109:
108:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
51:
46:
35:
34:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9179:
9168:
9165:
9163:
9160:
9159:
9157:
9144:
9139:
9133:
9128:
9122:
9119:
9114:
9110:
9106:
9101:
9095:
9093:
9086:
9080:
9077:
9075:
9072:
9070:
9067:
9065:
9062:
9061:
9059:
9057:
9050:
9040:
9037:
9035:
9032:
9030:
9027:
9025:
9022:
9021:
9019:
9017:
9010:
9004:
9001:
8999:
8996:
8994:
8991:
8990:
8988:
8986:
8979:
8973:
8970:
8968:
8965:
8963:
8960:
8959:
8957:
8955:
8953:(539 Maâ1 Ga)
8948:
8945:
8943:
8935:
8925:
8922:
8920:
8917:
8915:
8912:
8910:
8907:
8906:
8904:
8902:
8895:
8889:
8886:
8884:
8881:
8879:
8876:
8875:
8873:
8871:
8864:
8858:
8855:
8853:
8850:
8848:
8845:
8843:
8840:
8839:
8837:
8835:
8828:
8822:
8819:
8817:
8814:
8812:
8809:
8808:
8806:
8804:
8797:
8791:
8788:
8786:
8783:
8782:
8780:
8778:
8771:
8765:
8762:
8760:
8757:
8755:
8752:
8751:
8749:
8747:
8740:
8737:
8735:
8730:Paleozoic Era
8727:
8717:
8714:
8712:
8709:
8707:
8704:
8703:
8701:
8699:
8692:
8686:
8683:
8681:
8678:
8676:
8673:
8672:
8670:
8668:
8661:
8655:
8652:
8650:
8647:
8646:
8644:
8642:
8640:(66.0â145 Ma)
8635:
8632:
8630:
8628:(66.0â252 Ma)
8622:
8612:
8609:
8607:
8604:
8602:
8599:
8598:
8596:
8594:
8587:
8581:
8578:
8576:
8573:
8572:
8570:
8568:
8561:
8555:
8552:
8550:
8547:
8546:
8544:
8542:
8535:
8532:
8530:
8522:
8518:
8511:
8506:
8504:
8499:
8497:
8492:
8491:
8488:
8471:
8470:Maastrichtian
8468:
8466:
8463:
8461:
8458:
8456:
8453:
8451:
8448:
8446:
8443:
8442:
8440:
8435:
8432:
8430:
8427:
8425:
8422:
8420:
8417:
8415:
8412:
8410:
8407:
8406:
8404:
8403:
8400:
8397:
8395:
8392:
8391:
8386:
8382:
8375:
8370:
8368:
8363:
8361:
8356:
8355:
8352:
8344:
8343:
8337:
8332:
8330:
8327:
8325:
8322:
8320:
8317:
8316:
8306:
8302:
8298:
8294:
8290:
8286:
8279:
8274:
8270:
8268:0-7167-2882-6
8264:
8260:
8255:
8251:
8249:0-471-60618-9
8245:
8240:
8239:
8232:
8227:
8221:
8217:
8213:
8209:
8205:
8198:
8194:
8190:
8189:
8181:
8176:
8172:
8168:
8163:
8159:
8154:
8150:
8146:
8142:
8138:
8134:
8130:
8124:
8123:
8104:
8100:
8096:
8092:
8088:
8084:
8083:
8078:
8071:
8056:
8052:
8048:
8044:
8040:
8036:
8032:
8028:
8024:
8020:
8019:
8014:
8007:
7992:
7988:
7984:
7980:
7976:
7972:
7968:
7964:
7963:
7958:
7951:
7935:
7931:
7930:
7925:
7918:
7910:
7906:
7902:
7898:
7894:
7890:
7883:
7876:
7861:
7857:
7853:
7849:
7845:
7841:
7837:
7833:
7832:
7827:
7820:
7805:
7801:
7795:
7786:
7781:
7777:
7773:
7769:
7765:
7764:
7759:
7752:
7744:
7740:
7735:
7730:
7726:
7722:
7718:
7714:
7710:
7703:
7695:
7691:
7686:
7681:
7677:
7673:
7669:
7665:
7661:
7657:
7656:
7651:
7644:
7636:
7632:
7627:
7622:
7618:
7614:
7610:
7606:
7603:(9): 160462.
7602:
7598:
7594:
7587:
7585:
7576:
7572:
7567:
7562:
7558:
7554:
7550:
7546:
7543:(3): 171830.
7542:
7538:
7534:
7527:
7512:
7508:
7502:
7500:
7491:
7487:
7482:
7477:
7473:
7469:
7464:
7459:
7455:
7451:
7447:
7440:
7432:
7426:
7422:
7415:
7407:
7403:
7398:
7393:
7389:
7385:
7381:
7377:
7376:
7371:
7364:
7356:
7354:9780231119184
7350:
7346:
7341:
7340:
7331:
7323:
7319:
7314:
7309:
7305:
7301:
7300:
7295:
7288:
7280:
7276:
7271:
7266:
7262:
7258:
7254:
7250:
7246:
7242:
7238:
7234:
7233:
7228:
7221:
7213:
7209:
7205:
7201:
7196:
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7187:
7183:
7179:
7175:
7174:
7169:
7162:
7154:
7150:
7145:
7140:
7136:
7132:
7128:
7121:
7113:
7109:
7104:
7099:
7095:
7091:
7086:
7081:
7077:
7073:
7069:
7065:
7064:
7059:
7052:
7042:
7034:
7028:
7024:
7020:
7016:
7009:
7001:
6997:
6993:
6989:
6984:
6979:
6975:
6971:
6967:
6960:
6958:
6956:
6947:
6943:
6939:
6935:
6931:
6927:
6923:
6919:
6918:
6910:
6902:
6898:
6894:
6890:
6886:
6882:
6878:
6874:
6873:
6865:
6857:
6851:
6836:
6832:
6828:
6824:
6820:
6816:
6812:
6808:
6804:
6800:
6796:
6792:
6791:
6786:
6778:
6763:
6759:
6755:
6751:
6746:
6741:
6737:
6733:
6729:
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6721:
6717:
6716:
6711:
6704:
6689:
6685:
6681:
6677:
6673:
6669:
6665:
6661:
6657:
6653:
6652:
6647:
6640:
6633:
6628:
6620:
6614:
6610:
6609:
6601:
6586:
6582:
6578:
6574:
6570:
6566:
6562:
6558:
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6552:
6544:
6536:
6532:
6528:
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6519:
6504:
6500:
6496:
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6480:
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6470:
6463:
6448:
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6440:
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6435:
6430:
6423:
6415:
6411:
6406:
6401:
6397:
6393:
6389:
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6384:
6379:
6372:
6357:
6353:
6349:
6345:
6341:
6337:
6333:
6329:
6325:
6321:
6320:
6315:
6308:
6293:
6289:
6285:
6281:
6277:
6273:
6272:
6267:
6260:
6252:
6248:
6243:
6238:
6233:
6228:
6224:
6220:
6216:
6212:
6211:
6206:
6199:
6191:
6187:
6182:
6177:
6173:
6169:
6165:
6161:
6157:
6153:
6152:
6147:
6139:
6131:
6127:
6122:
6117:
6113:
6109:
6105:
6101:
6100:
6095:
6088:
6073:
6069:
6065:
6061:
6057:
6053:
6049:
6045:
6044:
6039:
6032:
6030:
6014:
6010:
6006:
6002:
5998:
5994:
5993:
5988:
5981:
5979:
5977:
5969:
5964:
5949:
5945:
5941:
5937:
5933:
5929:
5928:
5923:
5916:
5900:
5899:2027.42/95054
5895:
5891:
5887:
5883:
5879:
5875:
5871:
5870:
5865:
5858:
5843:
5839:
5835:
5831:
5827:
5823:
5822:
5817:
5810:
5795:
5791:
5787:
5783:
5782:
5777:
5770:
5755:
5751:
5747:
5743:
5739:
5735:
5731:
5727:
5723:
5719:
5718:
5713:
5706:
5691:
5687:
5683:
5679:
5675:
5671:
5670:
5665:
5658:
5649:
5644:
5640:
5636:
5632:
5628:
5627:
5622:
5615:
5600:
5596:
5591:
5586:
5582:
5578:
5574:
5570:
5569:
5564:
5557:
5542:
5538:
5534:
5530:
5526:
5522:
5521:
5516:
5509:
5500:
5495:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5478:
5473:
5466:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5435:
5431:
5427:
5423:
5419:
5415:
5414:
5409:
5402:
5394:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5376:
5372:
5368:
5364:
5363:
5358:
5350:
5341:
5336:
5332:
5328:
5324:
5320:
5319:
5314:
5307:
5292:
5288:
5284:
5280:
5276:
5272:
5271:
5266:
5259:
5251:
5247:
5243:
5239:
5235:
5231:
5230:
5225:
5218:
5203:
5199:
5195:
5191:
5187:
5183:
5182:
5177:
5170:
5155:
5151:
5147:
5143:
5139:
5135:
5131:
5127:
5126:
5121:
5114:
5099:
5095:
5091:
5087:
5083:
5079:
5078:
5073:
5066:
5051:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5038:
5033:
5026:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4991:
4990:
4985:
4978:
4970:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4952:
4948:
4944:
4940:
4936:
4932:
4928:
4924:
4923:
4918:
4910:
4902:
4898:
4894:
4890:
4885:
4880:
4875:
4870:
4866:
4862:
4858:
4854:
4853:
4848:
4841:
4826:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4808:
4804:
4800:
4796:
4792:
4788:
4787:
4782:
4775:
4766:
4761:
4757:
4753:
4752:
4747:
4740:
4725:
4721:
4717:
4713:
4712:
4707:
4700:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4662:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4634:
4629:
4622:
4614:
4602:
4587:
4583:
4579:
4575:
4571:
4567:
4563:
4559:
4558:
4553:
4546:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4498:
4494:
4490:
4489:
4484:
4477:
4475:
4473:
4471:
4469:
4467:
4465:
4463:
4461:
4445:
4441:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4425:
4424:
4419:
4412:
4396:
4392:
4388:
4381:
4379:
4370:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4339:
4334:
4327:
4319:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4296:
4291:
4284:
4269:
4265:
4261:
4257:
4253:
4249:
4248:
4243:
4236:
4229:
4224:
4217:
4212:
4204:
4202:9780760719572
4198:
4194:
4187:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4151:
4146:
4139:
4124:
4120:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4104:
4103:Geodiversitas
4100:
4093:
4084:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4070:
4065:
4058:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4037:AAPG Bulletin
4031:
4024:
4019:
4017:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3981:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3952:
3943:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3914:
3906:
3904:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3872:(1): 96â100.
3871:
3867:
3866:
3858:
3851:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3822:
3814:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3777:
3772:
3765:
3763:
3761:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3715:
3707:
3698:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3668:
3663:
3656:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3588:
3581:
3575:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3546:
3541:
3534:
3525:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3511:
3506:
3499:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3460:
3447:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3418:
3410:
3404:
3396:
3392:
3391:
3384:
3374:
3368:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3345:
3337:
3336:
3331:
3325:
3317:
3313:
3306:
3302:
3288:
3285:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3268:
3264:
3253:
3243:
3239:
3238:
3233:
3229:
3228:
3221:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3198:
3194:A plate with
3190:
3185:
3181:
3179:
3175:
3168:
3163:
3159:
3158:
3150:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3136:
3129:
3124:
3120:
3119:
3114:
3113:
3105:
3100:
3099:
3098:
3096:
3092:
3087:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3035:
3030:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2981:In the seas,
2974:
2972:
2971:
2970:Champsosaurus
2966:
2962:
2958:
2957:
2956:Hyphalosaurus
2952:
2948:
2947:Choristoderes
2941:
2940:
2935:
2926:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2905:
2904:
2898:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2876:
2869:
2864:
2860:
2859:
2852:
2847:
2843:
2842:
2838:
2831:
2826:
2822:
2821:
2814:
2809:
2805:
2804:
2796:
2791:
2787:
2786:
2779:
2774:
2773:
2772:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2749:lepidopterans
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2732:
2728:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2686:
2681:
2679:
2675:
2674:Nyctosauridae
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2644:, especially
2643:
2640:
2636:
2631:
2629:
2628:South America
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2608:
2603:
2602:Stagodontidae
2599:
2598:Deltatheroida
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2558:
2556:
2553:in the order
2552:
2547:
2545:
2542:are from the
2541:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2527:
2526:Archaefructus
2522:
2518:
2514:
2513:
2508:
2504:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2482:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2471:pteridosperms
2468:
2467:Bennettitales
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2439:
2431:
2427:
2426:
2420:
2413:
2412:Archaefructus
2408:
2399:
2397:
2393:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2363:plant fossils
2360:
2356:
2352:
2351:mantle plumes
2345:
2340:
2336:
2334:
2321:
2312:
2304:
2298:
2296:
2292:
2291:anoxic events
2288:
2284:
2280:
2275:
2271:
2262:
2257:
2251:
2249:
2245:
2240:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2205:
2200:
2194:
2191:
2190:Palynological
2186:
2176:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2101:
2099:
2098:transgression
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2069:Indian Oceans
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2045:South America
2042:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1982:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1962:
1957:
1950:North America
1947:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1922:
1921:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1879:low countries
1876:
1872:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1851:
1841:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1821:
1819:
1815:
1812:skeletons of
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1797:
1796:sedimentation
1793:
1789:
1786:
1777:
1773:
1772:
1767:
1760:
1756:
1755:Dutch Limburg
1752:
1751:Maastrichtian
1748:
1747:
1741:
1732:
1730:
1726:
1721:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1704:
1699:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1613:
1609:
1604:
1600:
1599:temnospondyls
1596:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1564:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1542:phytoplankton
1539:
1535:
1531:
1526:
1524:
1520:
1519:KâPg boundary
1516:
1512:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1488:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1477:
1472:
1471:
1466:
1465:
1459:
1455:
1452:
1448:
1447:Calpionellids
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1426:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1405:
1391:
1388:
1385:
1384:
1377:
1376:
1371:
1363:
1360:
1359:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1349:
1344:
1336:
1333:
1332:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1322:
1321:Acanthodiscus
1317:
1309:
1306:
1305:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1292:
1291:
1286:
1281:125.77 ± 1.5
1278:
1275:
1274:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1260:
1252:
1249:
1248:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1238:
1233:
1225:
1222:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1202:
1197:
1189:
1186:
1185:
1181:
1178:
1176:
1175:
1170:
1162:
1159:
1158:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1148:
1143:
1135:
1132:
1131:
1127:
1124:
1122:
1121:
1116:
1108:
1105:
1104:
1100:
1097:
1095:
1094:
1089:
1081:
1078:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1063:
1057:
1053:
1045:
1044:Maastrichtian
1042:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1027:
1018:
1013:
1011:
1006:
999:
993:
990:
988:
984:
981:(middle) and
980:
976:
972:
968:
965:
961:
946:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
917:
913:
909:
905:
904:invertebrates
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
871:
869:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
837:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
810:
806:
802:
798:
795:
791:
787:
783:
778:
775:
770:
766:
761:
760:
754:
746:
743:
739:
735:
731:
730:
720:
684:
678:
668:
664:
659:
630:
626:
622:
618:
615:
611:
608:
604:
600:
596:
591:
590:
586:
582:
579:
576:
572:
569:
565:
564:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
540:
537:
533:
530:
527:
523:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
495:
492:
488:
483:
479:
475:
470:
458:
457:, as of 2022.
456:
449:
441:
435:
430:
429:
401:
400:Maastrichtian
392:
383:
374:
365:
356:
347:
338:
329:
320:
311:
302:
292:
281:
272:
271:
262:
260:
250:
249:
240:
239:
226:
224:
132:
127:
122:
115:
110:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
49:
43:
36:
31:
19:
9117:
9053:Archean Eon
9015:(1.6â2.5 Ga)
8900:(485â539 Ma)
8869:(444â485 Ma)
8833:(419â444 Ma)
8802:(359â419 Ma)
8776:(299â359 Ma)
8745:(252â299 Ma)
8733:(252â539 Ma)
8697:(201â252 Ma)
8666:(145â201 Ma)
8637:
8625:Mesozoic Era
8525:Cenozoic Era
8380:
8340:
8291:(1): 1â103.
8288:
8284:
8258:
8237:
8211:
8197:the original
8192:
8186:
8171:the original
8157:
8132:
8128:
8127:porphyrin".
8120:Bibliography
8106:. Retrieved
8089:(1): 40â64.
8086:
8080:
8070:
8058:. Retrieved
8022:
8016:
8006:
7996:22 September
7994:. Retrieved
7966:
7962:Paleobiology
7960:
7950:
7938:. Retrieved
7936:(4): 495â507
7933:
7927:
7917:
7892:
7888:
7875:
7863:. Retrieved
7835:
7829:
7819:
7807:. Retrieved
7803:
7794:
7767:
7761:
7751:
7716:
7712:
7702:
7659:
7653:
7643:
7600:
7596:
7540:
7536:
7526:
7514:. Retrieved
7510:
7453:
7450:PLOS Biology
7449:
7439:
7420:
7414:
7379:
7373:
7363:
7338:
7330:
7303:
7297:
7287:
7236:
7230:
7220:
7177:
7171:
7161:
7134:
7130:
7120:
7067:
7061:
7051:
7041:
7014:
7008:
6976:(1): 83â99.
6973:
6969:
6921:
6915:
6909:
6876:
6870:
6864:
6850:cite journal
6838:. Retrieved
6794:
6788:
6777:
6765:. Retrieved
6719:
6713:
6703:
6691:. Retrieved
6655:
6649:
6639:
6632:Stanley 1999
6627:
6607:
6600:
6588:. Retrieved
6560:
6554:
6543:
6524:
6518:
6506:. Retrieved
6478:
6472:
6462:
6450:. Retrieved
6438:
6432:
6422:
6387:
6381:
6371:
6359:. Retrieved
6323:
6317:
6307:
6295:. Retrieved
6275:
6269:
6259:
6214:
6208:
6198:
6155:
6149:
6138:
6103:
6097:
6087:
6075:. Retrieved
6047:
6041:
6016:. Retrieved
5996:
5990:
5963:
5951:. Retrieved
5931:
5925:
5915:
5903:. Retrieved
5873:
5867:
5857:
5845:. Retrieved
5825:
5819:
5809:
5797:. Retrieved
5785:
5779:
5769:
5757:. Retrieved
5721:
5715:
5705:
5693:. Retrieved
5673:
5667:
5657:
5630:
5624:
5614:
5602:. Retrieved
5572:
5566:
5556:
5544:. Retrieved
5524:
5518:
5508:
5481:
5475:
5465:
5453:. Retrieved
5417:
5411:
5401:
5366:
5360:
5349:
5322:
5316:
5306:
5294:. Retrieved
5274:
5268:
5258:
5233:
5227:
5217:
5205:. Retrieved
5185:
5179:
5169:
5157:. Retrieved
5129:
5123:
5113:
5101:. Retrieved
5081:
5075:
5065:
5053:. Retrieved
5041:
5035:
5025:
5013:. Retrieved
4993:
4987:
4977:
4929:(1): 21894.
4926:
4920:
4909:
4856:
4850:
4840:
4828:. Retrieved
4790:
4784:
4774:
4755:
4749:
4739:
4727:. Retrieved
4715:
4709:
4699:
4687:. Retrieved
4675:
4671:
4661:
4649:. Retrieved
4637:
4631:
4621:
4609:|last9=
4601:cite journal
4589:. Retrieved
4561:
4555:
4545:
4533:. Retrieved
4529:the original
4492:
4486:
4447:. Retrieved
4427:
4421:
4411:
4399:. Retrieved
4395:the original
4390:
4342:
4336:
4326:
4299:
4293:
4283:
4271:. Retrieved
4251:
4245:
4235:
4228:Stanley 1999
4223:
4216:Stanley 1999
4211:
4192:
4186:
4174:. Retrieved
4154:
4148:
4138:
4126:. Retrieved
4106:
4102:
4092:
4083:10.26879/801
4073:
4067:
4057:
4040:
4036:
4030:
4023:Stanley 1999
3990:
3986:
3980:
3955:
3949:
3942:
3917:
3911:
3869:
3863:
3850:
3825:
3821:Paleobiology
3819:
3813:
3780:
3774:
3718:
3712:
3706:
3671:
3665:
3655:
3602:
3598:
3587:
3574:
3549:
3543:
3533:
3514:
3508:
3498:
3473:
3469:
3459:
3449:, retrieved
3427:
3424:"Cretaceous"
3417:
3408:
3403:
3394:
3389:
3383:
3367:cite journal
3358:
3354:
3344:
3333:
3330:"Cretaceous"
3324:
3315:
3305:
3235:
3227:Cretoxyrhina
3225:
3206:
3202:
3195:
3176:
3155:
3138:was a large
3133:
3116:
3110:
3097:and shells.
3088:
3052:foraminifera
3032:
3031:
2995:ichthyosaurs
2980:
2977:Marine fauna
2968:
2954:
2945:
2937:
2929:Choristodera
2909:
2901:
2900:Skeleton of
2873:
2856:
2839:
2818:
2803:Velociraptor
2801:
2783:
2765:grasshoppers
2759:, appeared.
2735:
2704:dromaeosaurs
2682:
2678:Azhdarchidae
2639:archosaurian
2632:
2624:dryolestoids
2607:Schowalteria
2605:
2590:metatherians
2564:
2555:Polypodiales
2548:
2524:
2510:
2507:macrofossils
2483:
2459:ginkgophytes
2441:
2423:
2411:
2394:in southern
2348:
2299:
2252:
2195:
2188:
2173:Deccan Traps
2102:
2039:
1988:
1967:
1944:Tethys Ocean
1925:
1918:
1895:consolidated
1853:
1830:Mancos Shale
1822:
1816:, a type of
1800:
1781:
1769:
1744:
1729:champsosaurs
1725:crocodilians
1722:
1710:water column
1700:
1669:insectivores
1663:
1633:, including
1625:
1595:ichthyosaurs
1561:
1538:solar energy
1527:
1515:biodiversity
1508:
1489:
1480:
1474:
1468:
1462:
1428:
1386:(since 2016)
1381:
1373:
1366:145.0 ± 4.0
1346:
1339:139.8 ± 3.0
1319:
1315:125.77 ± 1.5
1312:132.6 ± 2.0
1295:S. vandeckii
1294:
1288:
1255:121.4 ± 1.0
1235:
1228:113.0 ± 1.0
1206:
1199:
1192:100.5 ± 0.9
1172:
1145:
1118:
1091:
1060:
1016:
1009:
991:
957:
954:Subdivisions
942:
934:
922:
918:
883:
877:
851:, and large
838:
779:
768:
676:
674:
587:
575:Calpionellid
452:
268:
258:
256:
246:
234:
220:
92:
9089:Hadean Eon
8867:Ordovician
8638:Cretaceous
8538:Quaternary
8419:Hauterivian
8414:Valanginian
8108:24 November
7940:24 November
7895:: 225â238.
7865:24 November
7662:(1): 8149.
6508:19 November
6390:: 190â201.
6361:18 November
6278:: 275â299.
5876:(2): 1â17.
5788:: 140â152.
5759:19 November
5633:(2): 1029.
5527:: 136â147.
5455:24 November
5420:: 174â184.
5369:: 224â247.
5325:(1): 1â14.
4391:Palaeos.com
4345:(4): 1â11.
4302:(1): 1â12.
4273:11 December
4247:Palaeoworld
4128:28 December
3697:11336/30971
3630:11336/97384
3605:(1): 1â14.
3599:Solid Earth
3209:, found in
3197:Nematonotus
3157:Hesperornis
3118:Kronosaurus
3095:hardgrounds
3074:(generally
3056:echinoderms
3047:Inoceramids
3011:Cheloniidae
3003:plesiosaurs
2875:Ichthyornis
2820:Triceratops
2753:butterflies
2727:lagerstÀtte
2716:troodontids
2700:Maniraptora
2696:coelurosaur
2688:lagerstÀtte
2626:dominating
2612:Zhelestidae
2498:crown-group
2490:Valanginian
2479:Caytoniales
2463:gnetophytes
2295:ectothermic
2228:Selli Event
2211:Hauterivian
2204:Valanginian
2171:called the
2155:(e.g., the
2109:Phanerozoic
1907:sea urchins
1881:, northern
1873:coast. The
1856:Chalk Group
1838:oil and gas
1834:source rock
1749:, from the
1718:ocean floor
1706:communities
1677:carnivorous
1603:Koolasuchus
1576:plesiosaurs
1554:Herbivorous
1476:Berriasella
1369:139.8 ± 3.0
1342:132.6 ± 2.0
1335:Valanginian
1308:Hauterivian
1284:121.4 ± 1.0
1258:113.0 ± 1.0
1231:100.5 ± 0.9
1165:93.9 ± 0.8
1138:89.8 ± 0.3
1111:86.3 ± 0.5
1084:83.6 ± 0.2
1048:72.1 ± 0.2
892:Paris Basin
790:inland seas
753:Phanerozoic
653: /
319:Hauterivian
310:Valanginian
9162:Cretaceous
9156:Categories
9091:(4â4.6 Ga)
9055:(2.5â4 Ga)
8984:(1â1.6 Ga)
8590:Paleogene
8445:Cenomanian
8409:Berriasian
7809:18 October
7516:18 October
7180:(1): 480.
6745:1912/10514
6326:: 103435.
5724:: 104363.
4718:: 104220.
4678:: 102247.
4495:: 103503.
4401:18 October
3552:: 94â114.
3451:2021-01-08
3378:terrain".)
3361:: 353â376.
3293:References
3237:Pteranodon
3135:Tylosaurus
3091:bioerosion
3080:calcareous
2965:neosuchian
2884:ornithuran
2837:azhdarchid
2771:appeared.
2769:gall wasps
2751:, akin to
2668:remained;
2654:Pterosaurs
2594:eutherians
2586:placentals
2582:marsupials
2575:cimolodont
2512:Montsechia
2447:gymnosperm
2379:south pole
2359:Tethys Sea
2320:west Texas
2244:dropstones
2137:formations
2131:and other
2129:carbonates
2089:Appalachia
2077:Tethys Sea
2065:Madagascar
2049:Antarctica
2007:continents
1979:Appalachia
1954:See also:
1920:Mosasaurus
1911:belemnites
1899:limestones
1871:Normandian
1848:See also:
1806:coccoliths
1580:pterosaurs
1560:, such as
1550:food chain
1451:planktonic
1423:See also:
1399:Boundaries
1362:Berriasian
1195:93.9 ± 0.8
1188:Cenomanian
1168:89.8 ± 0.3
1141:86.3 ± 0.5
1114:83.6 ± 0.2
1087:72.1 ± 0.2
1072:Maastricht
1024:Etymology
1021:Definition
921:, meaning
908:coccoliths
849:pterosaurs
843:, a large
834:gymnosperm
830:extinction
677:Cretaceous
638:36°09âČ13âłN
520:Definition
440:extinction
355:Cenomanian
301:Berriasian
259:Cretaceous
124:Chronology
33:Cretaceous
9118:See also:
8898:Cambrian
8831:Silurian
8800:Devonian
8695:Triassic
8664:Jurassic
8465:Campanian
8460:Santonian
8455:Coniacian
8424:Barremian
8055:256767945
7991:130932162
7983:0094-8373
7909:2245-7070
7860:0195-6671
7472:1545-7885
7322:1674-4918
7261:2375-2548
7204:2041-1723
7153:2095-5138
7094:0027-8424
6992:0028-646X
6901:128739024
6835:214736648
6819:0028-0836
6762:135295956
6754:0921-8181
6688:206509273
6585:233918778
6526:GSA Today
6503:0091-7613
6414:0031-0182
6356:233573257
6348:0921-8181
6251:134095694
5754:216375103
5746:1367-9120
5599:219918773
5450:134356485
5442:0195-6671
5250:8755-1209
5154:128403453
4996:: 11â27.
4951:2045-2322
4893:2572-4517
4825:129660048
4586:256880421
4525:233579194
4517:0012-8252
4449:17 August
4369:0883-8305
4318:128594924
4268:243963376
4123:128803778
3894:130690035
3805:129654916
3647:135382485
3639:1869-9529
3490:1731-3708
3298:Citations
3213:, Lebanon
3076:siliceous
3064:Ostracods
3062:thrived.
3034:Baculites
3007:mosasaurs
2985:, modern
2747:and some
2646:dinosaurs
2565:On land,
2521:Las Hoyas
2517:Barremian
2515:from the
2432:, Germany
2396:Australia
2383:Antarctic
2371:Greenland
2344:isotherms
2279:upwelling
2272:from the
2215:Barremian
2169:lava beds
2085:Laramidia
2053:Australia
2025:, as the
2015:orogenies
1991:Paleozoic
1975:Laramidia
1928:competent
1915:ammonites
1891:North Sea
1794:for such
1788:limestone
1771:Scipionyx
1665:Omnivores
1655:mosasaurs
1651:ammonites
1635:ammonites
1608:cynodonts
1572:dinosaurs
1568:tetrapods
1558:predators
1544:and land
1481:C. alpina
1409:meteorite
1392:, France
1327:Hauterive
1302:, France
1277:Barremian
1271:, France
1245:, France
1213:, France
1207:Cenomanum
1182:, France
1155:, France
1134:Coniacian
1128:, France
1107:Santonian
1101:, France
1099:Champagne
1080:Campanian
975:Neocomian
939:Neocomian
927:Conybeare
809:dinosaurs
801:ammonites
641:8°38âČ55âłE
472:Etymology
438:K-Pg mass
391:Campanian
382:Santonian
373:Coniacian
328:Barremian
270:Paleogene
8743:Permian
8564:Neogene
8450:Turonian
8060:31 March
8047:29643505
7743:19203920
7694:26306778
7635:27703708
7575:29657788
7490:29534059
7406:27358361
7279:30263954
7212:21934664
7112:33139543
7000:30681148
6840:18 March
6827:32238944
6767:18 March
6722:: 1â23.
6693:18 March
6680:18187651
6563:: 1â29.
6297:19 March
6190:24937202
6158:: 4194.
6130:35910494
6018:19 March
5604:19 March
5393:55405082
5207:19 April
5015:19 March
4969:36536054
4901:89611847
4640:: 1â11.
4591:9 August
4535:18 March
4076:: 1â56.
4043:: 1â20.
3842:33880578
3743:23393261
3249:See also
3174:ammonite
3140:mosasaur
3039:ammonite
2991:teleosts
2745:termites
2731:feathers
2724:Liaoning
2720:avialans
2685:Liaoning
2666:families
2642:reptiles
2620:therians
2535:monocots
2455:conifers
2387:Turonian
2375:dinosaur
2373:, while
2220:Manihiki
2199:latitude
2059:(though
2041:Gondwana
2019:Jurassic
2003:tectonic
1903:arenites
1776:theropod
1696:detritus
1631:molluscs
1578:and the
1454:protists
1354:Valangin
1161:Turonian
983:Senonian
943:Urgonian
886:, using
865:Cenozoic
836:groups.
807:, while
742:Mesozoic
585:Ammonite
573:Base of
503:Global (
364:Turonian
248:Jurassic
223:Mesozoic
8293:Bibcode
8137:Bibcode
8091:Bibcode
8027:Bibcode
7840:Bibcode
7772:Bibcode
7734:2660973
7685:4560825
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238:Z
236:C
103:N
93:K
88:J
83:T
78:P
73:C
68:D
63:S
58:O
53:ê
20:)
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