130:) involved basic processes of reasoning and other mental activities that depend only minimally on prior learning (such as formal and informal education) and acculturation. Horn notes that it is formless and can "flow into" a wide variety of cognitive activities. Tasks measuring fluid reasoning require the ability to solve abstract reasoning problems. Examples of tasks that measure fluid intelligence include figure classifications, figural analyses, number and letter series, matrices, and paired associates.
265:. Fluid ability and Piaget's operative intelligence both concern logical thinking and the "eduction of relations" (an expression Cattell used to refer to the inferring of relationships). Crystallized ability and Piaget's treatment of everyday learning reflects the impress of experience. Like fluid ability's relation to crystallized intelligence, Piaget's operativity is considered to be prior to, and ultimately provides the foundation for, everyday learning.
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145:) includes learned procedures and knowledge. It reflects the effects of experience and acculturation. Horn notes that crystallized ability is a "precipitate out of experience," resulting from the prior application of fluid ability that has been combined with the intelligence of culture. Examples of tasks that measure crystallized intelligence are vocabulary, general information, abstract word analogies, and the mechanics of language.
334:
individual has presented a set of logic rules, a "key" that is used to solve the puzzles. The individual has to determine the missing colors within each of the puzzles using the key. Complex items presented puzzles that require two or more sequential mental manipulations of the key to deriving a final solution. Increasingly difficult items involve a mix of puzzles that requires fluid shifts in deduction, logic, and inference.
285:(RPM) is one of the most commonly used measures of fluid ability. It is a non-verbal multiple-choice test. Participants have to complete a series of drawings by identifying relevant features based on the spatial organization of an array of objects and choosing one object that matches one or more of the identified features. This task assesses the ability to consider one or more relationships between mental representations or
110:. Most of the intelligence testing had mainly been focused on children, and young adults. Cattell and Horn wanted to see how intelligence changed and developed when aging took place on an individual. They realized that while some memories and concepts remained, others diminished. Thus, there was a need to delineate two types of intelligence.
371:
with one picture missing. Their task requires the child to choose the picture that fits the series or sequence from an array of five options. Since Matrix
Reasoning and Picture Concepts involve the use of visual stimuli and do not require expressive language, they have been considered to be non-verbal tests of
252:
In contrast to the crystallized approach to solving the problem, Horn provided a made-up example of a fluid approach to solving the problem, an approach that does not depend on the learning of high school-level algebra. In his made-up example, Horn described a boy who is too young to attend secondary
399:
Some authors have suggested that unless an individual is truly interested in a problem presented on an IQ test, the cognitive work required to solve the problem may not be performed owing to a lack of interest. These authors have contended that a low score on tests that are intended to measure fluid
361:
In the
Picture Concepts task, children are presented with a series of pictures on two or three rows and asked which pictures (one from each row) belong together based on some common characteristic. This task assesses the child's ability to discover the underlying characteristic (e.g., rule, concept,
386:
Within the corporate environment, fluid intelligence is a predictor of a person's capacity to work well in environments characterised by complexity, uncertainty, and ambiguity. The
Cognitive Process Profile (CPP) measures a person's fluid intelligence and cognitive processes. It maps these against
321:
comparisons. For more difficult items, individuals need to understand the concept of "and" (e.g., a solution must have some of this and some of that) and the concept of "or" (e.g., to be inside a box, the item must be either this or that). The most difficult items require fluid transformations and
370:
Matrix
Reasoning also assesses this ability as well as the ability to start with stated rules, premises, or conditions and to engage in one or more steps to reach a solution to a novel problem (deduction). In the Matrix Reasoning test, children have presented with a series or sequence of pictures
320:
Individuals have to apply concepts by inferring the underlying "rules" for solving visual puzzles that are presented with increasing levels of difficulty. As the level of difficulty increases, individuals have to identify a key difference (or the "rule") for solving puzzles involving one-to-one
333:
In the
Analysis–Synthesis test, the individual has to learn and orally state the solutions to incomplete logic puzzles that mimic a miniature mathematics system. The test also contains some of the features involved in using symbolic formulations in other fields such as chemistry and logic. The
501:
are long-lasting and transferable, especially when these techniques are used by healthy children and adults without cognitive deficiencies. A meta-analytical review published in 2012 concluded that "memory training programs appear to produce short-term, specific training effects that do not
505:
In a series of four individual experiments involving 70 participants (mean age of 25.6) from the
University of Bern community, Jaeggi et al. found that, in comparison to a demographically matched control group, healthy young adults who practiced a demanding working memory task
517:
Two later n-back studies did not support the findings of Jaeggi et al. Although participants' performance on the training task improved, these studies showed no significant improvement in the mental abilities tested, especially fluid intelligence and working memory capacity.
1932:
Redick, Thomas S.; Shipstead, Zach; Harrison, Tyler L.; Hicks, Kenny L.; Fried, David E.; Hambrick, David Z.; Kane, Michael J.; Engle, Randall W. (2012). "No
Evidence of Intelligence Improvement After Working Memory Training: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study".
253:
school but could solve the problem through the application of fluid ability: "He may reason that if half the two-legged people are without shoes, and all the rest (an even number) are one-legged, then the shoes must average one per person, and the answer is 100."
514:) approximately 25 minutes per day for between 8 and 19 days had significantly greater pre-to-posttest increases in their scores on a matrix test of fluid intelligence. There was no long-term follow-up to assess how enduring the effects of training were.
86:. Fluid intelligence is the ability to solve novel reasoning problems and is correlated with a number of important skills such as comprehension, problem-solving, and learning. Crystallized intelligence, on the other hand, involves the ability to
408:
Fluid intelligence peaks at around age 27 and then gradually declines. This decline may be related to local atrophy of the brain in the right cerebellum, a lack of practice, or the result of age-related changes in the brain.
311:
is assessed by two tests: Concept
Formation and Analysis Synthesis. Concept Formation tasks require the individual to use categorical thinking; Analysis Synthesis tasks require general sequential reasoning.
412:
Crystallized intelligence typically increases gradually, stays relatively stable across most of adulthood, and then begins to decline after age 65. The exact peak age of cognitive skills remains elusive.
468:, and other systems related to attention and short-term memory. Crystallized intelligence appears to be a function of brain regions that involve the storage and usage of long-term memories, such as the
217:
346:
is used to have an overall measure in cognitive ability with five primary indexing scores. In the WISC-IV, the
Perceptual Reasoning Index contains two subtests that assess
156:"There are 100 patients in a hospital. Some (an even number) are one-legged but wearing shoes. One-half of the remainder are barefooted. How many shoes are being worn?"
247:
1993:
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Thus the balance of findings suggests that training for the purpose of increasing working memory can have specific short-term effects but no effects on
301:
159:
The crystallized approach to solving the problem would involve the application of high school-level algebra. Algebra is an acculturational product.
262:
17:
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Lee, Jun-Young; Lyoo, In Kyoon; Kim, Seon-Uk; Jang, Hong-Suk; Lee, Dong-Woo; Jeon, Hong-Jin; Park, Sang-Chul; Cho, Maeng Je (2005).
343:
391:'s Stratified Systems Theory. Fe et al. (2022) show that fluid intelligence measured in childhood predicts labor market earnings.
1986:
153:
Horn provided the following example of crystallized and fluid approaches to solving a problem. Here is the problem he described:
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Chooi, Weng-Tink; Thompson, Lee A. (2012). "Working memory training does not improve intelligence in healthy young adults".
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Papalia, D.; Fitzgerald, J.; Hooper, F. H. (1971). "Piagetian Theory and the Aging
Process: Extensions and Speculations".
2179:
1650:
Kyllonen, Patrick C.; Christal, Raymond E. (1990). "Reasoning ability is (little more than) working-memory capacity?!".
1035:"The Genevan and Cattell-Horn conceptions of intelligence compared: The early implementation of numerical solution aids"
1979:
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intelligence may reflect more of a lack of interest in the tasks than an inability to complete the tasks successfully.
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has been suggested that it could help resolve mysteries that have puzzled researchers concerning the two concepts.
1095:
Receptors Contribute to Non-Purinergic Slow Excitatory Transmission to Submucosal VIP Neurons of Guinea-Pig Ileum"
424:
capacity is closely related to fluid intelligence, and has been proposed to account for individual differences in
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106:. The concepts of fluid and crystallized intelligence were further developed by Cattell and his former student
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353:: Matrix Reasoning, which involves induction and deduction, and Picture Concepts, which involves induction.
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1422:
Messick, Samuel (1989). "Meaning and Values in Test Validation: The Science and Ethics of Assessment".
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710:"Working memory and fluid intelligence: Capacity, attention control, and secondary memory retrieval"
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65:
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secondary relational abstractions by applying previously learned primary relational abstractions.
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2019:
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Wright, Samantha B.; Matlen, Bryan J.; Baym, Carol L.; Ferrer, Emilio; Bunge, Silvia A. (2007).
793:
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2024:
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Cattell, R. B. (1963). "Theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence: A critical experiment".
494:. Some researchers, however, question whether the results of training interventions to enhance
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487:, then training to increase the capacity of working memory could have a positive impact on
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between the various types of concept puzzles that the examinee had worked with previously.
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1333:"The Development of Intellectual Capability: A Discussion of Stratified Systems Theory"
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Research on training working memory and the training's indirect effect on fluid ability
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887:"Hebb and Cattell: The Genesis of he Theory of Fluid and Crystalized Intelligence"
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Jaeggi, Susanne M.; Buschkuehl, Martin; Jonides, John; Perrig, Walter J. (2008).
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equals the number of two-legged patients. The solution boils down to 100 shoes.
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Raven, J.; Raven, J. C.; Court, J. H. (2003) . "Section 1: General Overview".
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can be traced to two separate brain systems. Fluid intelligence involves the
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1954:
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The origin of mind: Evolution of brain, cognition, and general intelligence
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WJ III Clinical use and interpretation. Scientist-practitioner perspectives
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and semantic decision tasks are also used to assess relational reasoning.
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Researchers have linked the theory of fluid and crystallized abilities to
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Example application of fluid and crystallized abilities to problem-solving
2152:
1731:"Failure of Working Memory Training to Enhance Cognition or Intelligence"
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Unsworth, Nash; Fukuda, Keisuke; Awh, Edward; Vogel, Edward K. (2014).
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1572:(5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing/Thomson Learning.
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Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children, Fourth Edition (WISC-IV)
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Various measures have been thought to assess fluid intelligence.
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1502:"Intellect declines in healthy elderly subjects and cerebellum"
1380:"Cognitive skills, strategic sophistication, and life outcomes"
1195:
Ferrer, Emilio; O'Hare, Elizabeth D.; Bunge, Silvia A. (2009).
839:"Organization of abilities and the development of intelligence"
1840:"Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory"
1790:"Is Working Memory Training Effective? A Meta-Analytic Review"
981:
Horn, J. (1969). Intelligence: Why it grows, why It declines.
622:
Cattell, R. B. (1943). The measurement of adult intelligence.
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1837:
1146:"Neural correlates of fluid reasoning in children and adults"
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Manual for Raven's Progressive Matrices and Vocabulary Scales
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Discovering psychology: the science of mind: briefer version
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302:
Woodcock–Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities, Third Edition
296:
Woodcock–Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities, Third Edition
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Fe, Eduardo; Gill, David; Prowse, Victoria (October 2022).
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trend, class membership) that governs a set of materials.
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Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children, Fourth Edition
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The International Journal of Aging and Human Development
794:"Age differences in fluid and crystallized intelligence"
416:
257:
Relationship to Piaget's theory of cognitive development
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1718:. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
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Intelligence : its structure, growth, and action
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1683:(4th ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press/Elsevier.
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1249:Woodcock, R. W.; McGrew, K. S.; Mather, N (2001).
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1089:Bornstein, Joel C.; Foong, Jaime Pei Pei (2009).
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1593:Desjardins, Richard; Warnke, Arne Jonas (2012).
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763:. Raymond B. Cattell. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
1844:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
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480:Because working memory is thought to influence
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676:Abilities: Their structure, growth, and action
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56:) were introduced in 1943 by the psychologist
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1987:
1904:
1788:Melby-LervĂĄg, Monica; Hulme, Charles (2012).
1286:. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
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941:"Intelligence—Why It Grows, Why It Declines"
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1935:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
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792:Horn, John L.; Cattell, Raymond B. (1967).
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1197:"Fluid reasoning and the developing brain"
223:equals the number of one-legged patients.
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1337:The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science
1284:WISC-IV technical and interpretive manual
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395:Factors related to measuring intelligence
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1302:Flanagan, D. P.; Kaufman, A. S. (2004).
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1267:Schrank, F. A.; Flanagan, D. P. (2003).
387:suitable work environments according to
263:Piaget's theory of cognitive development
98:Fluid and crystallized intelligence are
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1078:. San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment.
756:
672:
642:
14:
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1729:Todd W. Thompson; et al. (2013).
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114:Fluid versus crystallized intelligence
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1506:Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences
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417:Fluid intelligence and working memory
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431:. The linking of working memory and
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2185:Fluid and crystallized intelligence
2096:Fluid and crystallized intelligence
885:Brown, Richard (15 December 2016).
381:
365:
356:
219:is the number of shoes worn, where
24:
1239:
25:
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1600:. OECD Education Working Papers.
824:
645:Journal of Educational Psychology
599:Spatial intelligence (psychology)
269:Measurement of fluid intelligence
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1519:10.1111/j.1440-1819.2005.01330.x
1331:Jaques, Elliott (October 1986).
1306:Essentials of WISC-IV assessment
1271:. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
2281:
2221:Evolution of human intelligence
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1471:. Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
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1150:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
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891:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
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212:{\displaystyle x+1/2*(100-x)*2}
27:Factors of general intelligence
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726:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2014.01.003
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462:dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
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13:
1:
2286:Outline of human intelligence
2190:Multiple-intelligences theory
1664:10.1016/S0160-2896(05)80012-1
1033:Schonfeld, Irvin Sam (1986).
947:. Routledge. pp. 53–74.
610:
584:Outline of human intelligence
102:originally conceptualized by
2236:Intelligence and environment
1919:10.1016/j.intell.2012.07.004
1756:10.1371/journal.pone.0063614
1388:Journal of Political Economy
939:Horn, John L. (2020-03-12).
810:10.1016/0001-6918(67)90011-X
757:Cattell, Raymond B. (1987).
679:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
673:Cattell, Raymond B. (1971).
574:Malleability of intelligence
404:Development across life span
283:Raven's Progressive Matrices
277:Raven's Progressive Matrices
7:
2180:Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory
1677:Fuster, Joaquin M. (2008).
1568:Adult development and aging
1310:. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
559:General intelligence factor
531:
10:
2327:
1465:Cacioppo, John T. (2013).
1349:10.1177/002188638602200402
1053:10.1037/0012-1649.22.2.204
446:According to David Geary,
93:
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2012:
1436:10.3102/0013189X018002005
1214:10.3389/neuro.01.003.2009
1201:Frontiers in Neuroscience
1163:10.3389/neuro.09.008.2007
1112:10.3389/neuro.21.001.2009
1099:Frontiers in Neuroscience
466:anterior cingulate cortex
134:Crystallized intelligence
60:. According to Cattell's
45:crystallized intelligence
18:Crystallized intelligence
1797:Developmental Psychology
1253:. Itasca, IL: Riverside.
1040:Developmental Psychology
904:10.3389/fnhum.2016.00606
1865:10.1073/pnas.0801268105
1607:10.1787/5k9csvw87ckh-en
953:10.1201/9780429337680-5
290:Propositional analogies
1631:Cite journal requires
1424:Educational Researcher
836:Horn, John L. (1968).
624:Psychological Bulletin
243:
213:
2114:Intelligence quotient
1712:Geary, D. C. (2005).
1680:The prefrontal cortex
1282:Wechsler, D. (2003).
287:relational reasoning.
244:
242:{\displaystyle 100-x}
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72:) is subdivided into
2311:Intelligence by type
2200:Three-stratum theory
1251:Woodcock Johnson III
844:Psychological Review
714:Cognitive Psychology
604:Three-stratum theory
227:
165:
66:general intelligence
2173:Models and theories
1856:2008PNAS..105.6829J
1747:2013PLoSO...863614T
1595:"Ageing and Skills"
1562:Blanchard-Fields, F
539:21st century skills
2226:Heritability of IQ
2003:Human intelligence
1560:Cavanaugh, J. C.;
945:Human Intelligence
329:Analysis–Synthesis
323:cognitive shifting
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119:Fluid intelligence
32:fluid intelligence
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2214:Areas of research
2164:Visual processing
2081:Cognitive liberty
1690:978-0-12-373644-4
1579:978-0-534-52066-3
1478:978-1-111-84129-4
1395:(10): 2643–2704.
962:978-0-429-33768-0
798:Acta Psychologica
770:978-0-08-086689-5
316:Concept Formation
16:(Redirected from
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357:Picture Concepts
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706:
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634:
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617:
613:
608:
594:Raymond Cattell
549:Deeper learning
534:
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500:
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486:
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163:
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104:Raymond Cattell
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58:Raymond Cattell
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22:
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12:
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2324:
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2121:
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2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
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2070:
2069:and constructs
2061:
2060:
2058:
2057:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2016:
2014:
2010:
2009:
1999:
1998:
1991:
1984:
1976:
1969:
1968:
1941:(2): 359–379.
1924:
1897:
1830:
1780:
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1704:
1689:
1669:
1658:(4): 389–433.
1642:
1633:|journal=
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1578:
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1401:10.1086/720460
1370:
1343:(4): 361–383.
1323:
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1274:
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1092:
1081:
1066:
1047:(2): 204–212.
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850:(3): 242–259.
823:
804:(2): 107–129.
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700:
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632:
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612:
609:
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581:
576:
571:
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533:
530:
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457:
450:
443:
440:
435:
428:
422:Working memory
418:
415:
405:
402:
396:
393:
389:Elliott Jaques
383:
380:
375:
367:
364:
358:
355:
350:
339:
336:
330:
327:
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314:
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2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
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2232:
2231:Psychometrics
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2218:
2216:
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2203:
2201:
2198:
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1997:
1992:
1990:
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1978:
1977:
1974:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
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1928:
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1908:
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1002:
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637:
630:(3), 153–193.
629:
625:
619:
615:
605:
602:
600:
597:
595:
592:
590:
589:Psychometrics
587:
585:
582:
580:
577:
575:
572:
570:
567:
565:
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490:
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288:
284:
274:
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250:
236:
233:
230:
206:
203:
197:
194:
191:
185:
182:
178:
174:
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168:
160:
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144:
140:
135:
131:
129:
125:
120:
111:
109:
105:
101:
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89:
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71:
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59:
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51:
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38:
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2288: /
2266: /
2262: /
2258: /
2256:neuroscience
2254: /
2250: /
2246: /
2242: /
2238: /
2184:
2101:
2095:
2054:visuospatial
2030:Intellectual
1938:
1934:
1927:
1910:
1907:Intelligence
1906:
1900:
1847:
1843:
1833:
1800:
1796:
1783:
1738:
1734:
1724:
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1707:
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1655:
1652:Intelligence
1651:
1645:
1624:cite journal
1588:
1567:
1512:(1): 45–51.
1509:
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1427:
1423:
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1392:
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569:John L. Horn
564:Intelligence
554:Flynn effect
522:
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516:
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495:
488:
481:
479:
454:
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2260:personality
2195:PASS theory
2153:abstraction
1616:10419/57089
1528:10371/27902
1430:(2): 5–11.
470:hippocampus
2091:Creativity
2035:Linguistic
2020:Collective
968:2022-10-11
611:References
544:CHC theory
304:(WJ-III),
100:constructs
2252:longevity
2240:fertility
2139:Reasoning
2119:Knowledge
2109:Intellect
2076:Cognition
2067:, traits,
2065:Abilities
2025:Emotional
1699:318353807
1487:841668483
1452:146237448
1409:209472672
1365:145252823
1357:0021-8863
1061:222275196
1017:143590129
864:1939-1471
779:305506880
579:Nootropic
234:−
204:∗
195:−
186:∗
2305:Category
2124:Learning
2040:Multiple
1963:15117431
1955:22708717
1892:18443283
1874:25461885
1825:12370312
1817:22612437
1775:23717453
1735:PLOS ONE
1564:(2006).
1544:45264214
1536:15679539
1233:19753096
1182:18958222
1131:20582273
1003:: 3–20.
985:, 23-31.
923:28018191
744:24531497
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532:See also
2290:thought
2151: (
2149:Thought
2052: (
2050:Spatial
1883:2383929
1852:Bibcode
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300:In the
94:History
2248:health
2244:height
2129:Memory
2104:factor
2045:Social
2006:topics
1961:
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2144:Skill
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1959:S2CID
1870:JSTOR
1821:S2CID
1793:(PDF)
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1057:S2CID
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1574:ISBN
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