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69:
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79:
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41:
245:, a naturalized American-Mexican citizen, nearly 45,000 acres (180 km) of the land on November 28, 1844. Warner, like most other large landholders in California at the time, depended primarily on Indian labor. The villagers of Kúpa provided most of Warner's workforce on his cattle ranch. The Cupeño continued to reside at what the Spanish called Agua Caliente after the American occupation of California in 1847 to 1848, during the
230:
324:, that stopped at Warner's Ranch and passed through the valley. The women made lace and took in laundry, which they washed in the hot springs. The men carved wood and manufactured saddle pads for horses. They also raised cattle and cultivated 200 acres (0.81 km) of land. In 1880, after numerous suits and countersuits, European-American
484:
The Cupa
Cultural Center was founded in 1974 in Pala and underwent a major expansion in 2005. The center exhibits artwork; hosts classes and activities such as basket making and beading; and offers Cupeño language classes. During the first weekend of every May, Cupa Days is celebrated at the cultural
461:
are among descendants of the Warner
Springs Cupeño. Many Cupeño believe that their land at Kúpa will be returned to them. They are seeking legal relief to that end. The Cupa site serves as a rallying point for the land claims movement of contemporary Indian people, particularly their effort to regain
551:
estimated the 1770 population of the Cupeño as 500. Lowell John Bean and
Charles R. Smith put the total in 1795 between 500 and 750. By 1910, the Cupeño population had dropped to 150, according to Kroeber. Later estimates have suggested that there were fewer than 150 Cupeño in 1973, but about 200 in
408:
On the morning of the removal
Roscinda Nolásquez, who was eleven years old at the time, recalled the last morning at Cupa. Orders were shouted in English at the Cupeño: “We were so scared. We didn’t know what he was saying. We didn’t know what was going on. We saw old people running back and forth.
432:
wrote, “Many of the older people were still ‘muy triste....’ Every other tent or brush ramada was still a ‘house of tears,’ for their love of home is stronger than with us.” The houses provided by the U.S. government were Ducker Patent
Portable Houses; described in a report to the Indian Office as
252:
According to Julio Ortega, one of the oldest members of the Cupeño tribe, Warner set aside about 16 miles (26 km) of land surrounding the hot springs as the private domain of the
Indians. Warner encouraged the Cupeño to construct a stone fence around their village and to keep their livestock
418:
described it as such: “The springs proved the
Indians’ undoing. White men wanted them, and now, after years of impatient waiting, they have possession. No matter the legal aspect of the case, the act is deplorable. It is one of the saddest sequels to the white man’s first notice to the on the
296:' failed, and the settlers executed Garra. The Cupeño had attacked Warner and his ranch, burning some buildings. They lost structures at their settlement of Kúpa, too. Warner sent his family to Los Angeles, but continued to operate the ranch with the help of others.
533:
estimated one to five people still spoke Cupeño, and nine people in the 1990 US census said they spoke the language. Educational materials for the language exist and young people still learn to sing in Cupeño, particularly Bird Songs.
481:. Clans are led by hereditary male clan leaders and assistant leaders. Marriages were traditionally arranged. Traditional foods included acorns, cactus fruit, seeds, berries, deer, quail, rabbits, and other small game.
331:
In 1892, Downey, the former governor of
California and owner of the ranch since 1880, began proceedings to evict the Cupeño from the ranch property. Legal proceedings continued until 1903, when the court ruled in
346:
at Agua
Caliente, said: "If you give us the best place in the world, it is not as good as this. This is our home. We cannot live anywhere else; we were born here, and our fathers are buried here."
837:
1065:
529:(1892–1987), of Mexican Yaqui descent, is considered the last truly fluent Cupeño speaker. The language today is widely regarded as being extinct. In 1994, linguist
874:
On May 12, 1903, Indian Bureau agents and 44 armed teamsters arrived to oversee the Cupeños' eviction. The forced removal is known as the Cupeño trail of tears.
1043:
409:
We cried, too, because we were afraid.” She recalls that morning trying to ensure that her cats would not be left behind, which she managed to find.
277:
by Warner, and as being ill-treated. In 1849, Warner was arrested by the
American forces for consorting with the Mexican government and was taken to
241:
Spaniards entered Cupeño lands in 1795 and took control of the lands by the 19th century. After Mexico achieved independence, its government granted
588:
450:
187:
221:
near Warner Springs. The 200-acre (0.81 km) Cupeño Indian village site is now abandoned but evidence of its historical importance remains.
1058:
672:
1426:
506:
458:
253:
separated from that of the ranch. Ortega felt that if the village had created its own boundaries, the Cupeño would still live there today.
1032:
392:
as "the last of Indian 'removals' in the United States, ending a federal policy of forced relocations that had begun 75 years earlier.
380:
as the Cupeño trail of tears given the traumatic nature of the event. The forced relocation to the Pala reservation also included "the
1051:
896:
395:
183:
824:
The history of the Pala Band of Mission Indians begins with an event so traumatic that it is known as the Cupeño Trail of Tears.
808:
737:
1073:
1008:
979:
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living at Warner's Ranch, tried to organize a coalition of various southern California Indian tribes to drive out all of the
270:
160:
179:
771:
1431:
645:
969:
994:
1081:
1027:
492:
The territorial boundaries of the Southern California Indian tribes based on dialect, including the Cupeño language
543:
171:
198:
Several different groups combined to form Cupeño culture around 1000 to 1200 AD. They were closely related to
170:
They traditionally lived about 50 miles (80 km) inland and 50 miles (80 km) north of the modern day
1152:
454:
377:
859:
585:
568:
342:
government offered to buy new land for the Cupeño, but they refused. In 1903, Cecilio Blacktooth, Cupeño
218:
202:. The Cupeño people traditionally lived in the mountains in the San José Valley at the headwaters of the
234:
210:
321:
669:
246:
209:
They lived in two autonomous villages, Wilákalpa and Kúpa (or Cupa), located north of present-day
1350:
421:
317:
249:. They built an adobe ranch house in 1849 and barn in 1857, that were still standing as of 1963.
488:
522:
433:"very unsatisfactory," some of which quickly fell into disrepair or collapsed. In 1922, the
312:
Following European contact but prior to the time of their eviction, the Cupeños sold milk,
269:
In observing the Cupeño's living conditions in 1846, W. H. Emory, a brevet major with the
8:
175:
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526:
438:
414:
367:
289:
203:
1421:
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On May 13, 1903, the Cupa Indians were forced to move 75 miles (121 km) away, to
178:. Today their descendants are members of the federally recognized tribes known as the
105:
20:
1004:
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510:
372:
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Atlantic coast to move on. They have been moving on ever since.” An article for the
135:
1132:
471:
363:
334:
242:
206:. Their name in their own language is "Kuupangaxwichem" ("people who slept here").
139:
101:
97:
1266:
967:
Bean, Lowell John, and Charles R. Smith. "Cupeño". Heizer, Robert F., volume ed.
917:
676:
592:
518:
131:
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villages at Mataguay, San José, and San Felipe." It was described by historian
325:
118:
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772:"At a certain point, the Cupeño stopped looking back. | San Diego Reader"
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164:
84:
78:
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Mercedes Nolásquez, a Cupeño basket maker at Warner's Ranch, ca. 1900
1329:
1323:
1207:
1192:
1122:
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featured the headline: "Indians Bundled Away Like Cattle To Pala."
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40:
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In 1851, because of several issues of conflict, Antonio Garra, a
1390:
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1334:
1291:
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974:
pp. 91–98. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978.
313:
1021:
1001:
A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples.
1400:
1375:
1370:
1360:
1223:
1187:
1182:
478:
213:. Their homelands extended to Agua Caliente, located east of
920:, Pala Band of Mission Indians. 2006 (retrieved 18 May 2010)
595:
SDSU Library and Information Access. (retrieved 18 May 2010)
571:
SDSU Library and Information Access. (retrieved 18 May 2010)
1296:
1202:
1168:
848:(3): 75–82 – via UCLA American Indian Studies Center.
681:
A History of American Indians in California: Historic Sites
428:
Two weeks after the forced relocation, American journalist
328:
acquired all titles to the main portion of Warner's Ranch.
274:
474:, the Coyote and Wildcat, which are divided into several
437:
was built, which significantly worsened the flow of the
934:
The Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology
45:
Traditional lands of the Cupeño people in light purple
987:
Flutes of Fire: Essays on California Indian Languages
897:"In the Name of the Law: The Cupeño Removal of 1903"
838:"Cupeño Trail of Tears: Relocation and Urbanization"
273:, described the Indians as being held in a state of
860:"Pala Band of Mission Indians – NAHC Digital Atlas"
308:
Forced relocation from Warner's Ranch to Pala, 1903
384:villages at Puerta la Cruz and La Puerta, and the
1036:(1901) - US Supreme Court decision evicting the
224:
1413:
188:Los Coyotes Band of Cahuilla and Cupeno Indians
16:Native American people from Southern California
569:"California Indians and Their Reservations: P.
1059:
683:, National Park Service, accessed 18 Nov 2009
842:American Indian Culture and Research Journal
646:"Pala Band of Mission Indians - The History"
586:"California Indians and Their Reservations.
449:Indians at the present-day reservations of
117:Traditional tribal religion, Christianity (
1066:
1052:
320:and passengers on the stagecoaches of the
39:
907:(1) – via San Diego History Center.
894:
487:
394:
353:
349:
303:
260:
228:
184:Morongo Band of Cahuilla Mission Indians
1003:Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
720:
718:
716:
358:Cupeño rock mortars for grinding acorns
1414:
631:
629:
619:
617:
607:
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441:that ran through the relocation site.
256:
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766:
764:
762:
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758:
732:
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271:United States Army Corps of Engineers
1427:Native American tribes in California
1155:(Lassik, Nongatl, Sinkyone, Wailaki)
835:
713:
693:
691:
689:
316:, and craftwork to travelers on the
180:Pala Band of Luiseno Mission Indians
61:Regions with significant populations
626:
614:
598:
574:
13:
970:Handbook of North American Indians
879:
755:
727:
299:
265:The Cupeño village of Cupa in 1893
14:
1443:
1015:
809:"The Cupeños' own Trail of Tears"
738:"The Cupeños' own Trail of Tears"
686:
233:The Cupeño villages also showing
1082:Indigenous peoples of California
1075:
989:. Berkeley: Heyday Books, 1994.
931:"Roscinda Nolásquez Remembered."
901:The Journal of San Diego History
77:
67:
948:
939:
923:
911:
852:
829:
801:
788:
544:Population of Native California
370:It has been referred to by the
1253:(Monache, Owens Valley Paiute)
895:Brigandi, Phil (Winter 2018).
700:
663:
638:
562:
470:The tribe is divided into two
462:cultural and religious areas.
444:
225:Spanish and Mexican occupation
1:
961:
537:
1022:Pala Band of Mission Indians
412:In 1903, an article for the
403:
378:Pala Band of Mission Indians
7:
496:
174:in the Peninsular Range of
172:Mexico–United States border
10:
1448:
1432:California Mission Indians
541:
517:. This grouping is of the
465:
217:in an area now crossed by
211:Warner Springs, California
193:
18:
1088:
591:February 5, 2009, at the
322:Butterfield Overland Mail
130:
125:
116:
111:
96:
91:
65:
60:
55:
50:
38:
670:"Cupa: San Diego County"
555:
338:against the Cupeño. The
318:Southern Immigrant Trail
1351:Plains and Sierra Miwok
1210:(Diegueño, Ipai, Tipai)
972:: California, Volume 8.
422:Los Angeles Daily Times
918:"Cupa Cultural Center"
776:www.sandiegoreader.com
493:
400:
359:
309:
266:
238:
19:For the language, see
1320:(Konomihu, Okwanuchu)
1153:Eel River Athapaskans
542:Further information:
525:family of languages.
509:, which includes the
491:
398:
376:, academics, and the
357:
350:Cupeño trail of tears
307:
264:
232:
126:Related ethnic groups
836:Bahr, Diana (1997).
697:Morrison, 1962, p.21
247:Mexican–American War
999:Pritzker, Barry M.
724:Bean and Smith, 589
623:Bean and Smith, 588
257:American occupation
176:Southern California
35:
675:2005-08-29 at the
527:Roscinda Nolásquez
521:branch within the
494:
439:San Luis Rey River
415:Los Angeles Herald
401:
368:San Luis Rey River
360:
310:
290:European Americans
267:
239:
204:San Luis Rey River
163:tribe of Southern
29:
1409:
1408:
1009:978-0-19-513877-1
980:978-0-16-004574-5
813:Los Angeles Times
742:Los Angeles Times
549:Alfred L. Kroeber
515:Luiseño languages
373:Los Angeles Times
149:
148:
1439:
1080:
1079:
1068:
1061:
1054:
1045:
1044:
1034:Barker v. Harvey
1024:official website
985:Hinton, Leanne.
955:
952:
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937:
936:. 9 (1) 2009: 3.
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648:. Archived from
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364:Pala, California
335:Barker v. Harvey
243:Juan José Warner
219:State Highway 79
200:Cahuilla culture
82:
81:
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51:Total population
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28:
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1411:
1410:
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1267:Northern Paiute
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1028:The Cupa people
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503:Cupeño language
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453:, San Ygnacio,
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300:Forced eviction
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161:Native American
157:Kuupangaxwichem
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66:
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33:Kuupangaxwichem
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27:
24:
21:Cupeño language
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1016:External links
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929:Brigandi, P.
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652:on 2018-03-31
651:
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635:Pritzker, 124
632:
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611:Pritzker, 125
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531:Leanne Hinton
528:
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430:Grant Wallace
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390:Phil Brigandi
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74:United States
70:
64:
59:
54:
49:
42:
37:
34:
22:
1342:(Gabrieliño)
1326:(Fernandeño)
1231:(Bear River)
1147:
1037:
1033:
1000:
986:
968:
950:
941:
933:
925:
913:
904:
900:
873:
867:. Retrieved
863:
854:
845:
841:
831:
823:
817:. Retrieved
815:. 2012-03-17
812:
803:
795:
790:
779:. Retrieved
775:
746:. Retrieved
744:. 2012-03-17
741:
707:
702:
680:
665:
654:. Retrieved
650:the original
640:
564:
547:
500:
483:
469:
455:Santa Ysabel
448:
427:
420:
413:
411:
407:
371:
361:
333:
330:
311:
294:Garra Revolt
283:
268:
251:
240:
215:Lake Henshaw
208:
197:
169:
156:
152:
150:
56:1,000 (1990)
32:
26:Ethnic group
1346:Tübatulabal
1164:Halchidhoma
1143:Coast Miwok
1103:Ahwahnechee
864:nahc.ca.gov
523:Uto-Aztecan
507:Cupan group
476:patrilineal
459:Mesa Grande
451:Los Coyotes
445:Present-day
435:Henshaw Dam
286:Yuma Indian
279:Los Angeles
104:, formerly
1416:Categories
1271:Kucadikadi
1214:Lake Miwok
1128:Chemehuevi
1098:Acjachemen
962:References
945:Hinton, 28
869:2022-12-23
819:2022-12-23
794:May 1902,
781:2022-12-23
748:2022-12-23
706:May 1902,
656:2018-03-30
538:Population
165:California
85:California
1381:Wukchumni
1285:Ramaytush
1281:Costanoan
1242:(Klamath)
1235:Mechoopda
1198:Kitanemuk
1133:Chimariko
1113:Bay Miwok
404:Reactions
92:Languages
1330:Timbisha
1324:Tataviam
1208:Kumeyaay
1193:Kawaiisu
1123:Cahuilla
1108:Atsugewi
1093:Achomawi
796:Out West
710:, p. 471
708:Out West
673:Archived
589:Archived
511:Cahuilla
497:Language
485:center.
472:moieties
386:Kumeyaay
159:) are a
132:Cahuilla
112:Religion
1356:Vanyume
1313:Serrano
1308:Salinan
1302:Quechan
1262:Nomlaki
1257:Nisenan
1229:Mattole
1219:Luiseño
1177:Whilkut
1173:Chilula
1159:Esselen
1138:Chumash
798:, p.475
466:Culture
382:Luiseño
366:on the
292:. His '
275:serfdom
194:History
140:Serrano
136:Luiseño
102:Spanish
98:English
1422:Cupeño
1391:Yokuts
1366:Washoe
1340:Tongva
1335:Tolowa
1318:Shasta
1304:(Yuma)
1292:Patwin
1277:Ohlone
1246:Mohave
1148:Cupeño
1117:Saklan
1038:Cupeño
1007:
993:
978:
552:2000.
457:, and
314:fodder
186:, and
153:Cupeño
144:Tongva
142:, and
106:Cupeño
30:Cupeño
1401:Yurok
1376:Wiyot
1371:Wintu
1361:Wappo
1240:Modoc
1224:Maidu
1188:Cahto
1183:Karuk
556:Notes
519:Takic
479:clans
344:chief
1396:Yuki
1386:Yana
1297:Pomo
1251:Mono
1203:Kizh
1169:Hupa
1005:ISBN
991:ISBN
976:ISBN
513:and
501:The
155:(or
151:The
1418::
1175:,
905:64
903:.
899:.
881:^
872:.
862:.
846:21
844:.
840:.
822:.
811:.
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757:^
740:.
729:^
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628:^
616:^
600:^
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190:.
182:,
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138:,
134:,
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1269:(
1179:)
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1119:)
1115:(
1067:e
1060:t
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1011:.
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751:.
659:.
87:)
83:(
23:.
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