3833:
3604:(SELEX). DNAzymes catalyze variety of chemical reactions including RNA-DNA cleavage, RNA-DNA ligation, amino acids phosphorylation-dephosphorylation, carbon-carbon bond formation, etc. DNAzymes can enhance catalytic rate of chemical reactions up to 100,000,000,000-fold over the uncatalyzed reaction. The most extensively studied class of DNAzymes is RNA-cleaving types which have been used to detect different metal ions and designing therapeutic agents. Several metal-specific DNAzymes have been reported including the GR-5 DNAzyme (lead-specific), the CA1-3 DNAzymes (copper-specific), the 39E DNAzyme (uranyl-specific) and the NaA43 DNAzyme (sodium-specific). The NaA43 DNAzyme, which is reported to be more than 10,000-fold selective for sodium over other metal ions, was used to make a real-time sodium sensor in cells.
3292:, in which a segment of a single strand in each helix is annealed to the complementary strand in the other helix. The Holliday junction is a tetrahedral junction structure that can be moved along the pair of chromosomes, swapping one strand for another. The recombination reaction is then halted by cleavage of the junction and re-ligation of the released DNA. Only strands of like polarity exchange DNA during recombination. There are two types of cleavage: east-west cleavage and north–south cleavage. The north–south cleavage nicks both strands of DNA, while the east–west cleavage has one strand of DNA intact. The formation of a Holliday junction during recombination makes it possible for genetic diversity, genes to exchange on chromosomes, and expression of wild-type viral genomes.
4100:
54:
603:
1518:
187:
135:
3986:
2918:, which are proteins that regulate transcription. Each transcription factor binds to one particular set of DNA sequences and activates or inhibits the transcription of genes that have these sequences close to their promoters. The transcription factors do this in two ways. Firstly, they can bind the RNA polymerase responsible for transcription, either directly or through other mediator proteins; this locates the polymerase at the promoter and allows it to begin transcription. Alternatively, transcription factors can bind
1667:. With DNA in its "relaxed" state, a strand usually circles the axis of the double helix once every 10.4 base pairs, but if the DNA is twisted the strands become more tightly or more loosely wound. If the DNA is twisted in the direction of the helix, this is positive supercoiling, and the bases are held more tightly together. If they are twisted in the opposite direction, this is negative supercoiling, and the bases come apart more easily. In nature, most DNA has slight negative supercoiling that is introduced by
354:
2063:
2240:
1866:
3207:
113:
891:
15679:
2903:
1306:
15591:
14763:
468:
1953:
2702:
3198:
1946:
163:
3693:
2757:. This enzyme makes the complementary strand by finding the correct base through complementary base pairing and bonding it onto the original strand. As DNA polymerases can only extend a DNA strand in a 5′ to 3′ direction, different mechanisms are used to copy the antiparallel strands of the double helix. In this way, the base on the old strand dictates which base appears on the new strand, and the cell ends up with a perfect copy of its DNA.
2397:
2106:
2580:
15617:
4120:, in which they said, "It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material." This letter was followed by a letter from Franklin and Gosling, which was the first publication of their own X-ray diffraction data and of their original analysis method. Then followed a letter by Wilkins and two of his colleagues, which contained an analysis of
15662:
1706:
14236:
15696:
2335:, due to normal cellular processes that produce reactive oxygen species, the hydrolytic activities of cellular water, etc., also occur frequently. Although most of these damages are repaired, in any cell some DNA damage may remain despite the action of repair processes. These remaining DNA damages accumulate with age in mammalian postmitotic tissues. This accumulation appears to be an important underlying cause of aging.
1367:
1354:
3331:
there is no direct evidence of ancient genetic systems, as recovery of DNA from most fossils is impossible because DNA survives in the environment for less than one million years, and slowly degrades into short fragments in solution. Claims for older DNA have been made, most notably a report of the isolation of a viable bacterium from a salt crystal 250 million years old, but these claims are controversial.
15645:
2838:
2949:
2099:
1321:. As the strands are not symmetrically located with respect to each other, the grooves are unequally sized. The major groove is 22 ångströms (2.2 nm) wide, while the minor groove is 12 Å (1.2 nm) in width. Due to the larger width of the major groove, the edges of the bases are more accessible in the major groove than in the minor groove. As a result, proteins such as
2113:
2009:. Dubbed S, B, P, and Z, these artificial bases are capable of bonding with each other in a predictable way (S–B and P–Z), maintain the double helix structure of DNA, and be transcribed to RNA. Their existence could be seen as an indication that there is nothing special about the four natural nucleobases that evolved on Earth. On the other hand, DNA is tightly related to
3230:
1429:. As a result of this base pair complementarity, all the information in the double-stranded sequence of a DNA helix is duplicated on each strand, which is vital in DNA replication. This reversible and specific interaction between complementary base pairs is critical for all the functions of DNA in organisms.
3234:
recombination is thought to occur by the Double
Holliday Junction (DHJ) model, illustrated on the right, above. NCO recombinants are thought to occur primarily by the Synthesis Dependent Strand Annealing (SDSA) model, illustrated on the left, above. Most recombination events appear to be the SDSA type.
4067:
and was critical to their obtaining the correct structure of DNA. Franklin told Crick and Watson that the backbones had to be on the outside. Before then, Linus
Pauling, and Watson and Crick, had erroneous models with the chains inside and the bases pointing outwards. Franklin's identification of the
3716:
properties of DNA and other nucleic acids to create self-assembling branched DNA complexes with useful properties. DNA is thus used as a structural material rather than as a carrier of biological information. This has led to the creation of two-dimensional periodic lattices (both tile-based and using
2444:
of genetic information in genes is achieved via complementary base pairing. For example, in transcription, when a cell uses the information in a gene, the DNA sequence is copied into a complementary RNA sequence through the attraction between the DNA and the correct RNA nucleotides. Usually, this RNA
1408:
to pyrimidines, with adenine bonding only to thymine in two hydrogen bonds, and cytosine bonding only to guanine in three hydrogen bonds. This arrangement of two nucleotides binding together across the double helix (from six-carbon ring to six-carbon ring) is called a Watson-Crick base pair. DNA with
12570:
On p. 264, Kossel remarked presciently: Der
Erforschung der quantitativen Verhältnisse der vier stickstoffreichen Basen, der Abhängigkeit ihrer Menge von den physiologischen Zuständen der Zelle, verspricht wichtige Aufschlüsse über die elementaren physiologisch-chemischen Vorgänge. (The study of the
3563:
law in some places, this can allow cases to be reopened where prior trials have failed to produce sufficient evidence to convince a jury. People charged with serious crimes may be required to provide a sample of DNA for matching purposes. The most obvious defense to DNA matches obtained forensically
3558:
The development of forensic science and the ability to now obtain genetic matching on minute samples of blood, skin, saliva, or hair has led to re-examining many cases. Evidence can now be uncovered that was scientifically impossible at the time of the original examination. Combined with the removal
1011:
Therefore, any DNA strand normally has one end at which there is a phosphate group attached to the 5′ carbon of a ribose (the 5′ phosphoryl) and another end at which there is a free hydroxyl group attached to the 3′ carbon of a ribose (the 3′ hydroxyl). The orientation of the 3′ and 5′ carbons along
3330:
of the current genetic code based on four nucleotide bases. This would occur, since the number of different bases in such an organism is a trade-off between a small number of bases increasing replication accuracy and a large number of bases increasing the catalytic efficiency of ribozymes. However,
2765:
Naked extracellular DNA (eDNA), most of it released by cell death, is nearly ubiquitous in the environment. Its concentration in soil may be as high as 2 μg/L, and its concentration in natural aquatic environments may be as high at 88 μg/L. Various possible functions have been proposed for eDNA: it
2310:
produce multiple forms of damage, including base modifications, particularly of guanosine, and double-strand breaks. A typical human cell contains about 150,000 bases that have suffered oxidative damage. Of these oxidative lesions, the most dangerous are double-strand breaks, as these are difficult
1805:
spiral, with a shallow, wide minor groove and a narrower, deeper major groove. The A form occurs under non-physiological conditions in partly dehydrated samples of DNA, while in the cell it may be produced in hybrid pairings of DNA and RNA strands, and in enzyme-DNA complexes. Segments of DNA where
934:). The pair of chains have a radius of 10 Å (1.0 nm). According to another study, when measured in a different solution, the DNA chain measured 22–26 Å (2.2–2.6 nm) wide, and one nucleotide unit measured 3.3 Å (0.33 nm) long. The buoyant density of most DNA is 1.7g/cm.
8092:
A certain irreducible background incidence of cancer is to be expected regardless of circumstances: mutations can never be absolutely avoided, because they are an inescapable consequence of fundamental limitations on the accuracy of DNA replication, as discussed in
Chapter 5. If a human could live
3233:
A current model of meiotic recombination, initiated by a double-strand break or gap, followed by pairing with an homologous chromosome and strand invasion to initiate the recombinational repair process. Repair of the gap can lead to crossover (CO) or non-crossover (NCO) of the flanking regions. CO
1982:
occurs when non-complementary regions exist at the end of an otherwise complementary double-strand of DNA. However, branched DNA can occur if a third strand of DNA is introduced and contains adjoining regions able to hybridize with the frayed regions of the pre-existing double-strand. Although the
1913:
In addition to these stacked structures, telomeres also form large loop structures called telomere loops, or T-loops. Here, the single-stranded DNA curls around in a long circle stabilized by telomere-binding proteins. At the very end of the T-loop, the single-stranded telomere DNA is held onto a
1508:
necessary to break half of the hydrogen bonds. When all the base pairs in a DNA double helix melt, the strands separate and exist in solution as two entirely independent molecules. These single-stranded DNA molecules have no single common shape, but some conformations are more stable than others.
3052:
in DNA. Some of these enzymes work by cutting the DNA helix and allowing one section to rotate, thereby reducing its level of supercoiling; the enzyme then seals the DNA break. Other types of these enzymes are capable of cutting one DNA helix and then passing a second strand of DNA through this
3882:
identified the base, sugar, and phosphate nucleotide unit of RNA (then named "yeast nucleic acid"). In 1929, Levene identified deoxyribose sugar in "thymus nucleic acid" (DNA). Levene suggested that DNA consisted of a string of four nucleotide units linked together through the phosphate groups
2934:
and development. The specificity of these transcription factors' interactions with DNA come from the proteins making multiple contacts to the edges of the DNA bases, allowing them to "read" the DNA sequence. Most of these base-interactions are made in the major groove, where the bases are most
2882:
and changing the rate of transcription. Other non-specific DNA-binding proteins in chromatin include the high-mobility group proteins, which bind to bent or distorted DNA. These proteins are important in bending arrays of nucleosomes and arranging them into the larger structures that make up
4177:
of the
University of Leicester to verify or disprove a suspect's rape-murder "confession". In this particular case, the suspect had confessed to two rape-murders, but had later retracted his confession. DNA testing at the university labs soon disproved the veracity of the suspect's original
1625:
copy that is translated into protein. The sequence on the opposite strand is called the "antisense" sequence. Both sense and antisense sequences can exist on different parts of the same strand of DNA (i.e. both strands can contain both sense and antisense sequences). In both prokaryotes and
1036:
1793:
is most common under the conditions found in cells, it is not a well-defined conformation but a family of related DNA conformations that occur at the high hydration levels present in cells. Their corresponding X-ray diffraction and scattering patterns are characteristic of molecular
1740:
forms, although only B-DNA and Z-DNA have been directly observed in functional organisms. The conformation that DNA adopts depends on the hydration level, DNA sequence, the amount and direction of supercoiling, chemical modifications of the bases, the type and concentration of metal
3547:, are compared between people. This method is usually an extremely reliable technique for identifying a matching DNA. However, identification can be complicated if the scene is contaminated with DNA from several people. DNA profiling was developed in 1984 by British geneticist Sir
2774:
of several bacterial species. It may act as a recognition factor to regulate the attachment and dispersal of specific cell types in the biofilm; it may contribute to biofilm formation; and it may contribute to the biofilm's physical strength and resistance to biological stress.
2013:
which does not only act as a transcript of DNA but also performs as molecular machines many tasks in cells. For this purpose it has to fold into a structure. It has been shown that to allow to create all possible structures at least four bases are required for the corresponding
1909:
of a metal ion in the centre of each four-base unit. Other structures can also be formed, with the central set of four bases coming from either a single strand folded around the bases, or several different parallel strands, each contributing one base to the central structure.
12395:(Therefore, in my experiments I subsequently limited myself to the whole nucleus, leaving to a more favorable material the separation of the substances, that for the present, without further prejudice, I will designate as soluble and insoluble nuclear material ("Nuclein"))
3677:
and their possible functions in an organism even before they have been isolated experimentally. Entire genomes may also be compared, which can shed light on the evolutionary history of particular organism and permit the examination of complex evolutionary events.
12838:. By this term I designate the axial thread of the chromosome, in which the geneticists locate the linear combination of genes; … In the normal chromosome there is usually only one genoneme; before cell-division this genoneme has become divided into two strands."
2364:. For an intercalator to fit between base pairs, the bases must separate, distorting the DNA strands by unwinding of the double helix. This inhibits both transcription and DNA replication, causing toxicity and mutations. As a result, DNA intercalators may be
1594:
forms closed circular molecules, each of which contains 16,569 DNA base pairs, with each such molecule normally containing a full set of the mitochondrial genes. Each human mitochondrion contains, on average, approximately 5 such mtDNA molecules. Each human
3669:, are difficult to use without the annotations that identify the locations of genes and regulatory elements on each chromosome. Regions of DNA sequence that have the characteristic patterns associated with protein- or RNA-coding genes can be identified by
13532:"What Rosalind Franklin truly contributed to the discovery of DNA's structure – Franklin was no victim in how the DNA double helix was solved. An overlooked letter and an unpublished news article, both written in 1953, reveal that she was an equal player"
2740:
is essential for an organism to grow, but, when a cell divides, it must replicate the DNA in its genome so that the two daughter cells have the same genetic information as their parent. The double-stranded structure of DNA provides a simple mechanism for
2890:
is the best-understood member of this family and is used in processes where the double helix is separated, including DNA replication, recombination, and DNA repair. These binding proteins seem to stabilize single-stranded DNA and protect it from forming
3150:, which is required for the replication of telomeres. For example, HIV reverse transcriptase is an enzyme for AIDS virus replication. Telomerase is an unusual polymerase because it contains its own RNA template as part of its structure. It synthesizes
3102:
of these enzymes, the incoming nucleoside triphosphate base-pairs to the template: this allows polymerases to accurately synthesize the complementary strand of their template. Polymerases are classified according to the type of template that they use.
1188:
present in bacteria. This enzyme system acts at least in part as a molecular immune system protecting bacteria from infection by viruses. Modifications of the bases cytosine and adenine, the more common and modified DNA bases, play vital roles in the
1024:. The asymmetric ends of DNA strands are said to have a directionality of five prime end (5′ ), and three prime end (3′), with the 5′ end having a terminal phosphate group and the 3′ end a terminal hydroxyl group. One major difference between DNA and
4131:
In April 2023, scientists, based on new evidence, concluded that
Rosalind Franklin was a contributor and "equal player" in the discovery process of DNA, rather than otherwise, as may have been presented subsequently after the time of the discovery.
4084:
proposed a model for nucleic acids containing three intertwined chains, with the phosphates near the axis, and the bases on the outside. Watson and Crick completed their model, which is now accepted as the first correct model of the double helix of
1814:. Here, the strands turn about the helical axis in a left-handed spiral, the opposite of the more common B form. These unusual structures can be recognized by specific Z-DNA binding proteins and may be involved in the regulation of transcription.
12040:
Andersen ES, Dong M, Nielsen MM, Jahn K, Subramani R, Mamdouh W, Golas MM, Sander B, Stark H, Oliveira CL, Pedersen JS, Birkedal V, Besenbacher F, Gothelf KV, Kjems J (May 2009). "Self-assembly of a nanoscale DNA box with a controllable lid".
1439:
Most DNA molecules are actually two polymer strands, bound together in a helical fashion by noncovalent bonds; this double-stranded (dsDNA) structure is maintained largely by the intrastrand base stacking interactions, which are strongest for
1470:
value), which is the temperature at which 50% of the double-strand molecules are converted to single-strand molecules; melting temperature is dependent on ionic strength and the concentration of DNA. As a result, it is both the percentage of
7806:
Gommers-Ampt JH, Van
Leeuwen F, de Beer AL, Vliegenthart JF, Dizdaroglu M, Kowalak JA, Crain PF, Borst P (December 1993). "beta-D-glucosyl-hydroxymethyluracil: a novel modified base present in the DNA of the parasitic protozoan T. brucei".
2849:
Structural proteins that bind DNA are well-understood examples of non-specific DNA-protein interactions. Within chromosomes, DNA is held in complexes with structural proteins. These proteins organize the DNA into a compact structure called
2822:
can be non-specific, or the protein can bind specifically to a single DNA sequence. Enzymes can also bind to DNA and of these, the polymerases that copy the DNA base sequence in transcription and DNA replication are particularly important.
3110:
make copies of DNA polynucleotide chains. To preserve biological information, it is essential that the sequence of bases in each copy are precisely complementary to the sequence of bases in the template strand. Many DNA polymerases have a
4146:, which foretold the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins, and articulated the "adaptor hypothesis". Final confirmation of the replication mechanism that was implied by the double-helical structure followed in 1958 through the
1558:
per cell extends for 6.37 Gigabase pairs (Gbp), is 208.23 cm long and weighs 6.51 picograms (pg). Male values are 6.27 Gbp, 205.00 cm, 6.41 pg. Each DNA polymer can contain hundreds of millions of nucleotides, such as in
13499:"Untangling Rosalind Franklin's Role in DNA Discovery, 70 Years On – Historians have long debated the role that Dr. Franklin played in identifying the double helix. A new opinion essay argues that she was an "equal contributor.""
604:
12392:
Ich habe mich daher später mit meinen
Versuchen an die ganzen Kerne gehalten, die Trennung der Körper, die ich einstweilen ohne weiteres Präjudiz als lösliches und unlösliches Nuclein bezeichnen will, einem günstigeren Material
2687:, giving most amino acids more than one possible codon. There are also three 'stop' or 'nonsense' codons signifying the end of the coding region; these are the TAG, TAA, and TGA codons, (UAG, UAA, and UGA on the mRNA).
3645:. String searching or matching algorithms, which find an occurrence of a sequence of letters inside a larger sequence of letters, were developed to search for specific sequences of nucleotides. The DNA sequence may be
3567:
DNA profiling is also used successfully to positively identify victims of mass casualty incidents, bodies or body parts in serious accidents, and individual victims in mass war graves, via matching to family members.
1896:
These guanine-rich sequences may stabilize chromosome ends by forming structures of stacked sets of four-base units, rather than the usual base pairs found in other DNA molecules. Here, four guanine bases, known as a
3161:
that copies the sequence of a DNA strand into RNA. To begin transcribing a gene, the RNA polymerase binds to a sequence of DNA called a promoter and separates the DNA strands. It then copies the gene sequence into a
3928:. At the time, "yeast nucleic acid" (RNA) was thought to occur only in plants, while "thymus nucleic acid" (DNA) only in animals. The latter was thought to be a tetramer, with the function of buffering cellular pH.
12571:
quantitative relations of the four nitrogenous bases— of the dependence of their quantity on the physiological states of the cell—promises important insights into the fundamental physiological-chemical processes.)
2925:
As these DNA targets can occur throughout an organism's genome, changes in the activity of one type of transcription factor can affect thousands of genes. Consequently, these proteins are often the targets of the
3904:
could be transferred to the "rough" form of the same bacteria by mixing killed "smooth" bacteria with the live "rough" form. This system provided the first clear suggestion that DNA carries genetic information.
3887:
proposed that inherited traits would be inherited via a "giant hereditary molecule" made up of "two mirror strands that would replicate in a semi-conservative fashion using each strand as a template". In 1928,
3596:, also called DNAzymes or catalytic DNA, were first discovered in 1994. They are mostly single stranded DNA sequences isolated from a large pool of random DNA sequences through a combinatorial approach called
7879:
Douki T, Reynaud-Angelin A, Cadet J, Sage E (August 2003). "Bipyrimidine photoproducts rather than oxidative lesions are the main type of DNA damage involved in the genotoxic effect of solar UVA radiation".
1692:
1325:
that can bind to specific sequences in double-stranded DNA usually make contact with the sides of the bases exposed in the major groove. This situation varies in unusual conformations of DNA within the cell
2994:, which cut DNA at specific sequences. For instance, the EcoRV enzyme shown to the left recognizes the 6-base sequence 5′-GATATC-3′ and makes a cut at the horizontal line. In nature, these enzymes protect
3765:
Because DNA collects mutations over time, which are then inherited, it contains historical information, and, by comparing DNA sequences, geneticists can infer the evolutionary history of organisms, their
3575:
to determine if someone is the biological parent or grandparent of a child with the probability of parentage is typically 99.99% when the alleged parent is biologically related to the child. Normal
13107:"Studies on the Chemical Nature of the Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types: Induction of Transformation by a Desoxyribonucleic Acid Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus Type III"
1599:
contains approximately 100 mitochondria, giving a total number of mtDNA molecules per human cell of approximately 500. However, the amount of mitochondria per cell also varies by cell type, and an
3115:
activity. Here, the polymerase recognizes the occasional mistakes in the synthesis reaction by the lack of base pairing between the mismatched nucleotides. If a mismatch is detected, a 3′ to 5′
1649:, this overlap may be involved in the regulation of gene transcription, while in viruses, overlapping genes increase the amount of information that can be encoded within the small viral genome.
3242:". This physical separation of different chromosomes is important for the ability of DNA to function as a stable repository for information, as one of the few times chromosomes interact is in
1317:
Twin helical strands form the DNA backbone. Another double helix may be found tracing the spaces, or grooves, between the strands. These voids are adjacent to the base pairs and may provide a
3071:(ATP), to break hydrogen bonds between bases and unwind the DNA double helix into single strands. These enzymes are essential for most processes where enzymes need to access the DNA bases.
1459:
basepairs) but also on sequence (since stacking is sequence specific) and also length (longer molecules are more stable). The stability can be measured in various ways; a common way is the
918:. The structure of DNA is dynamic along its length, being capable of coiling into tight loops and other shapes. In all species it is composed of two helical chains, bound to each other by
1645:. In these cases, some DNA sequences do double duty, encoding one protein when read along one strand, and a second protein when read in the opposite direction along the other strand. In
6229:
Basu HS, Feuerstein BG, Zarling DA, Shafer RH, Marton LJ (October 1988). "Recognition of Z-RNA and Z-DNA determinants by polyamines in solution: experimental and theoretical studies".
3310:
DNA has performed this function, as it has been proposed that the earliest forms of life may have used RNA as their genetic material. RNA may have acted as the central part of early
13447:
3407:
has been recovered from ancient organisms at a timescale where genome evolution can be directly observed, including from extinct organisms up to millions of years old, such as the
3261:
and can be important in the rapid evolution of new proteins. Genetic recombination can also be involved in DNA repair, particularly in the cell's response to double-strand breaks.
5542:"Single-stranded adenine-rich DNA and RNA retain structural characteristics of their respective double-stranded conformations and show directional differences in stacking pattern"
1851:
was announced, though the research was disputed, and evidence suggests the bacterium actively prevents the incorporation of arsenic into the DNA backbone and other biomolecules.
2862:, which contains two complete turns of double-stranded DNA wrapped around its surface. These non-specific interactions are formed through basic residues in the histones, making
1983:
simplest example of branched DNA involves only three strands of DNA, complexes involving additional strands and multiple branches are also possible. Branched DNA can be used in
937:
DNA does not usually exist as a single strand, but instead as a pair of strands that are held tightly together. These two long strands coil around each other, in the shape of a
11571:
11329:
14226:
5497:
deHaseth PL, Helmann JD (June 1995). "Open complex formation by
Escherichia coli RNA polymerase: the mechanism of polymerase-induced strand separation of double helical DNA".
2770:; it may provide nutrients; and it may act as a buffer to recruit or titrate ions or antibiotics. Extracellular DNA acts as a functional extracellular matrix component in the
2457:. The details of these functions are covered in other articles; here the focus is on the interactions between DNA and other molecules that mediate the function of the genome.
14851:
11095:"Million-year-old mammoth genomes shatter record for oldest ancient DNA – Permafrost-preserved teeth, up to 1.6 million years old, identify a new kind of mammoth in Siberia"
2866:
to the acidic sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA, and are thus largely independent of the base sequence. Chemical modifications of these basic amino acid residues include
1885:, as the enzymes that normally replicate DNA cannot copy the extreme 3′ ends of chromosomes. These specialized chromosome caps also help protect the DNA ends, and stop the
1444:
stacks. The two strands can come apart—a process known as melting—to form two single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) molecules. Melting occurs at high temperatures, low salt and high
14224:
2380:
form DNA adducts that induce errors in replication. Nevertheless, due to their ability to inhibit DNA transcription and replication, other similar toxins are also used in
1753:
1425:, they can be broken and rejoined relatively easily. The two strands of DNA in a double helix can thus be pulled apart like a zipper, either by a mechanical force or high
11043:
1626:
eukaryotes, antisense RNA sequences are produced, but the functions of these RNAs are not entirely clear. One proposal is that antisense RNAs are involved in regulating
882:, compact and organize DNA. These compacting structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed.
4883:"RCSB PDB – 1D65: Molecular structure of the B-DNA dodecamer d(CGCAAATTTGCG)2. An examination of propeller twist and minor-groove water structure at 2.2 A resolution"
4113:
published a series of five articles giving the Watson and Crick double-helix structure DNA and evidence supporting it. The structure was reported in a letter titled "
3601:
1475:
base pairs and the overall length of a DNA double helix that determines the strength of the association between the two strands of DNA. Long DNA helices with a high
13038:
1840:
of Earth that uses radically different biochemical and molecular processes than currently known life. One of the proposals was the existence of lifeforms that use
3238:
A DNA helix usually does not interact with other segments of DNA, and in human cells, the different chromosomes even occupy separate areas in the nucleus called "
6716:
Rothenburg S, Koch-Nolte F, Haag F (December 2001). "DNA methylation and Z-DNA formation as mediators of quantitative differences in the expression of alleles".
5692:
Anderson S, Bankier AT, Barrell BG, de Bruijn MH, Coulson AR, Drouin J, et al. (April 1981). "Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome".
11152:
Goff SP, Berg P (December 1976). "Construction of hybrid viruses containing SV40 and lambda phage DNA segments and their propagation in cultured monkey cells".
9779:"RCSB PDB – 1RVA: Mg2+ binding to the active site of EcoRV endonuclease: a crystallographic study of complexes with substrate and product DNA at 2 Å resolution"
9453:
14601:
4495:
Irobalieva RN, Fogg JM, Catanese DJ, Catanese DJ, Sutthibutpong T, Chen M, Barker AK, Ludtke SJ, Harris SA, Schmid MF, Chiu W, Zechiedrich L (October 2015).
13073:
1873:
repeats. The looped conformation of the DNA backbone is very different from the typical DNA helix. The green spheres in the center represent potassium ions.
10033:
6861:
6081:
3564:
is to claim that cross-contamination of evidence has occurred. This has resulted in meticulous strict handling procedures with new cases of serious crime.
2683:, which carries amino acids. Since there are 4 bases in 3-letter combinations, there are 64 possible codons (4 combinations). These encode the twenty
14225:
3306:
DNA contains the genetic information that allows all forms of life to function, grow and reproduce. However, it is unclear how long in the 4-billion-year
1590:(mtDNA) which encodes certain proteins used by the mitochondria. The mtDNA is usually relatively small in comparison to the nuclear DNA. For example, the
1537:(to scale at bottom left). The blue scale to the left of each chromosome pair (and the mitochondrial genome) shows its length in terms of millions of DNA
11510:
1890:
2453:, which depends on the same interaction between RNA nucleotides. In an alternative fashion, a cell may copy its genetic information in a process called
1330:, but the major and minor grooves are always named to reflect the differences in width that would be seen if the DNA was twisted back into the ordinary
13949:
First published in
October 1974 by MacMillan, with foreword by Francis Crick; the definitive DNA textbook, revised in 1994 with a nine-page postscript.
8124:
5065:
Johnson TB, Coghill RD (1925). "Pyrimidines. CIII. The discovery of 5-methylcytosine in tuberculinic acid, the nucleic acid of the tubercle bacillus".
2331:. Because of inherent limits in the DNA repair mechanisms, if humans lived long enough, they would all eventually develop cancer. DNA damages that are
1603:
can contain 100,000 mitochondria, corresponding to up to 1,500,000 copies of the mitochondrial genome (constituting up to 90% of the DNA of the cell).
748:
9904:
Schoeffler AJ, Berger JM (December 2005). "Recent advances in understanding structure-function relationships in the type II topoisomerase mechanism".
9242:
8093:
long enough, it is inevitable that at least one of his or her cells would eventually accumulate a set of mutations sufficient for cancer to develop.
5572:
9362:
Luger K, Mäder AW, Richmond RK, Sargent DF, Richmond TJ (September 1997). "Crystal structure of the nucleosome core particle at 2.8 A resolution".
14374:
10977:
14273:
10772:
Vreeland RH, Rosenzweig WD, Powers DW (October 2000). "Isolation of a 250 million-year-old halotolerant bacterium from a primary salt crystal".
1004:(five prime end) carbons, the prime symbol being used to distinguish these carbon atoms from those of the base to which the deoxyribose forms a
6345:
6300:
5243:
Wing R, Drew H, Takano T, Broka C, Tanaka S, Itakura K, Dickerson RE (October 1980). "Crystal structure analysis of a complete turn of B-DNA".
13470:
13657:
13508:
7212:
Griffith JD, Comeau L, Rosenfield S, Stansel RM, Bianchi A, Moss H, de Lange T (May 1999). "Mammalian telomeres end in a large duplex loop".
3832:
2602:
typically contain few genes but are important for the function and stability of chromosomes. An abundant form of noncoding DNA in humans are
2164:
protein core around which DNA is wrapped in the chromatin structure or else by remodeling carried out by chromatin remodeling complexes (see
11010:
6900:
6590:
5440:"A more unified picture for the thermodynamics of nucleic acid duplex melting: a characterization by calorimetric and volumetric techniques"
3053:
break, before rejoining the helix. Topoisomerases are required for many processes involving DNA, such as DNA replication and transcription.
3257:
Recombination allows chromosomes to exchange genetic information and produces new combinations of genes, which increases the efficiency of
2878:. These chemical changes alter the strength of the interaction between the DNA and the histones, making the DNA more or less accessible to
13443:
5208:
Carell T, Kurz MQ, Müller M, Rossa M, Spada F (April 2018). "Non-canonical Bases in the Genome: The Regulatory Information Layer in DNA".
1760:
that provided only a limited amount of structural information for oriented fibers of DNA. An alternative analysis was proposed by Wilkins
9546:
Grosschedl R, Giese K, Pagel J (March 1994). "HMG domain proteins: architectural elements in the assembly of nucleoprotein structures".
2886:
A distinct group of DNA-binding proteins is the DNA-binding proteins that specifically bind single-stranded DNA. In humans, replication
1914:
region of double-stranded DNA by the telomere strand disrupting the double-helical DNA and base pairing to one of the two strands. This
1397:
In a DNA double helix, each type of nucleobase on one strand bonds with just one type of nucleobase on the other strand. This is called
14626:
12537:
5852:
499:
11555:
11321:
4337:
3288:
or damage to the DNA. A series of steps catalyzed in part by the recombinase then leads to joining of the two helices by at least one
2152:. Base modifications can be involved in packaging, with regions that have low or no gene expression usually containing high levels of
810:, these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, providing a complete set of chromosomes for each daughter cell.
14799:
9040:
Whitchurch CB, Tolker-Nielsen T, Ragas PC, Mattick JS (February 2002). "Extracellular DNA required for bacterial biofilm formation".
7915:
Cadet J, Delatour T, Douki T, Gasparutto D, Pouget JP, Ravanat JL, Sauvaigo S (March 1999). "Hydroxyl radicals and DNA base damage".
4994:
3154:
at the ends of chromosomes. Telomeres prevent fusion of the ends of neighboring chromosomes and protect chromosome ends from damage.
10858:
Nickle DC, Learn GH, Rain MW, Mullins JI, Mittler JE (January 2002). "Curiously modern DNA for a "250 million-year-old" bacterium".
8051:
6827:
6659:
6415:
3134:
RNA-dependent DNA polymerases are a specialized class of polymerases that copy the sequence of an RNA strand into DNA. They include
2914:
In contrast, other proteins have evolved to bind to particular DNA sequences. The most intensively studied of these are the various
5743:
3955:
2507:. The genetic information in a genome is held within genes, and the complete set of this information in an organism is called its
1483:
content have more weakly interacting strands. In biology, parts of the DNA double helix that need to separate easily, such as the
15186:
14748:
3665:
relationships and protein function. Data sets representing entire genomes' worth of DNA sequences, such as those produced by the
8729:
Harrison PM, Gerstein M (May 2002). "Studying genomes through the aeons: protein families, pseudogenes and proteome evolution".
7863:
4623:
3747:, synthetic oligonucleotide ligands for specific target molecules used in a range of biotechnology and biomedical applications.
3119:
activity is activated and the incorrect base removed. In most organisms, DNA polymerases function in a large complex called the
13675:
2781:
is found in the blood of the mother, and can be sequenced to determine a great deal of information about the developing fetus.
2652:
sequence, which then defines one or more protein sequences. The relationship between the nucleotide sequences of genes and the
2193:
have higher levels, with up to 1% of their DNA containing 5-methylcytosine. Despite the importance of 5-methylcytosine, it can
4767:
1196:
A number of noncanonical bases are known to occur in DNA. Most of these are modifications of the canonical bases plus uracil.
1001:
997:
903:
899:
14967:
14136:
14091:
14068:
14027:
14008:
13421:
13405:
13317:
12834:
From page 313: "I think that the size of the chromosomes in the salivary glands is determined through the multiplication of
12786:
Koltzoff NK (1928). "Physikalisch-chemische Grundlagen der Morphologie" [The physical-chemical basis of morphology].
11829:
11792:
11212:
11033:
9487:
8832:
8118:
5774:
Satoh M, Kuroiwa T (September 1991). "Organization of multiple nucleoids and DNA molecules in mitochondria of a human cell".
4973:
4331:
4136:
3098:
group at the end of the growing polynucleotide chain. As a consequence, all polymerases work in a 5′ to 3′ direction. In the
17:
6483:
4139:. Nobel Prizes are awarded only to living recipients. A debate continues about who should receive credit for the discovery.
3735:
have also been demonstrated, and these DNA structures have been used to template the arrangement of other molecules such as
14606:
11066:
9077:"DNA builds and strengthens the extracellular matrix in Myxococcus xanthus biofilms by interacting with exopolysaccharides"
4150:. Further work by Crick and co-workers showed that the genetic code was based on non-overlapping triplets of bases, called
4099:
4086:
2251:
783:, where DNA bases are exchanged for their corresponding bases except in the case of thymine (T), for which RNA substitutes
4481:
2432:
has approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA arranged into 46 chromosomes. The information carried by DNA is held in the
15633:
14450:
14378:
8087:
4360:
2005:
Several artificial nucleobases have been synthesized, and successfully incorporated in the eight-base DNA analogue named
1421:(hydrogen bonding the 6-carbon ring to the 5-carbon ring) is a rare variation of base-pairing. As hydrogen bonds are not
1398:
13061:
10245:
Cremer T, Cremer C (April 2001). "Chromosome territories, nuclear architecture and gene regulation in mammalian cells".
1893:, telomeres are usually lengths of single-stranded DNA containing several thousand repeats of a simple TTAGGG sequence.
14831:
14621:
14415:
11536:
8607:"RCSB PDB – 1MSW: Structural basis for the transition from initiation to elongation transcription in T7 RNA polymerase"
4683:
Arrighi, Frances E.; Mandel, Manley; Bergendahl, Janet; Hsu, T. C. (June 1970). "Buoyant densities of DNA of mammals".
4143:
1823:
1013:
14384:
Seven-page, handwritten letter that Crick sent to his 12-year-old son Michael in 1953 describing the structure of DNA.
12993:
Brachet J (1933). "Recherches sur la synthese de l'acide thymonucleique pendant le developpement de l'oeuf d'Oursin".
12627:
5904:
Munroe SH (November 2004). "Diversity of antisense regulation in eukaryotes: multiple mechanisms, emerging patterns".
1675:. These enzymes are also needed to relieve the twisting stresses introduced into DNA strands during processes such as
15272:
14939:
14158:
14117:
14049:
13942:
13920:
13898:
13877:
13858:
11899:
8081:
7676:
4750:
4467:
4437:
4412:
3883:("tetranucleotide hypothesis"). Levene thought the chain was short and the bases repeated in a fixed order. In 1927,
1020:, the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to their direction in the other strand: the strands are
2792:, monitoring the movements and presence of species in water, air, or on land, and assessing an area's biodiversity.
2298:. The type of DNA damage produced depends on the type of mutagen. For example, UV light can damage DNA by producing
15559:
14383:
9414:
8321:
Braña MF, Cacho M, Gradillas A, de Pascual-Teresa B, Ramos A (November 2001). "Intercalators as anticancer drugs".
7161:
Parkinson GN, Lee MP, Neidle S (June 2002). "Crystal structure of parallel quadruplexes from human telomeric DNA".
3386:
2806:
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are networks of extracellular fibers, primarily composed of DNA, which allow
2332:
2226:
14329:
14268:
12766:] (Speech). 3rd All-Union Meeting of Zoologist, Anatomists, and Histologists (in Russian). Leningrad, U.S.S.R.
12557:
8680:
Harrison PM, Hegyi H, Balasubramanian S, Luscombe NM, Bertone P, Echols N, Johnson T, Gerstein M (February 2002).
2046:
which leave behind negative charges on the phosphate groups. These negative charges protect DNA from breakdown by
15564:
15093:
15037:
14175:
13279:
13089:
3003:
2858:, while in prokaryotes multiple types of proteins are involved. The histones form a disk-shaped complex called a
2172:
between DNA methylation and histone modification, so they can coordinately affect chromatin and gene expression.
125:
encode genes, which provide functions. A human DNA can have up to 500 million base pairs with thousands of genes.
13334:
10331:
O'Driscoll M, Jeggo PA (January 2006). "The role of double-strand break repair – insights from human genetics".
10072:
8682:"Molecular fossils in the human genome: identification and analysis of the pseudogenes in chromosomes 21 and 22"
6853:
6120:
2922:
that modify the histones at the promoter. This changes the accessibility of the DNA template to the polymerase.
736:
to make double-stranded DNA. The complementary nitrogenous bases are divided into two groups, the single-ringed
15032:
2801:
2417:
492:
13154:
Chargaff E (June 1950). "Chemical specificity of nucleic acids and mechanism of their enzymatic degradation".
12772:
Koltsov HK (1928). "Физико-химические основы морфологии" [The physical-chemical basis of morphology].
11514:
372:
15461:
15347:
15120:
15051:
14792:
11845:
Sjölander K (January 2004). "Phylogenomic inference of protein molecular function: advances and challenges".
11410:
Weir BS, Triggs CM, Starling L, Stowell LI, Walsh KA, Buckleton J (March 1997). "Interpreting DNA mixtures".
8815:
Tani K, Nasu M (2010). "Roles of Extracellular DNA in Bacterial Ecosystems". In Kikuchi Y, Rykova EY (eds.).
6945:
4147:
2573:
8106:
2606:, which are copies of genes that have been disabled by mutation. These sequences are usually just molecular
14856:
14707:
12407:
Dahm R (January 2008). "Discovering DNA: Friedrich Miescher and the early years of nucleic acid research".
10089:
Johnson A, O'Donnell M (2005). "Cellular DNA replicases: components and dynamics at the replication fork".
4768:"Abbreviations and Symbols for Nucleic Acids, Polynucleotides and their Constituents. Recommendations 1970"
4033:
3827:
3439:
3269:
2684:
2340:
1591:
1534:
1392:
base pair with two hydrogen bonds. Non-covalent hydrogen bonds between the pairs are shown as dashed lines.
53:
13280:"Pictures and Illustrations: Crystallographic photo of Sodium Thymonucleate, Type B. "Photo 51." May 1952"
10374:
Vispé S, Defais M (October 1997). "Mammalian Rad51 protein: a RecA homologue with pleiotropic functions".
8550:"Identification and analysis of functional elements in 1% of the human genome by the ENCODE pilot project"
3579:
methods happen after birth, but there are new methods to test paternity while a mother is still pregnant.
2160:
bases. DNA packaging and its influence on gene expression can also occur by covalent modifications of the
15574:
15569:
15554:
15179:
14387:
8942:"Extracellular DNA chelates cations and induces antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms"
5541:
4269:
4173:
In 1986, DNA analysis was first used for criminal investigative purposes when police in the UK requested
4073:
3658:
2810:, a type of white blood cell, to kill extracellular pathogens while minimizing damage to the host cells.
1040:
1021:
764:
13498:
7488:
6500:
Leslie AG, Arnott S, Chandrasekaran R, Ratliff RL (October 1980). "Polymorphism of DNA double helices".
1881:. The main function of these regions is to allow the cell to replicate chromosome ends using the enzyme
15607:
15071:
14455:
12798:
In 1934, Koltsov contended that the proteins that contain a cell's genetic information replicate. See:
12334:
Akram F, Haq IU, Ali H, Laghari AT (October 2018). "Trends to store digital data in DNA: an overview".
11821:
10909:
Callahan MP, Smith KE, Cleaves HJ, Ruzicka J, Stern JC, Glavin DP, House CH, Dworkin JP (August 2011).
10466:
Dickman MJ, Ingleston SM, Sedelnikova SE, Rafferty JB, Lloyd RG, Grasby JA, Hornby DP (November 2002).
6681:
Lu XJ, Shakked Z, Olson WK (July 2000). "A-form conformational motifs in ligand-bound DNA structures".
3867:
of discarded surgical bandages. As it resided in the nuclei of cells, he called it "nuclein". In 1878,
3634:
2234:
2148:
The expression of genes is influenced by how the DNA is packaged in chromosomes, in a structure called
1501:
In the laboratory, the strength of this interaction can be measured by finding the melting temperature
1176:
261:
10969:
9185:"Investigating the potential use of environmental DNA (eDNA) for genetic monitoring of marine mammals"
1091:). These four bases are attached to the sugar-phosphate to form the complete nucleotide, as shown for
14611:
14596:
14371:
Another DNA Learning Center site on DNA, genes, and heredity from Mendel to the human genome project.
14260:
4300:
4245: – Universal notation using the Roman characters A, C, G, and T to call the four DNA nucleotides
4163:
3463:
3447:
3273:
3090:. The sequence of their products is created based on existing polynucleotide chains—which are called
2324:
2287:
2019:
1612:
1017:
949:(which interacts with the other DNA strand in the helix). A nucleobase linked to a sugar is called a
760:
623:
485:
12800:
Koltzoff N (October 1934). "The structure of the chromosomes in the salivary glands of Drosophila".
12754:
Koltsov proposed that a cell's genetic information was encoded in a long chain of amino acids. See:
10580:
9315:"The role of nucleoid-associated proteins in the organization and compaction of bacterial chromatin"
8251:
Stephens TD, Bunde CJ, Fillmore BJ (June 2000). "Mechanism of action in thalidomide teratogenesis".
7226:
6313:"The structure of sodium thymonucleate fibres. II. The cylindrically symmetrical Patterson function"
6312:
6267:
3531:
to identify a matching DNA of an individual, such as a perpetrator. This process is formally termed
2515:
and is a region of DNA that influences a particular characteristic in an organism. Genes contain an
1448:(low pH also melts DNA, but since DNA is unstable due to acid depurination, low pH is rarely used).
728:. The nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands are bound together, according to
15115:
14903:
14816:
14785:
14616:
14435:
11859:
10823:
Hebsgaard MB, Phillips MJ, Willerslev E (May 2005). "Geologically ancient DNA: fact or artefact?".
3951:
3893:
3871:
isolated the non-protein component of "nuclein", nucleic acid, and later isolated its five primary
3795:
3265:
2931:
2767:
2635:
1725:
1676:
780:
279:
33:
13608:
1905:
structure. These structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonding between the edges of the bases and
15076:
14893:
14878:
13397:
12145:
Aldaye FA, Palmer AL, Sleiman HF (September 2008). "Assembling materials with DNA as the guide".
11983:
11000:
8545:
8173:
Freitas AA, de Magalhães JP (2011). "A review and appraisal of the DNA damage theory of ageing".
7510:
6884:
6621:
4640:
Mandelkern M, Elias JG, Eden D, Crothers DM (October 1981). "The dimensions of DNA in solution".
4041:
4017:
3697:
3174:, the enzyme that transcribes most of the genes in the human genome, operates as part of a large
3087:
3064:
2854:. In eukaryotes, this structure involves DNA binding to a complex of small basic proteins called
2547:
2441:
2202:
1901:, form a flat plate. These flat four-base units then stack on top of each other to form a stable
1786:
analysis of the DNA X-ray diffraction patterns to suggest that the structure was a double helix.
1783:
1770:
B-DNA X-ray diffraction-scattering patterns of highly hydrated DNA fibers in terms of squares of
1696:
1092:
724:) between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating
9075:
Hu W, Li L, Sharma S, Wang J, McHardy I, Lux R, Yang Z, He X, Gimzewski JK, Li Y, Shi W (2012).
3696:
The DNA structure at left (schematic shown) will self-assemble into the structure visualized by
3326:
where nucleic acid would have been used for both catalysis and genetics may have influenced the
2503:. In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the
15736:
15726:
15594:
15287:
15172:
15081:
15006:
14898:
14408:
14356:
13908:
13014:"Jean Brachet's Cytochemical Embryology: Connections with the Renovation of Biology in France?"
11854:
10575:
8497:"The C-value enigma in plants and animals: a review of parallels and an appeal for partnership"
7221:
5947:
Makalowska I, Lin CF, Makalowski W (February 2005). "Overlapping genes in vertebrate genomes".
3847:, co-originators of the double-helix model based on the X-ray diffraction data and insights of
3239:
3112:
3068:
3011:
2185:
796:
13760:
13589:
13023:. Cahiers pour I'histoire de la recherche. Vol. 2. Paris: CNRS Editions. pp. 207–20.
12852:
Soyfer VN (September 2001). "The consequences of political dictatorship for Russian science".
12518:
12488:
12471:
12454:
12378:
11723:"In vitro selection of a sodium-specific DNAzyme and its application in intracellular sensing"
8824:
3002:
infection by digesting the phage DNA when it enters the bacterial cell, acting as part of the
15471:
15315:
14996:
14981:
14861:
14743:
14577:
14542:
14199:
10102:
10052:
6975:"Identification of a specific telomere terminal transferase activity in Tetrahymena extracts"
4909:"Base-stacking and base-pairing contributions into thermal stability of the DNA double helix"
4248:
4242:
3713:
3705:
3626:
3572:
3307:
3254:
occurs. Chromosomal crossover is when two DNA helices break, swap a section and then rejoin.
3251:
3243:
3221:
3187:
3167:
3135:
3034:
2657:
2542:
encodes protein. For example, only about 1.5% of the human genome consists of protein-coding
2450:
2000:
1526:
1155:
1127:
772:
452:
432:
397:
309:
304:
12534:
9581:
Iftode C, Daniely Y, Borowiec JA (1999). "Replication protein A (RPA): the eukaryotic SSB".
8816:
5849:
3935:
produced the first X-ray diffraction patterns that showed that DNA had a regular structure.
15506:
15489:
15320:
15103:
15001:
14919:
14642:
14460:
14256:
13969:
13714:
13623:
13545:
13346:
12809:
12154:
12111:
12050:
11998:
11734:
11466:
11364:
11108:
10922:
10867:
10781:
10730:
10675:
10524:
10422:
9731:
9618:"RCSB PDB – 1LMB: Refined 1.8 Å crystal structure of the lambda repressor-operator complex"
9371:
9196:
9088:
8561:
8459:
8369:
8182:
7924:
7713:
7702:"The nuclear DNA base 5-hydroxymethylcytosine is present in Purkinje neurons and the brain"
7445:
7378:
7327:
7170:
6772:
6605:
6451:
6383:
6327:
6282:
6100:
5701:
5656:
5451:
5394:
5252:
4990:
4839:
4583:
4508:
4321:
4090:
4013:
3994:
3771:
3666:
3429:
3323:
3301:
2915:
2879:
2819:
2639:
2165:
2088:
1517:
1322:
1052:
118:
37:
12071:
8993:"A bacterial extracellular DNA inhibits settling of motile progeny cells within a biofilm"
8041:
7583:
Klose RJ, Bird AP (February 2006). "Genomic DNA methylation: the mark and its mediators".
6819:
4096:
in Cambridge, England to announce that he and Watson had "discovered the secret of life".
3778:
can learn the history of particular populations. This can be used in studies ranging from
8:
15501:
15484:
15342:
15225:
14929:
14722:
14712:
14672:
14572:
14552:
14445:
14440:
14189:
7363:
Hoshika S, Leal NA, Kim MJ, Kim MS, Karalkar NB, Kim HJ, et al. (22 February 2019).
6368:
3963:
3943:
3779:
3775:
3540:
3475:
3462:
is a man-made DNA sequence that has been assembled from other DNA sequences. They can be
3433:
3247:
3170:, where it halts and detaches from the DNA. As with human DNA-dependent DNA polymerases,
2975:
2927:
2832:
2778:
2619:
2528:
2520:
2320:
2303:
2169:
1915:
1418:
1158:
have been created to study the properties of nucleic acids, or for use in biotechnology.
989:
871:
744:. In DNA, the pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine; the purines are adenine and guanine.
721:
427:
407:
342:
299:
293:
284:
256:
134:
93:
70:
13973:
13718:
13627:
13549:
13350:
13013:
12813:
12158:
12115:
12054:
12002:
11738:
11470:
11368:
11112:
10926:
10871:
10785:
10734:
10679:
10528:
10426:
10176:
Martinez E (December 2002). "Multi-protein complexes in eukaryotic gene transcription".
9735:
9375:
9282:
9257:
9200:
9183:
Foote AD, Thomsen PF, Sveegaard S, Wahlberg M, Kielgast J, Kyhn LA, et al. (2012).
9092:
8637:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
8565:
8463:
8373:
8356:
Venter JC, Adams MD, Myers EW, Li PW, Mural RJ, Sutton GG, et al. (February 2001).
8186:
7928:
7717:
7449:
7382:
7331:
7174:
6776:
6609:
6455:
6387:
6331:
6286:
5747:
5705:
5660:
5643:
Gregory SG, Barlow KF, McLay KE, Kaul R, Swarbreck D, Dunham A, et al. (May 2006).
5455:
5398:
5310:
5256:
4843:
4587:
4512:
3048:
are enzymes with both nuclease and ligase activity. These proteins change the amount of
2845:(in blue). These proteins' basic amino acids bind to the acidic phosphate groups on DNA.
1028:
is the sugar, with the 2-deoxyribose in DNA being replaced by the related pentose sugar
186:
15395:
15390:
15265:
15064:
14947:
14682:
14567:
14562:
14537:
14361:
13815:
13798:
13649:
13571:
13503:
13369:
13256:
13231:
13179:
13131:
13106:
12921:
12896:
12877:
12603:
12586:
12432:
12359:
12311:
12286:
12178:
12084:
12022:
11964:
11818:
Algorithms on Strings, Trees, and Sequences: Computer Science and Computational Biology
11757:
11722:
11657:
11632:
11492:
11435:
11262:
11237:
11177:
10945:
10910:
10891:
10805:
10754:
10644:
10601:
10548:
10497:
10443:
10410:
10356:
10313:
10270:
10201:
10158:
10064:
9445:
9395:
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9295:
9219:
9184:
9160:
9135:
9111:
9076:
9017:
8992:
8968:
8941:
8873:
8657:
8632:
8582:
8549:
8521:
8496:
8046:
7842:
7783:
7758:
7734:
7701:
7560:
7533:
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7435:
7399:
7364:
7291:
7266:
7247:
7194:
7138:
7113:
6927:
6741:
6729:
6556:
6475:
6407:
6211:
6165:
6112:
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6032:
5960:
5929:
5827:
5810:
5725:
5620:
5593:
5522:
5510:
5415:
5382:
5358:
5333:
5276:
5185:
5150:
4941:
4908:
4800:
4716:
4615:
4537:
4496:
4155:
3889:
3860:
3701:
3687:
3646:
3443:
3276:
and genetic abnormalities. The recombination reaction is catalyzed by enzymes known as
2991:
2953:
2524:
2516:
2491:, to fit the small available volumes of the cell. In eukaryotes, DNA is located in the
1935:
1757:
1491:
1185:
1180:
in 1925. The reason for the presence of these noncanonical bases in bacterial viruses (
422:
417:
392:
314:
14106:
13737:
13702:
13215:
13198:
12970:
12945:
12706:
12689:
12262:
12235:
11951:
11924:
11698:
11681:
11298:
11253:
11067:"World's oldest DNA sequenced from a mammoth that lived more than a million years ago"
10387:
10009:
9984:
9881:
9856:
9829:
9804:
9754:
9719:
8917:
8892:
8792:
8765:
8742:
8706:
8681:
8264:
7936:
7423:
7235:
7086:
7061:
6795:
6760:
6186:
Wang JC (June 2002). "Cellular roles of DNA topoisomerases: a molecular perspective".
6008:
5983:
5406:
4765:
2302:, which are cross-links between pyrimidine bases. On the other hand, oxidants such as
15479:
15441:
15434:
15385:
15337:
14766:
14697:
14687:
14677:
14511:
14401:
14345:
14154:
14132:
14113:
14087:
14080:
14064:
14045:
14023:
14004:
13987:
13938:
13916:
13894:
13873:
13854:
13820:
13742:
13641:
13575:
13563:
13401:
13374:
13313:
13306:
13261:
13171:
13136:
13081:
12975:
12926:
12869:
12825:
12737:
12608:
12424:
12351:
12316:
12267:
12170:
12127:
12076:
12014:
11956:
11905:
11895:
11872:
11825:
11798:
11788:
11762:
11703:
11662:
11613:
11609:
11563:
11484:
11427:
11392:
11387:
11352:
11302:
11267:
11218:
11208:
11169:
11165:
11134:
11126:
10950:
10883:
10840:
10797:
10746:
10703:
10698:
10663:
10636:
10593:
10540:
10489:
10484:
10467:
10448:
10391:
10348:
10305:
10262:
10193:
10150:
10106:
10056:
10014:
10000:
9965:
9960:
9921:
9886:
9834:
9759:
9700:
9659:
9655:
9598:
9563:
9559:
9528:
9493:
9483:
9437:
9387:
9336:
9331:
9314:
9287:
9224:
9165:
9116:
9057:
9022:
9008:
8973:
8922:
8908:
8865:
8828:
8817:
8797:
8746:
8711:
8662:
8587:
8526:
8477:
8428:
8387:
8338:
8303:
8299:
8268:
8233:
8229:
8198:
8155:
8114:
8077:
8022:
7981:
7940:
7897:
7860:
7834:
7820:
7788:
7739:
7682:
7672:
7641:
7600:
7565:
7461:
7404:
7369:
7345:
7296:
7239:
7186:
7143:
7091:
7042:
6996:
6991:
6974:
6914:
Cressey D (3 October 2012). "'Arsenic-life' Bacterium Prefers Phosphorus after all".
6800:
6733:
6698:
6663:
6560:
6517:
6513:
6467:
6399:
6246:
6215:
6203:
6157:
6153:
6104:
6062:
6048:
6013:
5964:
5921:
5886:
5832:
5791:
5787:
5717:
5674:
5625:
5564:
5514:
5479:
5474:
5439:
5420:
5363:
5314:
5268:
5225:
5190:
5172:
5131:
5123:
5082:
5047:
5039:
4969:
4946:
4928:
4863:
4855:
4805:
4787:
4746:
4708:
4700:
4665:
4657:
4653:
4607:
4599:
4568:
4542:
4524:
4473:
4463:
4433:
4408:
4401:
4327:
4278:
4224:
4167:
4056:
4052:
3848:
3760:
3650:
3425:
3343:
3289:
3258:
3217:
3171:
3007:
2987:
2785:
2746:
2583:
2316:
2307:
1587:
843:
472:
357:
236:
15148:
14365:, June 1953. First American newspaper coverage of the discovery of the DNA structure
14314:
13848:
13684:
13232:"Independent functions of viral protein and nucleic acid in growth of bacteriophage"
12881:
12722:
12363:
12252:
11968:
11868:
11439:
11181:
10895:
10648:
10501:
10317:
10205:
10162:
10068:
9348:
9299:
8877:
8782:
7846:
7473:
6931:
6745:
6169:
5933:
5869:
Hüttenhofer A, Schattner P, Polacek N (May 2005). "Non-coding RNAs: hope or hype?".
5526:
5034:
5017:
4720:
3373:, have also been formed in the laboratory under conditions mimicking those found in
2644:
A gene is a sequence of DNA that contains genetic information and can influence the
2568:". However, some DNA sequences that do not code protein may still encode functional
2201:. Other base modifications include adenine methylation in bacteria, the presence of
15731:
15305:
14727:
14702:
14324:
14294:
14279:
13977:
13810:
13732:
13722:
13653:
13631:
13553:
13536:
13364:
13354:
13251:
13243:
13210:
13183:
13163:
13126:
13118:
13053:
12965:
12961:
12957:
12916:
12908:
12861:
12817:
12701:
12670:
12639:
12598:
12416:
12343:
12306:
12298:
12257:
12247:
12209:
12182:
12162:
12119:
12088:
12066:
12058:
12026:
12006:
11946:
11936:
11864:
11752:
11742:
11693:
11652:
11644:
11605:
11496:
11474:
11419:
11382:
11372:
11294:
11257:
11249:
11200:
11161:
11116:
11099:
10940:
10930:
10875:
10832:
10809:
10789:
10758:
10738:
10693:
10683:
10632:
10628:
10605:
10585:
10552:
10532:
10479:
10438:
10430:
10383:
10360:
10340:
10297:
10274:
10254:
10185:
10140:
10098:
10048:
10004:
9996:
9955:
9913:
9876:
9868:
9824:
9820:
9816:
9749:
9739:
9690:
9651:
9590:
9555:
9520:
9475:
9449:
9429:
9399:
9379:
9326:
9277:
9269:
9214:
9204:
9155:
9147:
9106:
9096:
9049:
9012:
9004:
8963:
8953:
8912:
8904:
8857:
8787:
8777:
8738:
8701:
8693:
8652:
8644:
8577:
8569:
8516:
8508:
8467:
8418:
8377:
8330:
8295:
8260:
8225:
8190:
8147:
8012:
7971:
7932:
7889:
7824:
7816:
7778:
7770:
7729:
7721:
7664:
7631:
7592:
7555:
7545:
7453:
7394:
7386:
7335:
7286:
7278:
7231:
7198:
7178:
7133:
7125:
7081:
7073:
7032:
6986:
6919:
6892:
6790:
6780:
6725:
6690:
6655:
6613:
6548:
6509:
6479:
6459:
6411:
6391:
6335:
6290:
6242:
6238:
6195:
6149:
6116:
6096:
6052:
6044:
6003:
5995:
5956:
5913:
5878:
5822:
5783:
5729:
5709:
5664:
5615:
5605:
5556:
5506:
5469:
5459:
5410:
5402:
5353:
5345:
5306:
5280:
5260:
5217:
5180:
5162:
5113:
5074:
5029:
4936:
4920:
4847:
4813:
4795:
4779:
4692:
4649:
4619:
4591:
4532:
4516:
4218:
4159:
4109:
4037:
3985:
3638:
3630:
3504:
3483:
3354:
3026:
3022:
2907:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2615:
2488:
2446:
2349:
2183:
of chromosomes. The average level of methylation varies between organisms—the worm
2176:
2125:
1833:
1642:
1167:
1150:), usually takes the place of thymine in RNA and differs from thymine by lacking a
682:
643:
518:
364:
151:
14289:
13429:
12436:
12197:
10221:"RCSB PDB – 1M6G: Structural Characterisation of the Holliday Junction TCGGTACCGA"
9053:
7663:. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 301. pp. 283–315.
7251:
4374:
4151:
2648:
of an organism. Within a gene, the sequence of bases along a DNA strand defines a
1802:
15429:
15400:
15125:
14962:
14808:
14587:
14146:
13888:
12541:
11941:
10721:
Lindahl T (April 1993). "Instability and decay of the primary structure of DNA".
10288:
Pál C, Papp B, Lercher MJ (May 2006). "An integrated view of protein evolution".
10129:"The reverse transcriptase of HIV-1: from enzymology to therapeutic intervention"
10127:
Tarrago-Litvak L, Andréola ML, Nevinsky GA, Sarih-Cottin L, Litvak S (May 1994).
9940:
9209:
9101:
8958:
7867:
6436:
5856:
4305:
4194:
4135:
In 1962, after Franklin's death, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins jointly received the
4064:
4048:
3932:
3897:
3884:
3868:
3852:
3813:
3805:
3670:
3642:
3560:
3552:
3459:
3311:
3284:. The first step in recombination is a double-stranded break caused by either an
3175:
3060:
2871:
2742:
2696:
2454:
2338:
Many mutagens fit into the space between two adjacent base pairs, this is called
2279:
2263:
2084:
2035:
1795:
1771:
1680:
1627:
1005:
851:
755:
when the two strands separate. A large part of DNA (more than 98% for humans) is
752:
713:
673:
The two DNA strands are known as polynucleotides as they are composed of simpler
13057:
13039:"Some recent developments in the X-ray study of proteins and related structures"
12821:
12491:[On the distribution of hypoxanthins in the animal and plant kingdoms].
11721:
Torabi SF, Wu P, McGhee CE, Chen L, Hwang K, Zheng N, Cheng J, Lu Y (May 2015).
11204:
9720:"A global transcriptional regulatory role for c-Myc in Burkitt's lymphoma cells"
9479:
9258:"Diversity of prokaryotic chromosomal proteins and the origin of the nucleosome"
8848:
Vlassov VV, Laktionov PP, Rykova EY (July 2007). "Extracellular nucleic acids".
8194:
6268:"The Structure of Sodium Thymonucleate Fibres I. The Influence of Water Content"
5592:
Piovesan A, Pelleri MC, Antonaros F, Strippoli P, Caracausi M, Vitale L (2019).
5118:
5101:
4569:"Molecular structure of nucleic acids; a structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid"
4063:", at high hydration levels of DNA. This photo was given to Watson and Crick by
3808:
compared to electronic devices. However, high costs, slow read and write times (
3539:. In DNA profiling, the lengths of variable sections of repetitive DNA, such as
1039:
A section of DNA. The bases lie horizontally between the two spiraling strands (
15621:
15521:
15424:
15241:
14952:
14924:
14717:
14657:
14557:
13707:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
13558:
13531:
13394:
What Is Life?: investigating the nature of life in the age of synthetic biology
13339:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
11727:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
11357:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
11121:
11094:
10915:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
10668:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
10145:
10128:
9724:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
9695:
9678:
9474:. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 274. pp. 1–22.
8216:
Ferguson LR, Denny WA (September 1991). "The genetic toxicology of acridines".
8069:
7596:
7457:
7340:
7315:
6765:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
6761:"Z-DNA-binding proteins can act as potent effectors of gene expression in vivo"
5444:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4457:
4212:
4206:
4025:
3959:
3947:
3879:
3836:
3809:
3736:
3618:
3613:
3576:
3408:
3158:
3107:
2978:. Nucleases that hydrolyse nucleotides from the ends of DNA strands are called
2754:
2714:
2672:
2569:
2565:
2373:
2312:
2275:
2255:
2214:
2180:
2018:, while a higher number is also possible but this would be against the natural
1984:
1898:
1618:
1596:
1555:
1530:
1479:-content have more strongly interacting strands, while short helices with high
962:
953:, and a base linked to a sugar and to one or more phosphate groups is called a
942:
919:
775:
of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes genetic information.
763:. The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are thus
756:
725:
705:
659:
619:
412:
337:
12946:"Bacterial gene transfer by natural genetic transformation in the environment"
12912:
12674:
12643:
12420:
12347:
12302:
10911:"Carbonaceous meteorites contain a wide range of extraterrestrial nucleobases"
10879:
10836:
10589:
10189:
9594:
9151:
7365:"Hachimoji DNA and RNA: A genetic system with eight building blocks (paywall)"
7282:
6923:
6617:
6340:
6295:
6140:
Champoux JJ (2001). "DNA topoisomerases: structure, function, and mechanism".
5882:
5610:
5540:
Isaksson J, Acharya S, Barman J, Cheruku P, Chattopadhyaya J (December 2004).
4851:
2239:
1865:
1693:
Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
15715:
15456:
15446:
15327:
15282:
15260:
15153:
14840:
14108:
The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA
14101:
12774:Успехи экспериментальной биологии (Advances in Experimental Biology) series B
12102:
Ishitsuka Y, Ha T (May 2009). "DNA nanotechnology: a nanomachine goes live".
11894:(2nd ed.). Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
11567:
11130:
9872:
8334:
7976:
7959:
7668:
7550:
5332:
Nikolova EN, Zhou H, Gottardo FL, Alvey HS, Kimsey IJ, Al-Hashimi HM (2013).
5176:
5167:
5127:
5086:
5043:
4932:
4859:
4791:
4704:
4661:
4603:
4528:
4477:
4352:
4263:
4254:
4174:
4115:
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
4077:
4005:
3840:
3767:
3756:
3732:
3662:
3593:
3588:
3548:
3544:
3532:
3499:
3206:
3163:
3049:
3045:
2999:
2737:
2710:
2649:
2587:
2551:
2496:
2482:
2299:
2210:
2039:
2006:
1979:
1779:
1700:
1672:
1664:
1658:
1622:
1422:
1405:
1383:
1310:
1181:
1048:
927:
923:
895:
839:
807:
733:
717:
663:
14244:
was created from a revision of this article dated 12 February 2007
13778:
Pray L (2008). "Discovery of DNA structure and function: Watson and Crick".
12213:
12166:
11909:
11802:
11747:
11540:
11377:
10935:
9744:
9433:
8382:
8357:
7725:
7390:
5464:
4830:
Ghosh A, Bansal M (April 2003). "A glossary of DNA structures from A to Z".
3551:, and first used in forensic science to convict Colin Pitchfork in the 1988
3021:
can rejoin cut or broken DNA strands. Ligases are particularly important in
1877:
At the ends of the linear chromosomes are specialized regions of DNA called
15721:
15539:
15359:
15332:
15277:
15196:
15027:
14957:
14826:
14667:
14547:
14304:
14241:
13991:
13844:
13824:
13746:
13645:
13567:
13378:
13265:
13175:
13140:
13085:
12930:
12873:
12829:
12612:
12428:
12355:
12320:
12271:
12174:
12131:
12123:
12080:
12018:
11960:
11876:
11780:
11766:
11666:
11306:
11271:
11222:
11138:
11005:
10954:
10887:
10844:
10801:
10688:
10640:
10597:
10544:
10493:
10452:
10352:
10309:
10266:
10197:
10110:
10060:
9969:
9925:
9890:
9763:
9704:
9663:
9602:
9532:
9511:
Thomas JO (August 2001). "HMG1 and 2: architectural DNA-binding proteins".
9497:
9441:
9340:
9228:
9169:
9120:
9061:
9026:
8977:
8926:
8869:
8801:
8750:
8715:
8666:
8648:
8591:
8530:
8481:
8432:
8391:
8342:
8272:
8202:
8159:
8026:
8017:
8000:
7944:
7901:
7792:
7743:
7686:
7645:
7604:
7569:
7465:
7408:
7349:
7300:
7243:
7190:
7147:
7077:
6804:
6785:
6737:
6702:
6694:
6471:
6403:
6207:
6161:
6108:
6017:
5968:
5925:
5890:
5836:
5678:
5629:
5568:
5483:
5424:
5367:
5229:
5221:
5194:
5135:
5102:"Biosynthesis and Function of Modified Bases in Bacteria and Their Viruses"
4950:
4867:
4611:
4546:
4178:"confession", and the suspect was exonerated from the murder-rape charges.
4081:
4029:
4009:
3939:
3917:
3913:
3844:
3801:
3783:
3740:
3674:
3471:
3455:
3285:
3229:
2983:
2680:
2661:
2631:
2492:
2466:
2433:
2429:
2381:
2357:
2197:
to leave a thymine base, so methylated cytosines are particularly prone to
2062:
1970:
1931:
1902:
1860:
1829:
1775:
1560:
1318:
1151:
973:
938:
831:
788:
647:
631:
402:
139:
13727:
12979:
12741:
11707:
11617:
11488:
11431:
11396:
10750:
10707:
10411:"Clarifying the mechanics of DNA strand exchange in meiotic recombination"
10395:
10154:
10126:
10018:
9838:
9567:
9391:
9291:
9273:
8307:
8237:
8151:
7985:
7838:
7805:
7095:
7062:"Normal human chromosomes have long G-rich telomeric overhangs at one end"
7046:
7037:
7020:
7000:
6896:
6667:
6521:
6250:
6066:
5795:
5721:
5518:
5318:
5272:
5051:
4809:
4712:
4669:
4326:(6th ed.). Garland. p. Chapter 4: DNA, Chromosomes and Genomes.
3673:
algorithms, which allow researchers to predict the presence of particular
15451:
15297:
15164:
15130:
15059:
14647:
14311:
14301:
14037:
13953:
13930:
13359:
13122:
11648:
11173:
9136:"Recent advances in the prenatal interrogation of the human fetal genome"
8512:
7129:
6646:
Wahl MC, Sundaralingam M (1997). "Crystal structures of A-DNA duplexes".
4924:
4069:
3990:
3728:
3719:
3622:
3528:
3487:
3404:
3398:
3374:
3347:
3277:
3224:. The four separate DNA strands are coloured red, blue, green and yellow.
3116:
3099:
2979:
2875:
2867:
2807:
2788:
eDNA has seen increased use in the natural sciences as a survey tool for
2555:
2500:
2401:
2361:
2345:
2291:
2194:
2153:
2140:
2051:
1841:
1807:
1583:
1487:
1460:
1426:
1190:
977:
890:
847:
835:
709:
15252:
14194:
13982:
13957:
13636:
13247:
12062:
12010:
11195:
Houdebine LM (2007). "Transgenic animal models in biomedical research".
10566:
Orgel LE (2004). "Prebiotic chemistry and the origin of the RNA world".
10434:
9917:
9642:
Myers LC, Kornberg RD (2000). "Mediator of transcriptional regulation".
8573:
8548:, Dutta A, Guigó R, Gingeras TR, Margulies EH, et al. (June 2007).
7440:
5984:"Properties of overlapping genes are conserved across microbial genomes"
5669:
5644:
5078:
4766:
IUPAC-IUB Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (CBN) (December 1970).
4221: – Health problem caused by one or more abnormalities in the genome
3025:
DNA replication, as they join the short segments of DNA produced at the
2902:
2671:
In transcription, the codons of a gene are copied into messenger RNA by
1305:
779:
strands are created using DNA strands as a template in a process called
15511:
15220:
15215:
15210:
15088:
14652:
14521:
14501:
14476:
13167:
11596:
Breaker RR, Joyce GF (December 1994). "A DNA enzyme that cleaves RNA".
9524:
8861:
7774:
7636:
7619:
6552:
5999:
4696:
4520:
4209: – Collection of microscopic DNA spots attached to a solid surface
3909:
3872:
3724:
3478:
organisms produced can be used to produce products such as recombinant
3378:
3147:
3143:
3079:
3030:
3018:
2971:
2863:
2859:
2730:
2653:
2603:
2599:
2474:
2421:
2409:
2365:
2283:
2190:
2047:
1886:
1882:
1564:
1410:
1131:
958:
954:
950:
946:
915:
855:
803:
792:
737:
685:
678:
332:
246:
226:
203:
122:
62:
14151:
The third man of the double helix the autobiography of Maurice Wilkins
12560:[Further contributions to the chemistry of the cell nucleus].
11423:
10619:
Davenport RJ (May 2001). "Ribozymes. Making copies in the RNA world".
10220:
9778:
9617:
8893:"DNA as a nutrient: novel role for bacterial competence gene homologs"
8697:
8606:
8423:
8406:
7893:
7182:
7060:
Wright WE, Tesmer VM, Huffman KE, Levene SD, Shay JW (November 1997).
5917:
5560:
5349:
4882:
4783:
3966:, stating that in DNA from any species of any organism, the amount of
3458:
make intensive use of these techniques in recombinant DNA technology.
1952:
1095:. Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine, forming
802:
Within eukaryotic cells, DNA is organized into long structures called
15375:
12865:
11479:
11454:
11238:"Multigene engineering: dawn of an exciting new era in biotechnology"
10793:
10742:
10258:
8472:
7829:
6660:
10.1002/(SICI)1097-0282(1997)44:1<45::AID-BIP4>3.0.CO;2-#
6463:
6395:
5713:
5264:
4906:
4595:
4230:
3925:
3692:
3394:
3382:
3327:
3315:
3151:
3124:
3120:
3094:. These enzymes function by repeatedly adding a nucleotide to the 3′
2892:
2887:
2851:
2818:
All the functions of DNA depend on interactions with proteins. These
2701:
2645:
2470:
2413:
2377:
2369:
2149:
1906:
1889:
systems in the cell from treating them as damage to be corrected. In
1845:
1837:
1746:
1641:, blur the distinction between sense and antisense strands by having
1579:
1568:
1544:
1538:
1522:
1401:
1343:
1103:
969:
931:
875:
867:
811:
729:
289:
162:
155:
101:
12658:
12489:"Ueber die Verbreitung des Hypoxanthins im Thier- und Pflanzenreich"
11322:"From the crime scene to the courtroom: the journey of a DNA sample"
10536:
10344:
10301:
9941:"Unraveling DNA helicases. Motif, structure, mechanism and function"
9039:
8679:
8447:
8320:
4166:
to decipher the genetic code. These findings represent the birth of
3197:
2579:
1945:
15651:
15616:
15529:
15380:
15310:
15108:
15098:
15022:
14692:
14662:
14506:
14496:
14424:
10465:
9718:
Li Z, Van Calcar S, Qu C, Cavenee WK, Zhang MQ, Ren B (July 2003).
9679:"Biological control through regulated transcriptional coactivators"
8001:"Regulation and mechanisms of mammalian double-strand break repair"
6199:
4320:
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2014).
4188:
4060:
4021:
3971:
3744:
3654:
3597:
3390:
3366:
3319:
3268:, where the two chromosomes involved share very similar sequences.
3128:
3095:
3056:
2995:
2963:
2896:
2706:
2676:
2595:
2594:
Some noncoding DNA sequences play structural roles in chromosomes.
2512:
2508:
2504:
2396:
2353:
2244:
2230:
2198:
2157:
2120:
2105:
2073:
1878:
1870:
1705:
1646:
1600:
1068:
1056:
898:
shown as dotted lines. Each end of the double helix has an exposed
859:
689:
635:
627:
348:
231:
221:
178:
15702:
14777:
14350:
12285:
Panda D, Molla KA, Baig MJ, Swain A, Behera D, Dash M (May 2018).
11001:"DNA Building Blocks Can Be Made in Space, NASA Evidence Suggests"
9383:
9243:"Researchers Detect Land Animals Using DNA in Nearby Water Bodies"
8543:
8407:"The bacterial nucleoid: a highly organized and dynamic structure"
5645:"The DNA sequence and biological annotation of human chromosome 1"
5380:
4456:
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Peter W (2002).
3438:
Methods have been developed to purify DNA from organisms, such as
2668:
formed from a sequence of three nucleotides (e.g. ACT, CAG, TTT).
1309:
DNA major and minor grooves. The latter is a binding site for the
15534:
14844:
14335:
13475:
12512:] (in German). Strassburg, Germany: K.J. Trübner. p. 19.
11199:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 360. pp. 163–202.
8056:
If we lived long enough, sooner or later we all would get cancer.
7021:"The telomerase reverse transcriptase: components and regulation"
6499:
5591:
4236:
4200:
4072:
for DNA crystals revealed to Crick that the two DNA strands were
3979:
3975:
3967:
3704:
is the field that seeks to design nanoscale structures using the
3479:
3467:
3451:
3370:
3339:
3335:
2855:
2842:
2789:
2771:
2679:
that reads the RNA sequence by base-pairing the messenger RNA to
2560:
2535:
2271:
2259:
2161:
2130:
1766:
1634:
1552:
1084:
1076:
1060:
981:
922:. Both chains are coiled around the same axis, and have the same
911:
879:
863:
827:
767:. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of nucleobases (or
701:
697:
693:
674:
651:
615:
86:Gene
79:DNA
63:Chromosome
15685:
14320:
11034:"NASA Ames Reproduces the Building Blocks of Life in Laboratory"
8138:
Hoeijmakers JH (October 2009). "DNA damage, aging, and cancer".
8105:
Bernstein H, Payne CM, Bernstein C, Garewal H, Dvorak K (2008).
6854:"Arsenic-Eating Bacteria Opens New Possibilities for Alien Life"
5381:
Clausen-Schaumann H, Rief M, Tolksdorf C, Gaub HE (April 2000).
5151:"Epigenetics of Modified DNA Bases: 5-Methylcytosine and Beyond"
4257: – specific region of DNA that that codes for ribosomal RNA
3804:
for information has enormous potential since it has much higher
3029:
into a complete copy of the DNA template. They are also used in
2564:, among species, represent a long-standing puzzle known as the "
2487:
Genomic DNA is tightly and orderly packed in the process called
1035:
112:
15549:
15544:
15494:
14516:
14491:
13913:
The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology
11539:. National Institute of Justice. September 2006. Archived from
8286:
Jeffrey AM (1985). "DNA modification by chemical carcinogens".
7659:
Walsh CP, Xu GL (2006). "Cytosine methylation and DNA repair".
7211:
5691:
3520:
3362:
3083:
3006:. In technology, these sequence-specific nucleases are used in
2967:
2919:
2750:
2611:
2607:
2539:
2425:
2385:
2328:
2247:
2043:
1919:
1848:
1668:
1633:
A few DNA sequences in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and more in
1366:
1353:
1171:
1166:
Modified bases occur in DNA. The first of these recognized was
1143:
1115:
1029:
985:
961:
comprising multiple linked nucleotides (as in DNA) is called a
823:
815:
784:
741:
655:
241:
216:
15668:
14375:
The Register of Francis Crick Personal Papers 1938 – 2007
10515:
Joyce GF (July 2002). "The antiquity of RNA-based evolution".
8104:
4494:
4103:
Pencil sketch of the DNA double helix by Francis Crick in 1953
4089:. On 28 February 1953 Crick interrupted patrons' lunchtime at
2837:
2042:. It will be fully ionized at a normal cellular pH, releasing
572:
524:
15627:
15352:
14866:
11285:
Job D (November 2002). "Plant biotechnology in agriculture".
9182:
8939:
7878:
6537:"Structural Order and Partial Disorder in Biological systems"
6536:
5018:"Modified oligonucleotides: synthesis and strategy for users"
3512:
3508:
3281:
3139:
2956:
2948:
2930:
processes that control responses to environmental changes or
2745:. Here, the two strands are separated and then each strand's
2295:
2206:
1811:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1638:
1331:
988:) sugar. The sugars are joined by phosphate groups that form
819:
639:
560:
143:
13471:"Rosalind Franklin's role in DNA discovery gets a new twist"
12287:"DNA as a digital information storage device: hope or hype?"
10970:"NASA Researchers: DNA Building Blocks Can Be Made in Space"
9985:"Polymerase structures and function: variations on a theme?"
8107:"Cancer and aging as consequences of un-repaired DNA damage"
7914:
5539:
5437:
5334:"A historical account of Hoogsteen base-pairs in duplex DNA"
4968:(4th ed.). Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Barlett Learning.
1621:
is called a "sense" sequence if it is the same as that of a
1047:
The DNA double helix is stabilized primarily by two forces:
14393:
12506:
Untersuchungen über die Nucleine und ihre Spaltungsprodukte
11038:
10973:
10908:
10822:
6591:"X-ray scattering by partially disordered membrane systems"
6228:
5868:
5438:
Chalikian TV, Völker J, Plum GE, Breslauer KJ (July 1999).
4639:
4142:
In an influential presentation in 1957, Crick laid out the
3524:
3516:
3358:
3192:
2664:. The genetic code consists of three-letter 'words' called
2554:
in eukaryotic genomes and the extraordinary differences in
2543:
2478:
2437:
2139:
Structure of cytosine with and without the 5-methyl group.
2093:
2070:
Pure DNA extracted from cells forms white, stringy clumps.
2031:
1940:
1361:
1348:
993:
759:, meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for
667:
593:
554:
548:
147:
85:
7267:"DNA enables nanoscale control of the structure of matter"
7112:
Burge S, Parkinson GN, Hazel P, Todd AK, Neidle S (2006).
5594:"On the length, weight and GC content of the human genome"
4682:
3723:
method) and three-dimensional structures in the shapes of
3314:
as it can both transmit genetic information and carry out
2986:
cut within strands. The most frequently used nucleases in
2098:
1810:
may undergo a larger change in conformation and adopt the
716:. The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by
630:
instructions for the development, functioning, growth and
557:
530:
15235:
14486:
14368:
14061:
DNA: A Graphic Guide to the Molecule that Shook the World
13867:
13021:
Les sciences biologiques et médicales en France 1920–1950
11409:
11071:
9361:
8940:
Mulcahy H, Charron-Mazenod L, Lewenza S (November 2008).
7059:
6820:"Arsenic-loving bacteria may help in hunt for alien life"
5331:
4907:
Yakovchuk P, Protozanova E, Frank-Kamenetskii MD (2006).
4462:(Fourth ed.). New York and London: Garland Science.
4093:
3997:
3921:
3864:
3602:
systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment
3351:
2531:, which control transcription of the open reading frame.
2112:
2015:
2010:
1742:
1154:
on its ring. In addition to RNA and DNA, many artificial
1025:
776:
575:
539:
211:
14284:
11630:
10771:
9857:"Structural and mechanistic conservation in DNA ligases"
8445:
6715:
5148:
4215: – Process of determining the nucleic acid sequence
3863:
who, in 1869, discovered a microscopic substance in the
1451:
The stability of the dsDNA form depends not only on the
968:
The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating
14003:. Plainview, N.Y: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
12039:
7111:
6885:"Arsenic-eating microbe may redefine chemistry of life"
5946:
4455:
4319:
4272: – family of non-destructive analytical techniques
4124:
B-DNA X-ray patterns, and which supported the presence
3743:
proteins. DNA and other nucleic acids are the basis of
3625:, search and manipulate biological data, including DNA
3166:
transcript until it reaches a region of DNA called the
3123:
that contains multiple accessory subunits, such as the
2078:
1445:
945:
of the molecule (which holds the chain together) and a
14082:
The Stuff of Life: A Graphic Guide to Genetics and DNA
10857:
10568:
Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
10122:
10120:
9583:
Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
8847:
8446:
Wolfsberg TG, McEntyre J, Schuler GD (February 2001).
8404:
7756:
6578:. Amsterdam – New York: North-Holland Publishers.
5642:
4051:, a graduate student working under the supervision of
3657:
that make them distinct. These techniques, especially
2546:, with over 50% of human DNA consisting of non-coding
15605:
13915:(2nd ed.). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
13796:
12510:
Investigations into nuclein and its cleavage products
12379:"Ueber die chemische Zusammensetzung der Eiterzellen"
11984:"Folding DNA to create nanoscale shapes and patterns"
11197:
Target Discovery and Validation Reviews and Protocols
9717:
9580:
8250:
7534:"Epigenetic regulation of human embryonic stem cells"
6033:"Diversity of coding strategies in influenza viruses"
5811:"Mitochondria in oocyte aging: current understanding"
5808:
5297:
Pabo CO, Sauer RT (1984). "Protein-DNA recognition".
5207:
2614:
for the creation of new genes through the process of
2538:, only a small fraction of the total sequence of the
1529:, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the
1016:(sometimes called polarity) to each DNA strand. In a
587:
584:
578:
566:
563:
542:
536:
533:
13868:
Calladine CR, Drew HR, Luisi BF, Travers AA (2003).
12381:[On the chemical composition of pus cells].
11631:
Chandra M, Sachdeva A, Silverman SK (October 2009).
10664:"What is the optimum size for the genetic alphabet?"
10218:
10088:
9545:
9470:
Ito T (2003). "Nucleosome Assembly and Remodeling".
8633:"The role of heterochromatin in centromere function"
8113:. New York: Nova Science Publishers. pp. 1–47.
7759:"N6-methyladenine: the other methylated base of DNA"
7757:
Ratel D, Ravanat JL, Berger F, Wion D (March 2006).
6811:
5809:
Zhang D, Keilty D, Zhang ZF, Chian RC (March 2017).
4881:
Edwards KJ, Brown DG, Spink N, Skelly JV, Neidle S.
4274:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
4259:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
4000:
in Cambridge, England commemorating Crick and Watson
3770:. This field of phylogenetics is a powerful tool in
2656:
sequences of proteins is determined by the rules of
662:), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of
590:
569:
551:
545:
521:
44:
13104:
13046:
Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology
12284:
12144:
11633:"DNA-catalyzed sequence-specific hydrolysis of DNA"
11591:
11589:
11452:
10330:
10117:
10031:
9255:
8172:
8068:Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. (2002).
8067:
6437:"Molecular structure of deoxypentose nucleic acids"
6434:
5242:
4880:
4251: – Succession of nucleotides in a nucleic acid
3629:data. These have led to widely applied advances in
3389:(PAHs), the most carbon-rich chemical found in the
2725:. This enzyme makes discontinuous segments (called
1663:DNA can be twisted like a rope in a process called
1114:The nucleobases are classified into two types: the
747:Both strands of double-stranded DNA store the same
527:
32:For a non-technical introduction to the topic, see
14105:
14079:
13935:The path to the double helix: the discovery of DNA
13870:Understanding DNA: the molecule & how it works
13305:
12333:
11720:
11679:
10998:
9676:
8405:Thanbichler M, Wang SC, Shapiro L (October 2005).
8355:
7160:
7114:"Quadruplex DNA: sequence, topology and structure"
4740:
4400:
4191: – Any chromosome other than a sex chromosome
3962:developed and published observations now known as
3774:. If DNA sequences within a species are compared,
3442:, and to manipulate it in the laboratory, such as
2705:DNA replication: The double helix is unwound by a
1987:to construct geometric shapes, see the section on
1498:content, making the strands easier to pull apart.
1193:control of gene expression in plants and animals.
13105:Avery OT, Macleod CM, McCarty M (February 1944).
12943:
12195:
11455:"Individual-specific 'fingerprints' of human DNA"
9256:Sandman K, Pereira SL, Reeve JN (December 1998).
7699:
7421:
7362:
6645:
6369:"Molecular configuration in sodium thymonucleate"
5859:JCBN/NC-IUB Newsletter 1989. Retrieved 7 May 2008
3621:involves the development of techniques to store,
3264:The most common form of chromosomal crossover is
3178:with multiple regulatory and accessory subunits.
2795:
15713:
13761:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1968"
13590:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962"
13196:
13078:Symposia of the Society for Experimental Biology
12578:
11680:Carmi N, Shultz LA, Breaker RR (December 1996).
11586:
9903:
9033:
8728:
7620:"DNA methylation patterns and epigenetic memory"
6972:
6231:Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics
3157:Transcription is carried out by a DNA-dependent
2625:
2424:. The set of chromosomes in a cell makes up its
2074:Chemical modifications and altered DNA packaging
996:of adjacent sugar rings. These are known as the
941:. The nucleotide contains both a segment of the
12236:"Dating branches on the tree of life using DNA"
11537:"DNA Identification in Mass Fatality Incidents"
8990:
6435:Wilkins MH, Stokes AR, Wilson HR (April 1953).
6366:
6310:
6265:
5981:
5587:
5585:
5496:
4239: – Cell division producing haploid gametes
3582:
3040:
2175:For one example, cytosine methylation produces
1973:can form networks containing multiple branches.
13523:
13312:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
13199:"Chargaff's Rules: the Work of Erwin Chargaff"
13147:
12723:"The search for the chemical structure of DNA"
12663:Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft
12632:Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft
12198:"Analysis of aptamer discovery and technology"
11319:
11235:
11025:
10287:
9074:
8630:
7018:
6946:"Structure and packing of human telomeric DNA"
6680:
6573:
5383:"Mechanical stability of single DNA molecules"
5099:
5064:
4197: – Scientific study of crystal structures
3859:DNA was first isolated by the Swiss physician
2760:
2610:, although they can occasionally serve as raw
15180:
14793:
14409:
14077:
14042:Francis Crick: discoverer of the genetic code
13886:
13700:
13490:
13326:
12720:
12327:
12278:
11785:Bioinformatics: The Machine Learning Approach
11350:
11086:
11058:
9641:
9412:
8933:
8884:
8841:
8215:
7998:
7316:"Four new DNA letters double life's alphabet"
6362:
6360:
5685:
5015:
4900:
4562:
4560:
4558:
4556:
3346:) may have been formed extraterrestrially in
3142:enzyme involved in the infection of cells by
2813:
1844:. A report in 2010 of the possibility in the
1801:Compared to B-DNA, the A-DNA form is a wider
1686:
1059:nucleobases. The four bases found in DNA are
681:. Each nucleotide is composed of one of four
622:chains that coil around each other to form a
493:
13703:"The Replication of DNA in Escherichia Coli"
13683:(Speech). Cambridge, England. Archived from
13609:"The double helix and the 'wronged heroine'"
13462:
13414:
13335:"A Proposed Structure For The Nucleic Acids"
13332:
13229:
13190:
12656:
12625:
11892:Bioinformatics: Sequence and Genome Analysis
11595:
10961:
10244:
10219:Thorpe JH, Gale BC, Teixeira SC, Cardin CJ.
9938:
9802:
8890:
8537:
6079:
5802:
5773:
5769:
5767:
5765:
5636:
5582:
5325:
5201:
5142:
5093:
3272:can be damaging to cells, as it can produce
2910:transcription factor bound to its DNA target
2030:The phosphate groups of DNA give it similar
1817:
1109:
791:, these RNA strands specify the sequence of
14377:at Mandeville Special Collections Library,
14332:National Centre for Biotechnology Education
14100:
14044:. Ashland, OH: Eminent Lives, Atlas Books.
13842:
13529:
13297:
13036:
12944:Lorenz MG, Wackernagel W (September 1994).
12558:"Weitere Beiträge zur Chemie des Zellkerns"
12101:
11779:
10967:
10508:
10408:
10373:
9982:
9850:
9848:
9776:
8991:Berne C, Kysela DT, Brun YV (August 2010).
8984:
8349:
8137:
8076:(4th ed.). New York: Garland Science.
8042:"Unearthing Prehistoric Tumors, and Debate"
7957:
7531:
6135:
6133:
6030:
5292:
5290:
5149:Kumar S, Chinnusamy V, Mohapatra T (2018).
5058:
4829:
4566:
3750:
3086:that synthesize polynucleotide chains from
2959:(green) in a complex with its substrate DNA
1918:structure is called a displacement loop or
1806:the bases have been chemically modified by
15194:
15187:
15173:
14948:Precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA / hnRNA)
14800:
14786:
14416:
14402:
13308:In pursuit of the gene: from Darwin to DNA
13197:Kresge N, Simoni RD, Hill RL (June 2005).
11682:"In vitro selection of self-cleaving DNAs"
11353:"Likelihood ratios for DNA identification"
9854:
9677:Spiegelman BM, Heinrich R (October 2004).
9133:
8808:
7422:Burghardt B, Hartmann AK (February 2007).
6973:Greider CW, Blackburn EH (December 1985).
6968:
6966:
6882:
6430:
6428:
6357:
4553:
4227: – DNA testing to infer relationships
2721:copy. Another DNA polymerase binds to the
2550:. The reasons for the presence of so much
666:that are essential for all known forms of
500:
486:
14058:
13981:
13814:
13803:The Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences
13736:
13726:
13635:
13557:
13368:
13358:
13255:
13214:
13130:
13019:. In Debru C, Gayon J, Picard JF (eds.).
12969:
12920:
12764:The physical-chemical basis of morphology
12705:
12602:
12310:
12261:
12251:
12070:
11981:
11950:
11940:
11858:
11844:
11756:
11746:
11697:
11656:
11478:
11386:
11376:
11261:
11194:
11120:
10944:
10934:
10902:
10697:
10687:
10661:
10618:
10579:
10483:
10442:
10144:
10008:
9959:
9880:
9828:
9753:
9743:
9694:
9330:
9281:
9218:
9208:
9159:
9127:
9110:
9100:
9016:
8967:
8957:
8916:
8791:
8781:
8705:
8656:
8581:
8520:
8471:
8422:
8381:
8016:
7975:
7828:
7782:
7733:
7635:
7582:
7559:
7549:
7511:"How To Extract DNA From Anything Living"
7439:
7398:
7339:
7290:
7225:
7137:
7085:
7036:
7014:
7012:
7010:
6990:
6794:
6784:
6758:
6339:
6294:
6056:
6007:
5982:Johnson ZI, Chisholm SW (November 2004).
5826:
5762:
5668:
5619:
5609:
5473:
5463:
5414:
5357:
5296:
5184:
5166:
5117:
5033:
4940:
4799:
4536:
4497:"Structural diversity of supercoiled DNA"
4451:
4449:
3470:or in the appropriate format, by using a
2057:
1126:, which are fused five- and six-membered
27:Molecule that carries genetic information
14252:, and does not reflect subsequent edits.
14235:
14153:. Cambridge, England: University Press.
13468:
13303:
13153:
12897:"The Significance of Pneumococcal Types"
12894:
12799:
12785:
12591:The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine
12587:"Albrecht Kossel, a biographical sketch"
12544:(On the chemistry of the cell nucleus),
12376:
11815:
11453:Jeffreys AJ, Wilson V, Thein SL (1985).
11151:
11092:
11031:
10175:
10103:10.1146/annurev.biochem.73.011303.073859
10053:10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.090501.150041
9845:
9068:
8814:
8033:
7107:
7105:
6847:
6845:
6576:Direct analysis of diffraction by matter
6266:Franklin RE, Gosling RG (6 March 1953).
6139:
6130:
5287:
5067:Journal of the American Chemical Society
4825:
4823:
4281: – Synthetic nucleic acid analogues
4098:
3984:
3831:
3691:
3228:
3181:
2947:
2943:
2938:
2901:
2836:
2700:
2578:
2395:
2238:
2061:
1864:
1854:
1704:
1516:
1304:
1034:
889:
161:
133:
121:long strand of DNA unraveled. The DNA's
14749:List of genetics research organizations
14145:
14017:
13071:
12992:
12845:
12771:
12757:
12474:[On nuclein in yeast, Part 2].
12196:Dunn MR, Jimenez RM, Chaput JC (2017).
11553:
11320:Curtis C, Hereward J (29 August 2017).
10720:
9472:Protein Complexes that Modify Chromatin
8494:
8285:
8039:
7999:Valerie K, Povirk LF (September 2003).
7658:
6963:
6913:
6851:
6759:Oh DB, Kim YG, Rich A (December 2002).
6425:
6181:
6179:
6089:Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering
4993:. Memorial University of Newfoundland.
4736:
4734:
4732:
4730:
4427:
4398:
4107:The 25 April 1953 issue of the journal
2970:that cut DNA strands by catalyzing the
2826:
2391:
2348:and planar molecules; examples include
2143:converts 5-methylcytosine into thymine.
1988:
1798:with a significant degree of disorder.
1756:—and also B-DNA—used analyses based on
902:phosphate on one strand and an exposed
14:
15714:
14336:Genetic Education Modules for Teachers
14276:From the official Nobel Prize web site
14269:DNA binding site prediction on protein
14126:
14036:
13907:
13872:. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press.
13606:
13496:
13011:
12851:
12687:
12555:
12521:[On xanthin and hypoxanthin].
12516:
12503:
12486:
12469:
12452:
11922:
11883:
10032:Hubscher U, Maga G, Spadari S (2002).
9976:
9615:
9510:
7480:
7313:
7264:
7007:
6907:
6903:from the original on 12 February 2012.
6817:
6588:
6534:
6367:Franklin RE, Gosling RG (April 1953).
6101:10.1146/annurev.bioeng.6.062403.132016
5903:
5100:Weigele P, Raleigh EA (October 2016).
4446:
4233: – Group of genes from one parent
4203: – Holiday celebrated on April 25
3789:
3419:
1709:From left to right, the structures of
1606:
1161:
99:
90:
83:
15168:
14968:Histone acetylation and deacetylation
14781:
14397:
14357:"Clue to chemistry of heredity found"
13799:"Forensic DNA Profiling and Database"
13797:Panneerchelvam S, Norazmi MN (2003).
13673:
13663:from the original on 17 October 2016.
13391:
13333:Pauling L, Corey RB (February 1953).
12690:"The structure of yeast nucleic acid"
12584:
12562:Zeitschrift für Physiologische Chemie
12546:Zeitschrift für physiologische Chemie
12523:Zeitschrift für physiologische Chemie
12493:Zeitschrift für physiologische Chemie
12476:Zeitschrift für physiologische Chemie
12459:Zeitschrift für physiologische Chemie
11889:
11013:from the original on 5 September 2011
10565:
10514:
9983:Joyce CM, Steitz TA (November 1995).
8891:Finkel SE, Kolter R (November 2001).
8631:Pidoux AL, Allshire RC (March 2005).
8604:
8127:from the original on 25 October 2014.
8090:from the original on 2 January 2016.
7102:
6842:
6188:Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology
5850:Designation of the two strands of DNA
4963:
4820:
4759:
4741:Berg J, Tymoczko J, Stryer L (2002).
4629:from the original on 4 February 2007.
4484:from the original on 1 November 2016.
4137:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
3681:
3649:with other DNA sequences to identify
3414:
2675:. This RNA copy is then decoded by a
2572:molecules, which are involved in the
2445:copy is then used to make a matching
2213:of uracil to produce the "J-base" in
1752:The first published reports of A-DNA
1012:the sugar-phosphate backbone confers
830:) store most of their DNA inside the
150:in the structure are colour-coded by
76:
67:
60:
15634:
15033:Ribosome-nascent chain complex (RNC)
13998:
13952:
13929:
13777:
13450:from the original on 30 January 2009
13111:The Journal of Experimental Medicine
12406:
12383:Medicinisch-chemische Untersuchungen
12233:
11332:from the original on 22 October 2017
11064:
10999:ScienceDaily Staff (9 August 2011).
10992:
9855:Doherty AJ, Suh SW (November 2000).
9413:Jenuwein T, Allis CD (August 2001).
9312:
9262:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences
8763:
7700:Kriaucionis S, Heintz N (May 2009).
7617:
7019:Nugent CI, Lundblad V (April 1998).
6864:from the original on 4 December 2010
6830:from the original on 3 December 2010
6421:from the original on 3 January 2011.
6306:from the original on 9 January 2016.
6185:
6176:
4988:
4727:
4430:Principles of Nucleic Acid Structure
4363:from the original on 5 January 2017.
3954:, supporting Griffith's suggestion (
3377:, using starting chemicals, such as
2841:Interaction of DNA (in orange) with
2590:(green) from a DNA template (orange)
2460:
2368:, and in the case of thalidomide, a
2270:DNA can be damaged by many sorts of
2079:Base modifications and DNA packaging
1842:arsenic instead of phosphorus in DNA
1563:. Chromosome 1 is the largest human
795:within proteins in a process called
732:rules (A with T and C with G), with
14807:
14388:Crick's medal goes under the hammer
14379:University of California, San Diego
13893:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
13530:Cobb M, Comfort N (25 April 2023).
12760:Физико-химические основы морфологии
11284:
11236:Daniell H, Dhingra A (April 2002).
9469:
9459:from the original on 8 August 2017.
9134:Hui L, Bianchi DW (February 2013).
8140:The New England Journal of Medicine
8054:from the original on 24 June 2017.
7964:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
7958:Beckman KB, Ames BN (August 1997).
6031:Lamb RA, Horvath CM (August 1991).
5949:Computational Biology and Chemistry
5311:10.1146/annurev.bi.53.070184.001453
4350:
4128:of the Watson and Crick structure.
3916:suggested that DNA is found in the
3712:DNA nanotechnology uses the unique
2066:Impure DNA extracted from an orange
1994:
992:between the third and fifth carbon
154:and the detailed structures of two
102:Function
24:
14222:
13958:"Quiet debut for the double helix"
13835:
13701:Meselson M, Stahl FW (July 1958).
13511:from the original on 25 April 2023
13444:"Original X-ray diffraction image"
11513:. 14 December 2006. Archived from
11351:Collins A, Morton NE (June 1994).
9803:Bickle TA, Krüger DH (June 1993).
8358:"The sequence of the human genome"
8070:"The Preventable Causes of Cancer"
7486:
6730:10.1034/j.1600-065x.2001.1840125.x
6351:from the original on 29 June 2017.
5961:10.1016/j.compbiolchem.2004.12.006
5815:Facts, Views & Vision in ObGyn
5578:from the original on 10 June 2007.
5511:10.1111/j.1365-2958.1995.tb02309.x
4567:Watson JD, Crick FH (April 1953).
4340:from the original on 14 July 2014.
4144:central dogma of molecular biology
3106:In DNA replication, DNA-dependent
3063:. They use the chemical energy in
2189:lacks cytosine methylation, while
1824:hypothetical types of biochemistry
1434:
1294:2,6-Diaminopurine (2-Aminoadenine)
906:hydroxyl group (—OH) on the other.
25:
15748:
15311:Micro
14169:
13236:The Journal of General Physiology
11574:from the original on 24 June 2017
11046:from the original on 5 March 2015
10980:from the original on 23 June 2015
8448:"Guide to the draft human genome"
7661:DNA Methylation: Basic Mechanisms
6489:from the original on 13 May 2011.
4997:from the original on 19 July 2016
3816:has prevented its practical use.
3607:
1832:have proposed the existence of a
1413:is more stable than DNA with low
1142:. A fifth pyrimidine nucleobase,
914:made from repeating units called
874:. Within eukaryotic chromosomes,
15694:
15677:
15660:
15643:
15615:
15590:
15589:
14762:
14761:
14234:
13937:. New York: Dover Publications.
13790:
13771:
13753:
13694:
13667:
13600:
13582:
13436:
13385:
13272:
13230:Hershey AD, Chase M (May 1952).
13223:
13098:
13074:"X-ray studies of nucleic acids"
13027:
13005:
12986:
12937:
12888:
12748:
12714:
12681:
12650:
12619:
12443:
12400:
12370:
12227:
12189:
12138:
12095:
12033:
11975:
11916:
11838:
11809:
11773:
11714:
11673:
11624:
11547:
11529:
11503:
11446:
11403:
11344:
11313:
11278:
11242:Current Opinion in Biotechnology
11229:
11188:
11145:
10851:
10816:
10765:
10714:
10655:
10612:
10559:
10485:10.1046/j.1432-1033.2002.03250.x
10472:European Journal of Biochemistry
10459:
10409:Neale MJ, Keeney S (July 2006).
10402:
10367:
10324:
10281:
10238:
10212:
10169:
10082:
10025:
10001:10.1128/jb.177.22.6321-6329.1995
9961:10.1111/j.1432-1033.2004.04094.x
9948:European Journal of Biochemistry
9932:
9906:Biochemical Society Transactions
9897:
9796:
9770:
9711:
9670:
9656:10.1146/annurev.biochem.69.1.729
9635:
9609:
9574:
9539:
9513:Biochemical Society Transactions
9504:
9463:
9406:
9355:
9332:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2005.04598.x
9306:
9249:
9235:
9176:
9009:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2010.07267.x
8909:10.1128/JB.183.21.6288-6293.2001
8757:
8722:
8673:
8624:
8598:
8411:Journal of Cellular Biochemistry
8109:. In Kimura H, Suzuki A (eds.).
7424:"RNA secondary structure design"
6883:Katsnelson A (2 December 2010).
6311:Franklin RE, Gosling RG (1953).
6154:10.1146/annurev.biochem.70.1.369
5906:Journal of Cellular Biochemistry
4832:Acta Crystallographica Section D
3956:Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment
3493:
3387:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
3205:
3196:
3059:are proteins that are a type of
2227:DNA damage (naturally occurring)
2111:
2104:
2097:
1951:
1944:
1365:
1352:
517:
467:
466:
353:
352:
185:
111:
52:
15266:precursor, heterogenous nuclear
15038:Post-translational modification
13422:"Double Helix of DNA: 50 Years"
13203:Journal of Biological Chemistry
12758:Koltsov HK (12 December 1927).
12519:"Ueber Xanthin und Hypoxanthin"
12457:[On nuclein in yeast].
12253:10.1186/gb-2001-3-1-reviews0001
11093:Callaway E (17 February 2021).
10968:Steigerwald J (8 August 2011).
9939:Tuteja N, Tuteja R (May 2004).
8783:10.1186/gb-2001-2-1-reviews3002
8488:
8439:
8398:
8314:
8288:Pharmacology & Therapeutics
8279:
8244:
8209:
8166:
8131:
8098:
8061:
7992:
7951:
7908:
7872:
7853:
7799:
7750:
7693:
7652:
7611:
7576:
7525:
7503:
7415:
7356:
7307:
7271:Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics
7258:
7205:
7154:
7053:
6938:
6876:
6752:
6709:
6674:
6639:
6582:
6567:
6528:
6493:
6257:
6222:
6073:
6024:
5975:
5940:
5897:
5862:
5843:
5736:
5533:
5490:
5431:
5374:
5236:
5035:10.1146/annurev.biochem.67.1.99
5009:
4991:"Watson-Crick Structure of DNA"
4982:
4957:
4874:
4676:
4633:
4407:. New York: Benjamin Cummings.
3908:In 1933, while studying virgin
3004:restriction modification system
1925:
1652:
1567:with approximately 220 million
1533:(bottom right), as well as the
1337:
1243:5-Glycosylhydroxymethylcytosine
15396:Trans-acting small interfering
15360:Enhancer RNAs
15278:Transfer
12962:10.1128/MMBR.58.3.563-602.1994
12721:Cohen JS, Portugal FH (1974).
12072:11858/00-001M-0000-0010-9362-B
11816:Gusfield D (15 January 1997).
10860:Journal of Molecular Evolution
10633:10.1126/science.292.5520.1278a
9821:10.1128/MMBR.57.2.434-450.1993
9415:"Translating the histone code"
8040:Johnson G (28 December 2010).
7585:Trends in Biochemical Sciences
6574:Hosemann R, Bagchi RN (1962).
6243:10.1080/07391102.1988.10507714
4488:
4421:
4392:
4367:
4344:
4313:
4306:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
4293:
4266: – DNA analysis technique
3924:is present exclusively in the
3571:DNA profiling is also used in
3466:into organisms in the form of
3074:
2802:Neutrophil extracellular traps
2796:Neutrophil extracellular traps
2690:
2038:and it can be considered as a
1630:through RNA-RNA base pairing.
866:) store their DNA only in the
158:are shown in the bottom right.
13:
1:
15283:Ribosomal
15261:Messenger
14290:Double Helix: 50 years of DNA
14280:DNA under electron microscope
14063:. Columbia University Press.
13853:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
13284:scarc.library.oregonstate.edu
13216:10.1016/S0021-9258(20)61522-8
12707:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)87254-4
12657:Levene PA, Jacobs WA (1909).
12626:Levene PA, Jacobs WA (1909).
11869:10.1093/bioinformatics/bth021
11699:10.1016/S1074-5521(96)90170-2
11299:10.1016/S0300-9084(02)00013-5
11254:10.1016/S0958-1669(02)00297-5
10388:10.1016/S0300-9084(97)82007-X
10091:Annual Review of Biochemistry
10041:Annual Review of Biochemistry
9644:Annual Review of Biochemistry
9054:10.1126/science.295.5559.1487
8766:"Replicative DNA polymerases"
8743:10.1016/S0022-2836(02)00109-2
8323:Current Pharmaceutical Design
8265:10.1016/S0006-2952(99)00388-3
8074:Molecular biology of the cell
7937:10.1016/S0027-5107(99)00004-4
7314:Warren M (21 February 2019).
7236:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80760-6
6852:Bortman H (2 December 2010).
6142:Annual Review of Biochemistry
6080:Benham CJ, Mielke SP (2005).
5407:10.1016/S0006-3495(00)76747-6
5299:Annual Review of Biochemistry
5022:Annual Review of Biochemistry
4459:Molecular Biology of the Cell
4432:. New York: Springer-Verlag.
4323:Molecular Biology of the Cell
4286:
2626:Transcription and translation
2574:regulation of gene expression
2519:that can be transcribed, and
2408:DNA usually occurs as linear
885:
14708:Missing heritability problem
14423:
14200:Resources in other libraries
14078:Schultz M, Cannon Z (2009).
14022:. Cold Spring Harbor Press.
13887:Carina D, Clayton J (2003).
13469:Burakoff M (25 April 2023).
13037:Astbury WT, Bell FO (1938).
12659:"Über die Hefe-Nucleinsäure"
11942:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020073
11610:10.1016/1074-5521(94)90014-0
11412:Journal of Forensic Sciences
11166:10.1016/0092-8674(76)90133-1
10034:"Eukaryotic DNA polymerases"
9805:"Biology of DNA restriction"
9560:10.1016/0168-9525(94)90232-1
9210:10.1371/journal.pone.0041781
9102:10.1371/journal.pone.0051905
8959:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000213
8731:Journal of Molecular Biology
8300:10.1016/0163-7258(85)90013-0
8230:10.1016/0165-1110(91)90006-H
7821:10.1016/0092-8674(93)90322-H
6992:10.1016/0092-8674(85)90170-9
6818:Palmer J (2 December 2010).
6683:Journal of Molecular Biology
6514:10.1016/0022-2836(80)90124-2
6502:Journal of Molecular Biology
6049:10.1016/0168-9525(91)90326-L
5788:10.1016/0014-4827(91)90467-9
5016:Verma S, Eckstein F (1998).
4745:. W.H. Freeman and Company.
4654:10.1016/0022-2836(81)90099-1
4642:Journal of Molecular Biology
3828:History of molecular biology
3708:properties of DNA molecules.
3583:DNA enzymes or catalytic DNA
3440:phenol-chloroform extraction
3295:
3270:Non-homologous recombination
3041:Topoisomerases and helicases
2749:sequence is recreated by an
2660:, known collectively as the
2327:. These mutations can cause
2129:
2124:
2119:
1962:
1959:
1724:DNA exists in many possible
1551:In humans, the total female
976:groups. The sugar in DNA is
7:
14020:DNA Science: A First Course
13677:A Note for the RNA Tie Club
13058:10.1101/sqb.1938.006.01.013
12895:Griffith F (January 1928).
12822:10.1126/science.80.2075.312
12585:Jones ME (September 1953).
12472:"Ueber Nucleïn der Hefe II"
11982:Rothemund PW (March 2006).
11065:Hunt K (17 February 2021).
11032:Marlaire R (3 March 2015).
9480:10.1007/978-3-642-55747-7_1
8819:Extracellular Nucleic Acids
8495:Gregory TR (January 2005).
8195:10.1016/j.mrrev.2011.05.001
7532:Hu Q, Rosenfeld MG (2012).
7491:. Michigan State University
7265:Seeman NC (November 2005).
5119:10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00114
4270:X-ray scattering techniques
4181:
4024:was confirmed in 1952 when
3659:multiple sequence alignment
3635:string searching algorithms
2761:Extracellular nucleic acids
2384:to inhibit rapidly growing
2323:from the DNA sequence, and
894:Chemical structure of DNA;
658:and complex carbohydrates (
10:
15753:
15462:Multicopy single-stranded
15306:Interferential
14001:Francis Crick: A Biography
13559:10.1038/d41586-023-01313-5
13497:Anthes E (25 April 2023).
12535:"Zur Chemie des Zellkerns"
11822:Cambridge University Press
11554:Pollack A (19 June 2012).
11122:10.1038/d41586-021-00436-x
10662:Szathmáry E (April 1992).
10146:10.1096/fasebj.8.8.7514143
9696:10.1016/j.cell.2004.09.037
8111:New Research on DNA Damage
7597:10.1016/j.tibs.2005.12.008
7458:10.1103/PhysRevE.75.021920
7341:10.1038/d41586-019-00650-8
5776:Experimental Cell Research
3825:
3819:
3793:
3754:
3685:
3611:
3586:
3497:
3423:
3393:, may have been formed in
3299:
3274:chromosomal translocations
3185:
2830:
2814:Interactions with proteins
2799:
2694:
2629:
2464:
2325:chromosomal translocations
2311:to repair and can produce
2235:DNA damage theory of aging
2224:
2082:
2054:which could hydrolyze it.
2025:
1998:
1929:
1858:
1821:
1754:X-ray diffraction patterns
1690:
1687:Alternative DNA structures
1656:
1610:
1542:
1341:
1300:
1283:5-Hydroxymethyldeoxyuracil
1206:N6-carbamoyl-methyladenine
1177:Mycobacterium tuberculosis
31:
15585:
15520:
15470:
15413:
15376:Guide
15368:
15296:
15251:
15234:
15203:
15141:
15050:
15015:
14989:
14980:
14938:
14912:
14886:
14877:
14815:
14757:
14736:
14635:
14586:
14530:
14469:
14431:
14285:Dolan DNA Learning Center
14274:DNA the Double Helix Game
14195:Resources in your library
13607:Maddox B (January 2003).
12913:10.1017/S0022172400031879
12788:Biologisches Zentralblatt
12675:10.1002/cber.190904202148
12644:10.1002/cber.190904201196
12421:10.1007/s00439-007-0433-0
12348:10.1007/s11033-018-4280-y
12336:Molecular Biology Reports
12303:10.1007/s13205-018-1246-7
11205:10.1385/1-59745-165-7:163
10880:10.1007/s00239-001-0025-x
10837:10.1016/j.tim.2005.03.010
10590:10.1080/10409230490460765
9595:10.1080/10409239991209255
9152:10.1016/j.tig.2012.10.013
7866:22 September 2008 at the
7283:10.1017/S0033583505004087
6924:10.1038/nature.2012.11520
6618:10.1107/S0567739478001540
6341:10.1107/S0365110X53001940
6296:10.1107/S0365110X53001939
5883:10.1016/j.tig.2005.03.007
5611:10.1186/s13104-019-4137-z
4852:10.1107/S0907444903003251
4164:Marshall Warren Nirenberg
4148:Meselson–Stahl experiment
3839:(left) shakes hands with
3733:algorithmic self-assembly
3448:polymerase chain reaction
2992:restriction endonucleases
2711:topoisomerase
2344:. Most intercalators are
2288:electromagnetic radiation
2220:
2179:, which is important for
2020:principle of least effort
1869:DNA quadruplex formed by
1836:, a postulated microbial
1818:Alternative DNA chemistry
1613:Sense (molecular biology)
1512:
1170:, which was found in the
1134:, the six-membered rings
1110:Nucleobase classification
1018:nucleic acid double helix
138:The structure of the DNA
15338:Small nuclear
15099:sequestration (P-bodies)
13446:. Oregon State Library.
12784:Reprinted in German as:
12540:17 November 2017 at the
12455:"Ueber Nucleïn der Hefe"
12202:Nature Reviews Chemistry
11556:"Before Birth, Dad's ID"
10468:"The RuvABC resolvasome"
9777:Kostrewa D, Winkler FK.
8335:10.2174/1381612013397113
8253:Biochemical Pharmacology
7977:10.1074/jbc.272.32.19633
7960:"Oxidative decay of DNA"
7669:10.1007/3-540-31390-7_11
7551:10.3389/fgene.2012.00238
5168:10.3389/fgene.2018.00640
4034:Hershey–Chase experiment
3950:, identified DNA as the
3942:, along with co-workers
3900:of the "smooth" form of
3796:DNA digital data storage
3751:History and anthropology
3653:and locate the specific
3334:Building blocks of DNA (
3266:homologous recombination
3088:nucleoside triphosphates
3065:nucleoside triphosphates
2932:cellular differentiation
2768:horizontal gene transfer
2636:Transcription (genetics)
2495:, with small amounts in
2436:of pieces of DNA called
2374:benzopyrene diol epoxide
1525:of a human. It shows 22
1051:between nucleotides and
726:sugar-phosphate backbone
34:Introduction to genetics
15452:Genomic
15077:Gene regulatory network
14390:, Nature, 5 April 2013.
14321:ENCODE threads explorer
14129:DNA: The Secret of Life
13850:DNA: the secret of life
13398:Oxford University Press
12950:Microbiological Reviews
12854:Nature Reviews Genetics
12214:10.1038/s41570-017-0076
12167:10.1126/science.1154533
11923:Strong M (March 2004).
11748:10.1073/pnas.1420361112
11686:Chemistry & Biology
11637:Nature Chemical Biology
11598:Chemistry & Biology
11378:10.1073/pnas.91.13.6007
10936:10.1073/pnas.1106493108
10333:Nature Reviews Genetics
10290:Nature Reviews Genetics
10247:Nature Reviews Genetics
10190:10.1023/A:1021258713850
10178:Plant Molecular Biology
9989:Journal of Bacteriology
9809:Microbiological Reviews
9745:10.1073/pnas.1332764100
9434:10.1126/science.1063127
8897:Journal of Bacteriology
8383:10.1126/science.1058040
7726:10.1126/science.1169786
7624:Genes & Development
7618:Bird A (January 2002).
7391:10.1126/science.aat0971
7066:Genes & Development
7025:Genes & Development
5465:10.1073/pnas.96.14.7853
4772:The Biochemical Journal
4301:"deoxyribonucleic acid"
4042:enterobacteria phage T2
4036:showed that DNA is the
4018:University of Cambridge
3698:atomic force microscopy
3661:, are used in studying
2252:metabolically activated
2203:5-hydroxymethylcytosine
1774:. In the same journal,
1697:Molecular models of DNA
1592:human mitochondrial DNA
1093:adenosine monophosphate
1000:(three prime end), and
15555:Artificial chromosomes
15343:Small nucleolar
15082:cis-regulatory element
14369:DNA from the Beginning
14348:Molecule of the Month
14340:DNA from the Beginning
14330:Double Helix 1953–2003
14230:
14210:Listen to this article
12901:The Journal of Hygiene
12736:(10): 551–52, 554–57.
12533:Albrect Kossel (1883)
12124:10.1038/nnano.2009.101
11925:"Protein nanomachines"
10825:Trends in Microbiology
10689:10.1073/pnas.89.7.2614
9873:10.1093/nar/28.21.4051
9861:Nucleic Acids Research
9319:Molecular Microbiology
8997:Molecular Microbiology
8649:10.1098/rstb.2004.1611
8018:10.1038/sj.onc.1206679
7118:Nucleic Acids Research
7078:10.1101/gad.11.21.2801
6786:10.1073/pnas.262672699
6695:10.1006/jmbi.2000.3690
5499:Molecular Microbiology
5222:10.1002/anie.201708228
4913:Nucleic Acids Research
4104:
4001:
3952:transforming principle
3856:
3776:population geneticists
3729:Nanomechanical devices
3709:
3240:chromosome territories
3235:
3069:adenosine triphosphate
2960:
2911:
2846:
2734:
2591:
2511:. A gene is a unit of
2405:
2404:within the chromosomes
2400:Location of eukaryote
2267:
2186:Caenorhabditis elegans
2168:). There is, further,
2067:
2058:Macroscopic appearance
1874:
1745:, and the presence of
1721:
1575:long if straightened.
1548:
1527:homologous chromosomes
1494:, tend to have a high
1314:
1280:5-Dihydroxypentauracil
1156:nucleic acid analogues
1128:heterocyclic compounds
1044:
907:
751:. This information is
749:biological information
740:and the double-ringed
722:phosphodiester linkage
626:. The polymer carries
167:
159:
36:. For other uses, see
15348:Small Cajal Body RNAs
14744:List of genetic codes
14229:
13728:10.1073/pnas.44.7.671
12104:Nature Nanotechnology
9274:10.1007/s000180050259
8823:. Springer. pp.
8546:Stamatoyannopoulos JA
8152:10.1056/NEJMra0804615
7538:Frontiers in Genetics
7038:10.1101/gad.12.8.1073
6950:ndbserver.rutgers.edu
6897:10.1038/news.2010.645
6718:Immunological Reviews
5855:24 April 2008 at the
5155:Frontiers in Genetics
4501:Nature Communications
4249:Nucleic acid sequence
4243:Nucleic acid notation
4102:
4008:started working with
3988:
3835:
3826:Further information:
3755:Further information:
3714:molecular recognition
3706:molecular recognition
3695:
3686:Further information:
3627:nucleic acid sequence
3612:Further information:
3587:Further information:
3573:DNA paternity testing
3498:Further information:
3424:Further information:
3300:Further information:
3252:genetic recombination
3244:chromosomal crossover
3232:
3222:genetic recombination
3188:Genetic recombination
3186:Further information:
3182:Genetic recombination
3136:reverse transcriptase
3035:genetic recombination
2951:
2944:Nucleases and ligases
2939:DNA-modifying enzymes
2916:transcription factors
2906:The lambda repressor
2905:
2895:or being degraded by
2880:transcription factors
2840:
2831:Further information:
2704:
2695:Further information:
2630:Further information:
2582:
2465:Further information:
2399:
2286:and also high-energy
2242:
2225:Further information:
2083:Further information:
2065:
2001:Nucleic acid analogue
1930:Further information:
1868:
1859:Further information:
1855:Quadruplex structures
1822:Further information:
1708:
1691:Further information:
1657:Further information:
1611:Further information:
1543:Further information:
1520:
1382:base pair with three
1342:Further information:
1323:transcription factors
1308:
1038:
893:
513:Deoxyribonucleic acid
453:Personalized medicine
447:Personalized medicine
310:Quantitative genetics
305:Mendelian inheritance
165:
137:
117:A chromosome and its
18:Deoxyribonucleic acid
15401:Subgenomic messenger
15316:Small interfering
15288:Transfer-messenger
15104:alternative splicing
15094:Post-transcriptional
14920:Transcription factor
14643:Behavioural genetics
14323:ENCODE home page at
14261:More spoken articles
14112:. New York: Norton.
14059:Rosenfeld I (2010).
13360:10.1073/pnas.39.2.84
13123:10.1084/jem.79.2.137
12995:Archives de Biologie
12730:Connecticut Medicine
11649:10.1038/nchembio.201
11543:on 12 November 2006.
10627:(5520): 1278a–1278.
9616:Beamer LJ, Pabo CO.
9313:Dame RT (May 2005).
7513:. University of Utah
4685:Biochemical Genetics
4076:. In February 1953,
4014:Cavendish Laboratory
3812:), and insufficient
3772:evolutionary biology
3667:Human Genome Project
3651:homologous sequences
3541:short tandem repeats
3476:genetically modified
3430:Nucleic acid methods
3302:RNA world hypothesis
3246:which occurs during
2976:phosphodiester bonds
2827:DNA-binding proteins
2820:protein interactions
2733:joins them together.
2685:standard amino acids
2640:Protein biosynthesis
2586:(blue) producing an
2548:repetitive sequences
2521:regulatory sequences
2449:in a process called
2418:circular chromosomes
2392:Biological functions
2166:Chromatin remodeling
2089:Chromatin remodeling
1535:mitochondrial genome
1263:α-Putrescinylthymine
990:phosphodiester bonds
872:circular chromosomes
812:Eukaryotic organisms
373:Branches of genetics
38:DNA (disambiguation)
15028:Transfer RNA (tRNA)
14723:Population genomics
14713:Molecular evolution
14673:Genetic engineering
14104:, Watson J (1980).
13983:10.1038/nature01397
13974:2003Natur.421..402O
13719:1958PNAS...44..671M
13637:10.1038/nature01399
13628:2003Natur.421..407M
13550:2023Natur.616..657C
13351:1953PNAS...39...84P
13304:Schwartz J (2008).
13248:10.1085/jgp.36.1.39
13072:Astbury WT (1947).
12814:1934Sci....80..312K
12377:Miescher F (1871).
12159:2008Sci...321.1795A
12116:2009NatNa...4..281I
12063:10.1038/nature07971
12055:2009Natur.459...73A
12011:10.1038/nature04586
12003:2006Natur.440..297R
11783:, Brunak S (2001).
11739:2015PNAS..112.5903T
11517:on 14 December 2006
11471:1985Natur.316...76J
11369:1994PNAS...91.6007C
11160:(4 PT 2): 695–705.
11113:2021Natur.590..537C
10927:2011PNAS..10813995C
10872:2002JMolE..54..134N
10786:2000Natur.407..897V
10735:1993Natur.362..709L
10680:1992PNAS...89.2614S
10529:2002Natur.418..214J
10435:10.1038/nature04885
10427:2006Natur.442..153N
10078:on 26 January 2021.
9918:10.1042/BST20051465
9736:2003PNAS..100.8164L
9376:1997Natur.389..251L
9201:2012PLoSO...741781F
9093:2012PLoSO...751905H
8605:Yin YW, Steitz TA.
8574:10.1038/nature05874
8566:2007Natur.447..799B
8464:2001Natur.409..824W
8374:2001Sci...291.1304V
8187:2011MRRMR.728...12F
7929:1999MRFMM.424....9C
7718:2009Sci...324..929K
7450:2007PhRvE..75b1920B
7383:2019Sci...363..884H
7332:2019Natur.566..436W
7175:2002Natur.417..876P
6777:2002PNAS...9916666O
6610:1978AcCrA..34..751B
6456:1953Natur.171..738W
6388:1953Natur.171..740F
6332:1953AcCry...6..678F
6287:1953AcCry...6..673F
5706:1981Natur.290..457A
5670:10.1038/nature04727
5661:2006Natur.441..315G
5456:1999PNAS...96.7853C
5399:2000BpJ....78.1997C
5387:Biophysical Journal
5257:1980Natur.287..755W
5112:(20): 12655–12687.
5079:10.1021/ja01688a030
4844:2003AcCrD..59..620G
4816:on 5 February 2007.
4588:1953Natur.171..737W
4513:2015NatCo...6.8440I
4059:image, labeled as "
3978:should be equal to
3970:should be equal to
3790:Information storage
3780:ecological genetics
3505:Forensic scientists
3444:restriction digests
3434:Genetic engineering
3420:Genetic engineering
3397:or in interstellar
3385:. Pyrimidine, like
3248:sexual reproduction
2928:signal transduction
2833:DNA-binding protein
2779:Cell-free fetal DNA
2766:may be involved in
2333:naturally occurring
2278:. Mutagens include
2274:, which change the
1758:Patterson functions
1607:Sense and antisense
1461:melting temperature
1419:Hoogsteen base pair
1186:restriction enzymes
1162:Non-canonical bases
1055:interactions among
683:nitrogen-containing
343:Genetic engineering
300:Population genetics
173:Part of a series on
15430:Chloroplast
15273:modified Messenger
15236:Ribonucleic acids
15142:Influential people
15121:Post-translational
14940:Post-transcription
14683:Genetic monitoring
14362:The New York Times
14231:
14018:Micklas D (2003).
13690:on 1 October 2008.
13504:The New York Times
13168:10.1007/BF02173653
12628:"Über Inosinsäure"
12246:(1): REVIEWS0001.
11560:The New York Times
9548:Trends in Genetics
9525:10.1042/BST0290395
9140:Trends in Genetics
8862:10.1002/bies.20604
8776:(1): REVIEWS3002.
8513:10.1093/aob/mci009
8047:The New York Times
7775:10.1002/bies.20342
7637:10.1101/gad.947102
7130:10.1093/nar/gkl655
6985:(2 Pt 1): 405–13.
6598:Acta Crystallogr A
6589:Baianu IC (1978).
6553:10.1007/BF02462372
6535:Baianu IC (1980).
6037:Trends in Genetics
6000:10.1101/gr.2433104
5871:Trends in Genetics
5555:(51): 15996–6010.
4925:10.1093/nar/gkj454
4697:10.1007/BF00485753
4521:10.1038/ncomms9440
4428:Saenger W (1984).
4399:Russell P (2001).
4309:. Merriam-Webster.
4156:Har Gobind Khorana
4105:
4002:
3974:and the amount of
3890:Frederick Griffith
3861:Friedrich Miescher
3857:
3737:gold nanoparticles
3710:
3702:DNA nanotechnology
3688:DNA nanotechnology
3682:DNA nanotechnology
3537:DNA fingerprinting
3415:Uses in technology
3350:. Complex DNA and
3236:
3012:DNA fingerprinting
2961:
2954:restriction enzyme
2912:
2847:
2784:Under the name of
2735:
2592:
2517:open reading frame
2406:
2268:
2068:
1989:uses in technology
1963:Multiple branches
1936:DNA nanotechnology
1875:
1784:molecular modeling
1722:
1549:
1315:
1271:and modifications
1260:α-Glutamythymidine
1237:5-Carboxylcytosine
1184:) is to avoid the
1045:
908:
878:proteins, such as
838:, and some in the
315:Molecular genetics
274:History and topics
168:
166:Simplified diagram
160:
15603:
15602:
15480:Xeno
15442:Complementary
15415:Deoxyribonucleic
15409:
15408:
15386:Small hairpin
15162:
15161:
15046:
15045:
14976:
14975:
14852:Special transfers
14775:
14774:
14698:He Jiankui affair
14688:Genetic genealogy
14678:Genetic diversity
14607:the British Isles
14512:Genetic variation
14227:
14176:Library resources
14138:978-0-09-945184-6
14127:Watson J (2004).
14093:978-0-8090-8947-5
14086:. Hill and Wang.
14070:978-0-231-14271-7
14029:978-0-87969-636-8
14010:978-0-87969-798-3
13674:Crick FH (1955).
13544:(7958): 657–660.
13407:978-0-19-538341-6
13319:978-0-674-02670-4
13012:Burian R (1994).
12688:Levene P (1919).
12556:Kossel A (1886).
12517:Kossel A (1882).
12504:Kossel A (1881).
12487:Kossel A (1881).
12470:Kossel A (1880).
12453:Kossel A (1879).
12153:(5897): 1795–99.
11997:(7082): 297–302.
11890:Mount DM (2004).
11831:978-0-521-58519-4
11794:978-0-262-02506-5
11511:"Colin Pitchfork"
11424:10.1520/JFS14100J
11214:978-1-59745-165-9
11107:(7847): 537–538.
10780:(6806): 897–900.
9912:(Pt 6): 1465–70.
9519:(Pt 4): 395–401.
9489:978-3-540-44208-0
9428:(5532): 1074–80.
8834:978-3-642-12616-1
8698:10.1101/gr.207102
8560:(7146): 799–816.
8424:10.1002/jcb.20519
8368:(5507): 1304–51.
8218:Mutation Research
8175:Mutation Research
8120:978-1-60456-581-2
7917:Mutation Research
7894:10.1021/bi034593c
7428:Physical Review E
7377:(6429): 884–887.
7183:10.1038/nature755
5918:10.1002/jcb.20252
5750:on 13 August 2011
5700:(5806): 457–465.
5561:10.1021/bi048221v
5350:10.1002/bip.22334
5216:(16): 4296–4312.
5210:Angewandte Chemie
4975:978-0-7637-8663-2
4966:Molecular Biology
4964:Tropp BE (2012).
4784:10.1042/bj1200449
4333:978-0-8153-4432-2
4279:Xeno nucleic acid
4225:Genetic genealogy
4168:molecular biology
4057:X-ray diffraction
4053:Rosalind Franklin
3849:Rosalind Franklin
3761:Genetic genealogy
3486:, or be grown in
3426:Molecular biology
3355:organic compounds
3344:organic molecules
3290:Holliday junction
3259:natural selection
3218:Holliday junction
3216:Structure of the
3213:
3212:
3172:RNA polymerase II
3008:molecular cloning
2988:molecular biology
2786:environmental DNA
2747:complementary DNA
2727:Okazaki fragments
2584:T7 RNA polymerase
2461:Genes and genomes
2372:. Others such as
2308:hydrogen peroxide
2284:alkylating agents
2136:
2135:
1967:
1966:
1643:overlapping genes
1588:mitochondrial DNA
1582:, in addition to
1373:
1372:
1360:
1359:
1246:5-Hydroxycytosine
1234:N4-Methylcytosine
844:mitochondrial DNA
806:. Before typical
761:protein sequences
510:
509:
237:Genetic variation
132:
131:
16:(Redirected from
15744:
15707:
15699:
15698:
15697:
15690:
15689:from Wikiversity
15682:
15681:
15680:
15673:
15665:
15664:
15663:
15656:
15648:
15647:
15646:
15636:
15620:
15619:
15611:
15593:
15592:
15570:Yeast
15391:Small temporal
15321:Piwi-interacting
15249:
15248:
15245:
15226:Deoxynucleotides
15189:
15182:
15175:
15166:
15165:
14987:
14986:
14884:
14883:
14802:
14795:
14788:
14779:
14778:
14765:
14764:
14728:Reverse genetics
14703:Medical genetics
14418:
14411:
14404:
14395:
14394:
14251:
14249:
14238:
14237:
14228:
14218:
14216:
14211:
14164:
14142:
14131:. Random House.
14123:
14111:
14097:
14085:
14074:
14055:
14033:
14014:
13999:Olby RC (2009).
13995:
13985:
13968:(6921): 402–05.
13956:(January 2003).
13948:
13926:
13904:
13883:
13864:
13829:
13828:
13818:
13794:
13788:
13787:
13780:Nature Education
13775:
13769:
13768:
13757:
13751:
13750:
13740:
13730:
13698:
13692:
13691:
13689:
13682:
13671:
13665:
13664:
13662:
13639:
13622:(6921): 407–08.
13613:
13604:
13598:
13597:
13586:
13580:
13579:
13561:
13527:
13521:
13520:
13518:
13516:
13494:
13488:
13487:
13485:
13483:
13466:
13460:
13459:
13457:
13455:
13440:
13434:
13433:
13432:on 5 April 2015.
13428:. Archived from
13418:
13412:
13411:
13392:Regis E (2009).
13389:
13383:
13382:
13372:
13362:
13330:
13324:
13323:
13311:
13301:
13295:
13294:
13292:
13290:
13276:
13270:
13269:
13259:
13227:
13221:
13220:
13218:
13194:
13188:
13187:
13151:
13145:
13144:
13134:
13102:
13096:
13093:
13088:. Archived from
13068:
13067:on 14 July 2014.
13066:
13060:. Archived from
13043:
13031:
13025:
13024:
13018:
13009:
13003:
13002:
12990:
12984:
12983:
12973:
12941:
12935:
12934:
12924:
12892:
12886:
12885:
12866:10.1038/35088598
12849:
12843:
12840:
12808:(2075): 312–13.
12795:
12781:
12767:
12752:
12746:
12745:
12727:
12718:
12712:
12711:
12709:
12685:
12679:
12678:
12654:
12648:
12647:
12623:
12617:
12616:
12606:
12582:
12576:
12573:
12530:
12513:
12500:
12483:
12466:
12447:
12441:
12440:
12404:
12398:
12397:
12374:
12368:
12367:
12342:(5): 1479–1490.
12331:
12325:
12324:
12314:
12282:
12276:
12275:
12265:
12255:
12234:Wray GA (2002).
12231:
12225:
12224:
12222:
12220:
12193:
12187:
12186:
12142:
12136:
12135:
12099:
12093:
12092:
12074:
12037:
12031:
12030:
11988:
11979:
11973:
11972:
11954:
11944:
11920:
11914:
11913:
11887:
11881:
11880:
11862:
11842:
11836:
11835:
11813:
11807:
11806:
11777:
11771:
11770:
11760:
11750:
11718:
11712:
11711:
11701:
11677:
11671:
11670:
11660:
11628:
11622:
11621:
11593:
11584:
11583:
11581:
11579:
11551:
11545:
11544:
11533:
11527:
11526:
11524:
11522:
11507:
11501:
11500:
11482:
11480:10.1038/316076a0
11450:
11444:
11443:
11407:
11401:
11400:
11390:
11380:
11348:
11342:
11341:
11339:
11337:
11326:The Conversation
11317:
11311:
11310:
11282:
11276:
11275:
11265:
11233:
11227:
11226:
11192:
11186:
11185:
11149:
11143:
11142:
11124:
11090:
11084:
11083:
11081:
11079:
11062:
11056:
11055:
11053:
11051:
11029:
11023:
11022:
11020:
11018:
10996:
10990:
10989:
10987:
10985:
10965:
10959:
10958:
10948:
10938:
10921:(34): 13995–98.
10906:
10900:
10899:
10855:
10849:
10848:
10820:
10814:
10813:
10794:10.1038/35038060
10769:
10763:
10762:
10743:10.1038/362709a0
10729:(6422): 709–15.
10718:
10712:
10711:
10701:
10691:
10659:
10653:
10652:
10616:
10610:
10609:
10583:
10563:
10557:
10556:
10523:(6894): 214–21.
10512:
10506:
10505:
10487:
10478:(22): 5492–501.
10463:
10457:
10456:
10446:
10421:(7099): 153–58.
10406:
10400:
10399:
10382:(9–10): 587–92.
10371:
10365:
10364:
10328:
10322:
10321:
10285:
10279:
10278:
10259:10.1038/35066075
10242:
10236:
10235:
10233:
10231:
10216:
10210:
10209:
10173:
10167:
10166:
10148:
10124:
10115:
10114:
10086:
10080:
10079:
10077:
10071:. Archived from
10038:
10029:
10023:
10022:
10012:
9980:
9974:
9973:
9963:
9945:
9936:
9930:
9929:
9901:
9895:
9894:
9884:
9852:
9843:
9842:
9832:
9800:
9794:
9793:
9791:
9789:
9774:
9768:
9767:
9757:
9747:
9715:
9709:
9708:
9698:
9674:
9668:
9667:
9639:
9633:
9632:
9630:
9628:
9613:
9607:
9606:
9578:
9572:
9571:
9543:
9537:
9536:
9508:
9502:
9501:
9467:
9461:
9460:
9458:
9419:
9410:
9404:
9403:
9370:(6648): 251–60.
9359:
9353:
9352:
9334:
9310:
9304:
9303:
9285:
9253:
9247:
9246:
9239:
9233:
9232:
9222:
9212:
9180:
9174:
9173:
9163:
9131:
9125:
9124:
9114:
9104:
9072:
9066:
9065:
9037:
9031:
9030:
9020:
8988:
8982:
8981:
8971:
8961:
8952:(11): e1000213.
8937:
8931:
8930:
8920:
8888:
8882:
8881:
8845:
8839:
8838:
8822:
8812:
8806:
8805:
8795:
8785:
8761:
8755:
8754:
8726:
8720:
8719:
8709:
8677:
8671:
8670:
8660:
8643:(1455): 569–79.
8628:
8622:
8621:
8619:
8617:
8602:
8596:
8595:
8585:
8541:
8535:
8534:
8524:
8501:Annals of Botany
8492:
8486:
8485:
8475:
8473:10.1038/35057000
8458:(6822): 824–26.
8443:
8437:
8436:
8426:
8402:
8396:
8395:
8385:
8353:
8347:
8346:
8318:
8312:
8311:
8283:
8277:
8276:
8248:
8242:
8241:
8213:
8207:
8206:
8170:
8164:
8163:
8135:
8129:
8128:
8102:
8096:
8095:
8065:
8059:
8058:
8037:
8031:
8030:
8020:
8011:(37): 5792–812.
7996:
7990:
7989:
7979:
7970:(32): 19633–36.
7955:
7949:
7948:
7912:
7906:
7905:
7876:
7870:
7857:
7851:
7850:
7832:
7803:
7797:
7796:
7786:
7754:
7748:
7747:
7737:
7712:(5929): 929–30.
7697:
7691:
7690:
7656:
7650:
7649:
7639:
7615:
7609:
7608:
7580:
7574:
7573:
7563:
7553:
7529:
7523:
7522:
7520:
7518:
7507:
7501:
7500:
7498:
7496:
7484:
7478:
7477:
7443:
7419:
7413:
7412:
7402:
7360:
7354:
7353:
7343:
7311:
7305:
7304:
7294:
7262:
7256:
7255:
7229:
7209:
7203:
7202:
7169:(6891): 876–80.
7158:
7152:
7151:
7141:
7109:
7100:
7099:
7089:
7057:
7051:
7050:
7040:
7016:
7005:
7004:
6994:
6970:
6961:
6960:
6958:
6956:
6942:
6936:
6935:
6911:
6905:
6904:
6880:
6874:
6873:
6871:
6869:
6849:
6840:
6839:
6837:
6835:
6815:
6809:
6808:
6798:
6788:
6771:(26): 16666–71.
6756:
6750:
6749:
6713:
6707:
6706:
6678:
6672:
6671:
6643:
6637:
6636:
6634:
6632:
6627:on 14 March 2020
6626:
6620:. Archived from
6595:
6586:
6580:
6579:
6571:
6565:
6564:
6541:Bull. Math. Biol
6532:
6526:
6525:
6497:
6491:
6490:
6488:
6464:10.1038/171738a0
6450:(4356): 738–40.
6441:
6432:
6423:
6422:
6420:
6396:10.1038/171740a0
6382:(4356): 740–41.
6373:
6364:
6355:
6352:
6350:
6343:
6320:Acta Crystallogr
6317:
6307:
6305:
6298:
6275:Acta Crystallogr
6272:
6261:
6255:
6254:
6226:
6220:
6219:
6183:
6174:
6173:
6137:
6128:
6127:
6126:on 1 March 2019.
6125:
6119:. Archived from
6086:
6077:
6071:
6070:
6060:
6028:
6022:
6021:
6011:
5979:
5973:
5972:
5944:
5938:
5937:
5901:
5895:
5894:
5866:
5860:
5847:
5841:
5840:
5830:
5806:
5800:
5799:
5771:
5760:
5759:
5757:
5755:
5746:. Archived from
5740:
5734:
5733:
5714:10.1038/290457a0
5689:
5683:
5682:
5672:
5655:(7091): 315–21.
5640:
5634:
5633:
5623:
5613:
5589:
5580:
5579:
5577:
5546:
5537:
5531:
5530:
5494:
5488:
5487:
5477:
5467:
5435:
5429:
5428:
5418:
5393:(4): 1997–2007.
5378:
5372:
5371:
5361:
5329:
5323:
5322:
5294:
5285:
5284:
5265:10.1038/287755a0
5251:(5784): 755–58.
5240:
5234:
5233:
5205:
5199:
5198:
5188:
5170:
5146:
5140:
5139:
5121:
5106:Chemical Reviews
5097:
5091:
5090:
5062:
5056:
5055:
5037:
5013:
5007:
5006:
5004:
5002:
4986:
4980:
4979:
4961:
4955:
4954:
4944:
4904:
4898:
4897:
4895:
4893:
4878:
4872:
4871:
4838:(Pt 4): 620–26.
4827:
4818:
4817:
4812:. Archived from
4803:
4763:
4757:
4756:
4738:
4725:
4724:
4680:
4674:
4673:
4637:
4631:
4630:
4628:
4596:10.1038/171737a0
4582:(4356): 737–38.
4573:
4564:
4551:
4550:
4540:
4492:
4486:
4485:
4453:
4444:
4443:
4425:
4419:
4418:
4406:
4396:
4390:
4389:
4387:
4385:
4371:
4365:
4364:
4348:
4342:
4341:
4317:
4311:
4310:
4297:
4275:
4260:
4219:Genetic disorder
4160:Robert W. Holley
4119:
4038:genetic material
4020:. DNA's role in
3964:Chargaff's rules
3896:discovered that
3639:machine learning
3631:computer science
3484:medical research
3401:and gas clouds.
3220:intermediate in
3209:
3200:
3193:
3067:, predominantly
3027:replication fork
2908:helix-turn-helix
2616:gene duplication
2612:genetic material
2489:DNA condensation
2447:protein sequence
2350:ethidium bromide
2280:oxidizing agents
2177:5-methylcytosine
2126:5-methylcytosine
2115:
2108:
2101:
2094:
1995:Artificial bases
1955:
1948:
1941:
1834:shadow biosphere
1828:For many years,
1782:presented their
1772:Bessel functions
1764:in 1953 for the
1665:DNA supercoiling
1586:, there is also
1574:
1497:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1458:
1454:
1443:
1416:
1390:
1380:
1369:
1362:
1356:
1349:
1291:Deoxyarchaeosine
1249:5-Methylcytosine
1240:5-Formylcytosine
1168:5-methylcytosine
1149:
1141:
1137:
1125:
1121:
1102:
1098:
1090:
1082:
1074:
1066:
1041:animated version
644:ribonucleic acid
618:composed of two
609:
608:
607:
606:
599:
596:
595:
592:
589:
586:
581:
580:
577:
574:
571:
568:
565:
562:
559:
556:
553:
550:
547:
544:
541:
538:
535:
532:
529:
526:
523:
502:
495:
488:
475:
470:
469:
365:Medical genetics
361:
356:
355:
189:
170:
169:
115:
114:
104:
97:
88:
81:
74:
65:
56:
45:
21:
15752:
15751:
15747:
15746:
15745:
15743:
15742:
15741:
15712:
15711:
15710:
15700:
15695:
15693:
15683:
15678:
15676:
15666:
15661:
15659:
15649:
15644:
15642:
15639:
15635:sister projects
15632:at Knowledge's
15626:
15614:
15606:
15604:
15599:
15581:
15522:Cloning vectors
15516:
15502:Locked
15466:
15416:
15405:
15364:
15292:
15239:
15238:
15230:
15199:
15193:
15163:
15158:
15137:
15072:Transcriptional
15042:
15011:
14972:
14963:Polyadenylation
14934:
14908:
14873:
14867:Protein→Protein
14818:
14811:
14809:Gene expression
14806:
14776:
14771:
14753:
14732:
14631:
14622:the Middle East
14588:Archaeogenetics
14582:
14526:
14465:
14427:
14422:
14265:
14264:
14253:
14247:
14245:
14242:This audio file
14239:
14232:
14223:
14220:
14214:
14213:
14209:
14206:
14205:
14204:
14184:
14183:
14179:
14172:
14167:
14161:
14139:
14120:
14094:
14071:
14052:
14030:
14011:
13945:
13923:
13901:
13890:50 years of DNA
13880:
13861:
13838:
13836:Further reading
13833:
13832:
13795:
13791:
13776:
13772:
13759:
13758:
13754:
13699:
13695:
13687:
13680:
13672:
13668:
13660:
13611:
13605:
13601:
13588:
13587:
13583:
13528:
13524:
13514:
13512:
13495:
13491:
13481:
13479:
13467:
13463:
13453:
13451:
13442:
13441:
13437:
13426:Nature Archives
13420:
13419:
13415:
13408:
13390:
13386:
13331:
13327:
13320:
13302:
13298:
13288:
13286:
13278:
13277:
13273:
13228:
13224:
13209:(24): 172–174.
13195:
13191:
13152:
13148:
13103:
13099:
13092:on 5 July 2014.
13064:
13041:
13032:
13028:
13016:
13010:
13006:
12991:
12987:
12942:
12938:
12893:
12889:
12850:
12846:
12753:
12749:
12725:
12719:
12715:
12686:
12682:
12655:
12651:
12624:
12620:
12583:
12579:
12542:Wayback Machine
12448:
12444:
12405:
12401:
12375:
12371:
12332:
12328:
12283:
12279:
12232:
12228:
12218:
12216:
12194:
12190:
12143:
12139:
12100:
12096:
12049:(7243): 73–76.
12038:
12034:
11986:
11980:
11976:
11921:
11917:
11902:
11888:
11884:
11843:
11839:
11832:
11814:
11810:
11795:
11778:
11774:
11733:(19): 5903–08.
11719:
11715:
11692:(12): 1039–46.
11678:
11674:
11629:
11625:
11594:
11587:
11577:
11575:
11552:
11548:
11535:
11534:
11530:
11520:
11518:
11509:
11508:
11504:
11465:(6023): 76–79.
11451:
11447:
11408:
11404:
11363:(13): 6007–11.
11349:
11345:
11335:
11333:
11318:
11314:
11293:(11): 1105–10.
11283:
11279:
11234:
11230:
11215:
11193:
11189:
11150:
11146:
11091:
11087:
11077:
11075:
11063:
11059:
11049:
11047:
11030:
11026:
11016:
11014:
10997:
10993:
10983:
10981:
10966:
10962:
10907:
10903:
10856:
10852:
10821:
10817:
10770:
10766:
10719:
10715:
10660:
10656:
10617:
10613:
10581:10.1.1.537.7679
10564:
10560:
10537:10.1038/418214a
10513:
10509:
10464:
10460:
10407:
10403:
10372:
10368:
10345:10.1038/nrg1746
10329:
10325:
10302:10.1038/nrg1838
10286:
10282:
10243:
10239:
10229:
10227:
10217:
10213:
10174:
10170:
10125:
10118:
10087:
10083:
10075:
10036:
10030:
10026:
9995:(22): 6321–29.
9981:
9977:
9954:(10): 1849–63.
9943:
9937:
9933:
9902:
9898:
9867:(21): 4051–58.
9853:
9846:
9801:
9797:
9787:
9785:
9775:
9771:
9730:(14): 8164–69.
9716:
9712:
9675:
9671:
9640:
9636:
9626:
9624:
9614:
9610:
9579:
9575:
9544:
9540:
9509:
9505:
9490:
9468:
9464:
9456:
9417:
9411:
9407:
9360:
9356:
9311:
9307:
9268:(12): 1350–64.
9254:
9250:
9241:
9240:
9236:
9181:
9177:
9132:
9128:
9073:
9069:
9038:
9034:
8989:
8985:
8938:
8934:
8903:(21): 6288–93.
8889:
8885:
8846:
8842:
8835:
8813:
8809:
8764:Albà M (2001).
8762:
8758:
8727:
8723:
8686:Genome Research
8678:
8674:
8629:
8625:
8615:
8613:
8603:
8599:
8542:
8538:
8493:
8489:
8444:
8440:
8403:
8399:
8354:
8350:
8329:(17): 1745–80.
8319:
8315:
8284:
8280:
8259:(12): 1489–99.
8249:
8245:
8214:
8210:
8171:
8167:
8146:(15): 1475–85.
8136:
8132:
8121:
8103:
8099:
8084:
8066:
8062:
8038:
8034:
7997:
7993:
7956:
7952:
7913:
7909:
7888:(30): 9221–26.
7877:
7873:
7868:Wayback Machine
7858:
7854:
7804:
7800:
7755:
7751:
7698:
7694:
7679:
7657:
7653:
7616:
7612:
7581:
7577:
7530:
7526:
7516:
7514:
7509:
7508:
7504:
7494:
7492:
7489:"Nucleic Acids"
7485:
7481:
7441:physics/0609135
7420:
7416:
7361:
7357:
7312:
7308:
7263:
7259:
7227:10.1.1.335.2649
7210:
7206:
7159:
7155:
7124:(19): 5402–15.
7110:
7103:
7072:(21): 2801–09.
7058:
7054:
7017:
7008:
6971:
6964:
6954:
6952:
6944:
6943:
6939:
6912:
6908:
6881:
6877:
6867:
6865:
6850:
6843:
6833:
6831:
6816:
6812:
6757:
6753:
6714:
6710:
6679:
6675:
6644:
6640:
6630:
6628:
6624:
6593:
6587:
6583:
6572:
6568:
6533:
6529:
6498:
6494:
6486:
6439:
6433:
6426:
6418:
6371:
6365:
6358:
6348:
6326:(8–9): 678–85.
6315:
6303:
6281:(8–9): 673–77.
6270:
6262:
6258:
6227:
6223:
6184:
6177:
6138:
6131:
6123:
6084:
6082:"DNA mechanics"
6078:
6074:
6029:
6025:
5994:(11): 2268–72.
5988:Genome Research
5980:
5976:
5945:
5941:
5902:
5898:
5867:
5863:
5857:Wayback Machine
5848:
5844:
5807:
5803:
5772:
5763:
5753:
5751:
5742:
5741:
5737:
5690:
5686:
5641:
5637:
5590:
5583:
5575:
5544:
5538:
5534:
5495:
5491:
5450:(14): 7853–58.
5436:
5432:
5379:
5375:
5330:
5326:
5295:
5288:
5241:
5237:
5206:
5202:
5147:
5143:
5098:
5094:
5063:
5059:
5014:
5010:
5000:
4998:
4989:Carr S (1953).
4987:
4983:
4976:
4962:
4958:
4905:
4901:
4891:
4889:
4879:
4875:
4828:
4821:
4764:
4760:
4753:
4739:
4728:
4681:
4677:
4638:
4634:
4626:
4571:
4565:
4554:
4493:
4489:
4470:
4454:
4447:
4440:
4426:
4422:
4415:
4397:
4393:
4383:
4381:
4373:
4372:
4368:
4349:
4345:
4334:
4318:
4314:
4299:
4298:
4294:
4289:
4284:
4273:
4258:
4195:Crystallography
4184:
4117:
4065:Maurice Wilkins
4049:Raymond Gosling
3933:William Astbury
3885:Nikolai Koltsov
3869:Albrecht Kossel
3853:Raymond Gosling
3830:
3822:
3806:storage density
3798:
3792:
3763:
3753:
3690:
3684:
3643:database theory
3616:
3610:
3591:
3585:
3561:double jeopardy
3553:Enderby murders
3507:can use DNA in
3502:
3496:
3460:Recombinant DNA
3436:
3422:
3417:
3322:. This ancient
3312:cell metabolism
3308:history of life
3304:
3298:
3227:
3226:
3225:
3190:
3184:
3176:protein complex
3108:DNA polymerases
3077:
3061:molecular motor
3043:
3017:Enzymes called
2946:
2941:
2872:phosphorylation
2835:
2829:
2816:
2804:
2798:
2763:
2743:DNA replication
2699:
2697:DNA replication
2693:
2642:
2628:
2485:
2463:
2455:DNA replication
2394:
2313:point mutations
2237:
2223:
2146:
2145:
2144:
2091:
2085:DNA methylation
2081:
2076:
2060:
2036:phosphoric acid
2028:
2003:
1997:
1976:
1975:
1974:
1938:
1928:
1916:triple-stranded
1863:
1857:
1826:
1820:
1703:
1689:
1681:DNA replication
1661:
1655:
1628:gene expression
1615:
1609:
1572:
1571:, and would be
1547:
1515:
1506:
1495:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1456:
1452:
1441:
1437:
1435:ssDNA vs. dsDNA
1414:
1404:. Purines form
1395:
1394:
1393:
1388:
1378:
1346:
1340:
1303:
1223:7-Methylguanine
1209:N6-methyadenine
1164:
1147:
1139:
1135:
1123:
1119:
1112:
1100:
1096:
1088:
1080:
1072:
1064:
1006:glycosidic bond
888:
854:. In contrast,
852:chloroplast DNA
787:(U). Under the
714:phosphate group
660:polysaccharides
602:
601:
583:
520:
516:
506:
465:
458:
457:
448:
440:
439:
438:
437:
386:
378:
377:
369:
347:
328:
320:
319:
275:
267:
266:
253:
252:
251:
197:
128:
127:
126:
116:
108:
107:
106:
105:
100:
98:
91:
89:
84:
82:
77:
75:
68:
66:
61:
57:
41:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
15750:
15740:
15739:
15734:
15729:
15724:
15709:
15708:
15691:
15674:
15672:from Wikiquote
15657:
15628:
15625:
15624:
15601:
15600:
15598:
15597:
15586:
15583:
15582:
15580:
15579:
15578:
15577:
15572:
15567:
15562:
15552:
15547:
15542:
15537:
15532:
15526:
15524:
15518:
15517:
15515:
15514:
15509:
15507:Peptide
15504:
15499:
15498:
15497:
15492:
15487:
15485:Glycol
15476:
15474:
15468:
15467:
15465:
15464:
15459:
15454:
15449:
15444:
15439:
15438:
15437:
15432:
15421:
15419:
15411:
15410:
15407:
15406:
15404:
15403:
15398:
15393:
15388:
15383:
15378:
15372:
15370:
15366:
15365:
15363:
15362:
15357:
15356:
15355:
15350:
15345:
15340:
15330:
15325:
15324:
15323:
15318:
15313:
15302:
15300:
15294:
15293:
15291:
15290:
15285:
15280:
15275:
15270:
15269:
15268:
15257:
15255:
15246:
15232:
15231:
15229:
15228:
15223:
15218:
15213:
15207:
15205:
15201:
15200:
15197:nucleic acids
15192:
15191:
15184:
15177:
15169:
15160:
15159:
15157:
15156:
15151:
15149:François Jacob
15145:
15143:
15139:
15138:
15136:
15135:
15134:
15133:
15128:
15118:
15113:
15112:
15111:
15106:
15101:
15091:
15086:
15085:
15084:
15079:
15069:
15068:
15067:
15056:
15054:
15048:
15047:
15044:
15043:
15041:
15040:
15035:
15030:
15025:
15019:
15017:
15013:
15012:
15010:
15009:
15004:
14999:
14993:
14991:
14984:
14978:
14977:
14974:
14973:
14971:
14970:
14965:
14960:
14955:
14950:
14944:
14942:
14936:
14935:
14933:
14932:
14927:
14925:RNA polymerase
14922:
14916:
14914:
14910:
14909:
14907:
14906:
14901:
14896:
14890:
14888:
14881:
14875:
14874:
14872:
14871:
14870:
14869:
14864:
14859:
14849:
14848:
14847:
14829:
14823:
14821:
14813:
14812:
14805:
14804:
14797:
14790:
14782:
14773:
14772:
14770:
14769:
14758:
14755:
14754:
14752:
14751:
14746:
14740:
14738:
14734:
14733:
14731:
14730:
14725:
14720:
14718:Plant genetics
14715:
14710:
14705:
14700:
14695:
14690:
14685:
14680:
14675:
14670:
14665:
14660:
14658:Genome editing
14655:
14650:
14645:
14639:
14637:
14636:Related topics
14633:
14632:
14630:
14629:
14624:
14619:
14614:
14609:
14604:
14599:
14593:
14591:
14584:
14583:
14581:
14580:
14575:
14570:
14565:
14560:
14558:Immunogenetics
14555:
14550:
14545:
14540:
14534:
14532:
14528:
14527:
14525:
14524:
14519:
14514:
14509:
14504:
14499:
14494:
14489:
14484:
14479:
14473:
14471:
14470:Key components
14467:
14466:
14464:
14463:
14458:
14453:
14448:
14443:
14438:
14432:
14429:
14428:
14421:
14420:
14413:
14406:
14398:
14392:
14391:
14381:
14372:
14366:
14354:
14343:
14333:
14327:
14318:
14308:
14298:
14287:
14282:
14277:
14271:
14254:
14240:
14233:
14221:
14208:
14207:
14203:
14202:
14197:
14192:
14186:
14185:
14174:
14173:
14171:
14170:External links
14168:
14166:
14165:
14159:
14143:
14137:
14124:
14118:
14098:
14092:
14075:
14069:
14056:
14050:
14034:
14028:
14015:
14009:
13996:
13950:
13943:
13927:
13921:
13905:
13899:
13884:
13878:
13865:
13859:
13839:
13837:
13834:
13831:
13830:
13789:
13770:
13765:Nobelprize.org
13752:
13693:
13666:
13599:
13594:Nobelprize.org
13581:
13522:
13489:
13461:
13435:
13413:
13406:
13400:. p. 52.
13384:
13325:
13318:
13296:
13271:
13222:
13189:
13162:(6): 201–209.
13146:
13117:(2): 137–158.
13097:
13095:
13094:
13069:
13026:
13004:
12997:(in Italian).
12985:
12956:(3): 563–602.
12936:
12887:
12844:
12842:
12841:
12796:
12782:
12776:(in Russian).
12770:Reprinted in:
12768:
12747:
12713:
12680:
12669:(2): 2474–78.
12649:
12618:
12577:
12575:
12574:
12553:
12531:
12514:
12501:
12484:
12467:
12442:
12409:Human Genetics
12399:
12369:
12326:
12277:
12240:Genome Biology
12226:
12188:
12137:
12094:
12032:
11974:
11915:
11900:
11882:
11860:10.1.1.412.943
11847:Bioinformatics
11837:
11830:
11808:
11793:
11772:
11713:
11672:
11643:(10): 718–20.
11623:
11585:
11546:
11528:
11502:
11445:
11402:
11343:
11312:
11277:
11228:
11213:
11187:
11144:
11085:
11057:
11024:
10991:
10960:
10901:
10850:
10815:
10764:
10713:
10674:(7): 2614–18.
10654:
10611:
10558:
10507:
10458:
10401:
10366:
10323:
10280:
10253:(4): 292–301.
10237:
10211:
10168:
10139:(8): 497–503.
10116:
10081:
10024:
9975:
9931:
9896:
9844:
9795:
9769:
9710:
9669:
9634:
9608:
9573:
9538:
9503:
9488:
9462:
9405:
9354:
9305:
9248:
9234:
9175:
9126:
9087:(12): e51905.
9067:
9048:(5559): 1487.
9032:
8983:
8946:PLOS Pathogens
8932:
8883:
8840:
8833:
8807:
8770:Genome Biology
8756:
8737:(5): 1155–74.
8721:
8672:
8623:
8597:
8536:
8487:
8438:
8397:
8348:
8313:
8278:
8243:
8208:
8181:(1–2): 12–22.
8165:
8130:
8119:
8097:
8082:
8060:
8032:
7991:
7950:
7907:
7871:
7852:
7815:(6): 1129–36.
7798:
7749:
7692:
7677:
7651:
7610:
7575:
7524:
7502:
7479:
7414:
7355:
7306:
7257:
7204:
7153:
7101:
7052:
7031:(8): 1073–85.
7006:
6962:
6937:
6906:
6875:
6841:
6810:
6751:
6708:
6673:
6638:
6581:
6566:
6527:
6492:
6424:
6356:
6354:
6353:
6308:
6256:
6237:(2): 299–309.
6221:
6200:10.1038/nrm831
6175:
6129:
6072:
6023:
5974:
5939:
5896:
5861:
5842:
5801:
5782:(1): 137–140.
5761:
5735:
5684:
5635:
5581:
5532:
5489:
5430:
5373:
5344:(12): 955–68.
5324:
5286:
5235:
5200:
5141:
5092:
5057:
5008:
4981:
4974:
4956:
4899:
4873:
4819:
4758:
4751:
4726:
4691:(3): 367–376.
4675:
4632:
4552:
4487:
4468:
4445:
4438:
4420:
4413:
4391:
4366:
4343:
4332:
4312:
4291:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4282:
4276:
4267:
4261:
4252:
4246:
4240:
4234:
4228:
4222:
4216:
4213:DNA sequencing
4210:
4207:DNA microarray
4204:
4198:
4192:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4026:Alfred Hershey
4004:Late in 1951,
3960:Erwin Chargaff
3948:Maclyn McCarty
3880:Phoebus Levene
3837:Maclyn McCarty
3821:
3818:
3810:memory latency
3802:storage device
3794:Main article:
3791:
3788:
3752:
3749:
3683:
3680:
3619:Bioinformatics
3614:Bioinformatics
3609:
3608:Bioinformatics
3606:
3594:Deoxyribozymes
3584:
3581:
3577:DNA sequencing
3545:minisatellites
3535:, also called
3495:
3492:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3409:woolly mammoth
3342:, and related
3297:
3294:
3215:
3214:
3211:
3210:
3202:
3201:
3191:
3183:
3180:
3159:RNA polymerase
3076:
3073:
3046:Topoisomerases
3042:
3039:
3023:lagging strand
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2828:
2825:
2815:
2812:
2800:Main article:
2797:
2794:
2762:
2759:
2755:DNA polymerase
2723:lagging strand
2719:leading strand
2715:DNA polymerase
2692:
2689:
2673:RNA polymerase
2627:
2624:
2570:non-coding RNA
2566:C-value enigma
2462:
2459:
2393:
2390:
2300:thymine dimers
2222:
2219:
2215:kinetoplastids
2181:X-inactivation
2138:
2137:
2134:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2117:
2116:
2109:
2102:
2092:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2059:
2056:
2034:properties to
2027:
2024:
1999:Main article:
1996:
1993:
1985:nanotechnology
1969:
1968:
1965:
1964:
1961:
1960:Single branch
1957:
1956:
1949:
1939:
1927:
1924:
1899:guanine tetrad
1856:
1853:
1819:
1816:
1688:
1685:
1673:topoisomerases
1654:
1651:
1608:
1605:
1556:nuclear genome
1531:sex chromosome
1514:
1511:
1504:
1466:
1436:
1433:
1406:hydrogen bonds
1384:hydrogen bonds
1375:
1374:
1371:
1370:
1358:
1357:
1347:
1339:
1336:
1302:
1299:
1298:
1297:
1296:
1295:
1292:
1286:
1285:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1266:
1265:
1264:
1261:
1252:
1251:
1250:
1247:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1235:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1221:
1220:7-Deazaguanine
1212:
1211:
1210:
1207:
1182:bacteriophages
1163:
1160:
1111:
1108:
1049:hydrogen bonds
1014:directionality
963:polynucleotide
920:hydrogen bonds
910:DNA is a long
896:hydrogen bonds
887:
884:
734:hydrogen bonds
720:(known as the
718:covalent bonds
664:macromolecules
620:polynucleotide
508:
507:
505:
504:
497:
490:
482:
479:
478:
477:
476:
460:
459:
456:
455:
449:
446:
445:
442:
441:
436:
435:
430:
425:
420:
415:
413:Immunogenetics
410:
405:
400:
395:
389:
388:
387:
384:
383:
380:
379:
376:
375:
368:
367:
362:
345:
340:
338:DNA sequencing
335:
329:
326:
325:
322:
321:
318:
317:
312:
307:
302:
297:
287:
282:
276:
273:
272:
269:
268:
265:
264:
259:
250:
249:
244:
239:
234:
229:
224:
219:
214:
209:
206:
200:
199:
198:
196:Key components
195:
194:
191:
190:
182:
181:
175:
174:
130:
129:
110:
109:
59:
58:
51:
50:
49:
48:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
15749:
15738:
15737:Nucleic acids
15735:
15733:
15730:
15728:
15727:Biotechnology
15725:
15723:
15720:
15719:
15717:
15706:from Wikidata
15705:
15704:
15692:
15688:
15687:
15675:
15671:
15670:
15658:
15654:
15653:
15641:
15640:
15637:
15631:
15623:
15618:
15613:
15612:
15609:
15596:
15588:
15587:
15584:
15576:
15573:
15571:
15568:
15566:
15563:
15561:
15558:
15557:
15556:
15553:
15551:
15548:
15546:
15543:
15541:
15538:
15536:
15533:
15531:
15528:
15527:
15525:
15523:
15519:
15513:
15510:
15508:
15505:
15503:
15500:
15496:
15493:
15491:
15490:Threose
15488:
15486:
15483:
15482:
15481:
15478:
15477:
15475:
15473:
15469:
15463:
15460:
15458:
15455:
15453:
15450:
15448:
15447:Deoxyribozyme
15445:
15443:
15440:
15436:
15435:Mitochondrial
15433:
15431:
15428:
15427:
15426:
15423:
15422:
15420:
15418:
15412:
15402:
15399:
15397:
15394:
15392:
15389:
15387:
15384:
15382:
15379:
15377:
15374:
15373:
15371:
15367:
15361:
15358:
15354:
15351:
15349:
15346:
15344:
15341:
15339:
15336:
15335:
15334:
15331:
15329:
15326:
15322:
15319:
15317:
15314:
15312:
15309:
15308:
15307:
15304:
15303:
15301:
15299:
15295:
15289:
15286:
15284:
15281:
15279:
15276:
15274:
15271:
15267:
15264:
15263:
15262:
15259:
15258:
15256:
15254:
15253:Translational
15250:
15247:
15243:
15237:
15233:
15227:
15224:
15222:
15219:
15217:
15214:
15212:
15209:
15208:
15206:
15202:
15198:
15190:
15185:
15183:
15178:
15176:
15171:
15170:
15167:
15155:
15154:Jacques Monod
15152:
15150:
15147:
15146:
15144:
15140:
15132:
15129:
15127:
15124:
15123:
15122:
15119:
15117:
15116:Translational
15114:
15110:
15107:
15105:
15102:
15100:
15097:
15096:
15095:
15092:
15090:
15087:
15083:
15080:
15078:
15075:
15074:
15073:
15070:
15066:
15063:
15062:
15061:
15058:
15057:
15055:
15053:
15049:
15039:
15036:
15034:
15031:
15029:
15026:
15024:
15021:
15020:
15018:
15014:
15008:
15005:
15003:
15000:
14998:
14995:
14994:
14992:
14988:
14985:
14983:
14979:
14969:
14966:
14964:
14961:
14959:
14956:
14954:
14951:
14949:
14946:
14945:
14943:
14941:
14937:
14931:
14928:
14926:
14923:
14921:
14918:
14917:
14915:
14911:
14905:
14902:
14900:
14897:
14895:
14892:
14891:
14889:
14885:
14882:
14880:
14879:Transcription
14876:
14868:
14865:
14863:
14860:
14858:
14855:
14854:
14853:
14850:
14846:
14842:
14838:
14835:
14834:
14833:
14832:Central dogma
14830:
14828:
14825:
14824:
14822:
14820:
14814:
14810:
14803:
14798:
14796:
14791:
14789:
14784:
14783:
14780:
14768:
14760:
14759:
14756:
14750:
14747:
14745:
14742:
14741:
14739:
14735:
14729:
14726:
14724:
14721:
14719:
14716:
14714:
14711:
14709:
14706:
14704:
14701:
14699:
14696:
14694:
14691:
14689:
14686:
14684:
14681:
14679:
14676:
14674:
14671:
14669:
14666:
14664:
14661:
14659:
14656:
14654:
14651:
14649:
14646:
14644:
14641:
14640:
14638:
14634:
14628:
14625:
14623:
14620:
14618:
14615:
14613:
14610:
14608:
14605:
14603:
14600:
14598:
14595:
14594:
14592:
14589:
14585:
14579:
14576:
14574:
14571:
14569:
14566:
14564:
14561:
14559:
14556:
14554:
14551:
14549:
14546:
14544:
14541:
14539:
14536:
14535:
14533:
14529:
14523:
14520:
14518:
14515:
14513:
14510:
14508:
14505:
14503:
14500:
14498:
14495:
14493:
14490:
14488:
14485:
14483:
14480:
14478:
14475:
14474:
14472:
14468:
14462:
14459:
14457:
14454:
14452:
14449:
14447:
14444:
14442:
14439:
14437:
14434:
14433:
14430:
14426:
14419:
14414:
14412:
14407:
14405:
14400:
14399:
14396:
14389:
14385:
14382:
14380:
14376:
14373:
14370:
14367:
14364:
14363:
14358:
14355:
14353:
14352:
14347:
14344:
14341:
14337:
14334:
14331:
14328:
14326:
14322:
14319:
14317:
14316:
14313:
14309:
14307:
14306:
14303:
14299:
14297:
14296:
14291:
14288:
14286:
14283:
14281:
14278:
14275:
14272:
14270:
14267:
14266:
14262:
14258:
14243:
14201:
14198:
14196:
14193:
14191:
14188:
14187:
14182:
14177:
14162:
14160:0-19-860665-6
14156:
14152:
14148:
14144:
14140:
14134:
14130:
14125:
14121:
14119:0-393-95075-1
14115:
14110:
14109:
14103:
14099:
14095:
14089:
14084:
14083:
14076:
14072:
14066:
14062:
14057:
14053:
14051:0-06-082333-X
14047:
14043:
14039:
14035:
14031:
14025:
14021:
14016:
14012:
14006:
14002:
13997:
13993:
13989:
13984:
13979:
13975:
13971:
13967:
13963:
13959:
13955:
13951:
13946:
13944:0-486-68117-3
13940:
13936:
13932:
13928:
13924:
13922:0-671-22540-5
13918:
13914:
13910:
13906:
13902:
13900:1-4039-1479-6
13896:
13892:
13891:
13885:
13881:
13879:0-12-155089-3
13875:
13871:
13866:
13862:
13860:0-375-41546-7
13856:
13852:
13851:
13846:
13841:
13840:
13826:
13822:
13817:
13812:
13808:
13804:
13800:
13793:
13785:
13781:
13774:
13766:
13762:
13756:
13748:
13744:
13739:
13734:
13729:
13724:
13720:
13716:
13713:(7): 671–82.
13712:
13708:
13704:
13697:
13686:
13679:
13678:
13670:
13659:
13655:
13651:
13647:
13643:
13638:
13633:
13629:
13625:
13621:
13617:
13610:
13603:
13595:
13591:
13585:
13577:
13573:
13569:
13565:
13560:
13555:
13551:
13547:
13543:
13539:
13538:
13533:
13526:
13510:
13506:
13505:
13500:
13493:
13478:
13477:
13472:
13465:
13449:
13445:
13439:
13431:
13427:
13423:
13417:
13409:
13403:
13399:
13395:
13388:
13380:
13376:
13371:
13366:
13361:
13356:
13352:
13348:
13344:
13340:
13336:
13329:
13321:
13315:
13310:
13309:
13300:
13285:
13281:
13275:
13267:
13263:
13258:
13253:
13249:
13245:
13241:
13237:
13233:
13226:
13217:
13212:
13208:
13204:
13200:
13193:
13185:
13181:
13177:
13173:
13169:
13165:
13161:
13157:
13150:
13142:
13138:
13133:
13128:
13124:
13120:
13116:
13112:
13108:
13101:
13091:
13087:
13083:
13079:
13075:
13070:
13063:
13059:
13055:
13051:
13047:
13040:
13035:
13034:
13030:
13022:
13015:
13008:
13000:
12996:
12989:
12981:
12977:
12972:
12967:
12963:
12959:
12955:
12951:
12947:
12940:
12932:
12928:
12923:
12918:
12914:
12910:
12907:(2): 113–59.
12906:
12902:
12898:
12891:
12883:
12879:
12875:
12871:
12867:
12863:
12860:(9): 723–29.
12859:
12855:
12848:
12839:
12837:
12831:
12827:
12823:
12819:
12815:
12811:
12807:
12803:
12797:
12793:
12790:(in German).
12789:
12783:
12779:
12775:
12769:
12765:
12761:
12756:
12755:
12751:
12743:
12739:
12735:
12731:
12724:
12717:
12708:
12703:
12700:(2): 415–24.
12699:
12695:
12691:
12684:
12676:
12672:
12668:
12665:(in German).
12664:
12660:
12653:
12645:
12641:
12637:
12634:(in German).
12633:
12629:
12622:
12614:
12610:
12605:
12600:
12596:
12592:
12588:
12581:
12572:
12567:
12564:(in German).
12563:
12559:
12554:
12551:
12547:
12543:
12539:
12536:
12532:
12528:
12524:
12520:
12515:
12511:
12507:
12502:
12498:
12495:(in German).
12494:
12490:
12485:
12481:
12478:(in German).
12477:
12473:
12468:
12464:
12461:(in German).
12460:
12456:
12451:
12450:
12446:
12438:
12434:
12430:
12426:
12422:
12418:
12415:(6): 565–81.
12414:
12410:
12403:
12396:
12394:
12388:
12385:(in German).
12384:
12380:
12373:
12365:
12361:
12357:
12353:
12349:
12345:
12341:
12337:
12330:
12322:
12318:
12313:
12308:
12304:
12300:
12296:
12292:
12288:
12281:
12273:
12269:
12264:
12259:
12254:
12249:
12245:
12241:
12237:
12230:
12215:
12211:
12207:
12203:
12199:
12192:
12184:
12180:
12176:
12172:
12168:
12164:
12160:
12156:
12152:
12148:
12141:
12133:
12129:
12125:
12121:
12117:
12113:
12110:(5): 281–82.
12109:
12105:
12098:
12090:
12086:
12082:
12078:
12073:
12068:
12064:
12060:
12056:
12052:
12048:
12044:
12036:
12028:
12024:
12020:
12016:
12012:
12008:
12004:
12000:
11996:
11992:
11985:
11978:
11970:
11966:
11962:
11958:
11953:
11948:
11943:
11938:
11934:
11930:
11926:
11919:
11911:
11907:
11903:
11901:0-87969-712-1
11897:
11893:
11886:
11878:
11874:
11870:
11866:
11861:
11856:
11853:(2): 170–79.
11852:
11848:
11841:
11833:
11827:
11823:
11819:
11812:
11804:
11800:
11796:
11790:
11787:. MIT Press.
11786:
11782:
11776:
11768:
11764:
11759:
11754:
11749:
11744:
11740:
11736:
11732:
11728:
11724:
11717:
11709:
11705:
11700:
11695:
11691:
11687:
11683:
11676:
11668:
11664:
11659:
11654:
11650:
11646:
11642:
11638:
11634:
11627:
11619:
11615:
11611:
11607:
11604:(4): 223–29.
11603:
11599:
11592:
11590:
11573:
11569:
11565:
11561:
11557:
11550:
11542:
11538:
11532:
11516:
11512:
11506:
11498:
11494:
11490:
11486:
11481:
11476:
11472:
11468:
11464:
11460:
11456:
11449:
11441:
11437:
11433:
11429:
11425:
11421:
11418:(2): 213–22.
11417:
11413:
11406:
11398:
11394:
11389:
11384:
11379:
11374:
11370:
11366:
11362:
11358:
11354:
11347:
11331:
11327:
11323:
11316:
11308:
11304:
11300:
11296:
11292:
11288:
11281:
11273:
11269:
11264:
11259:
11255:
11251:
11248:(2): 136–41.
11247:
11243:
11239:
11232:
11224:
11220:
11216:
11210:
11206:
11202:
11198:
11191:
11183:
11179:
11175:
11171:
11167:
11163:
11159:
11155:
11148:
11140:
11136:
11132:
11128:
11123:
11118:
11114:
11110:
11106:
11102:
11101:
11096:
11089:
11074:
11073:
11068:
11061:
11045:
11041:
11040:
11035:
11028:
11012:
11008:
11007:
11002:
10995:
10979:
10975:
10971:
10964:
10956:
10952:
10947:
10942:
10937:
10932:
10928:
10924:
10920:
10916:
10912:
10905:
10897:
10893:
10889:
10885:
10881:
10877:
10873:
10869:
10866:(1): 134–37.
10865:
10861:
10854:
10846:
10842:
10838:
10834:
10831:(5): 212–20.
10830:
10826:
10819:
10811:
10807:
10803:
10799:
10795:
10791:
10787:
10783:
10779:
10775:
10768:
10760:
10756:
10752:
10748:
10744:
10740:
10736:
10732:
10728:
10724:
10717:
10709:
10705:
10700:
10695:
10690:
10685:
10681:
10677:
10673:
10669:
10665:
10658:
10650:
10646:
10642:
10638:
10634:
10630:
10626:
10622:
10615:
10607:
10603:
10599:
10595:
10591:
10587:
10582:
10577:
10574:(2): 99–123.
10573:
10569:
10562:
10554:
10550:
10546:
10542:
10538:
10534:
10530:
10526:
10522:
10518:
10511:
10503:
10499:
10495:
10491:
10486:
10481:
10477:
10473:
10469:
10462:
10454:
10450:
10445:
10440:
10436:
10432:
10428:
10424:
10420:
10416:
10412:
10405:
10397:
10393:
10389:
10385:
10381:
10377:
10370:
10362:
10358:
10354:
10350:
10346:
10342:
10338:
10334:
10327:
10319:
10315:
10311:
10307:
10303:
10299:
10296:(5): 337–48.
10295:
10291:
10284:
10276:
10272:
10268:
10264:
10260:
10256:
10252:
10248:
10241:
10226:
10222:
10215:
10207:
10203:
10199:
10195:
10191:
10187:
10184:(6): 925–47.
10183:
10179:
10172:
10164:
10160:
10156:
10152:
10147:
10142:
10138:
10134:
10133:FASEB Journal
10130:
10123:
10121:
10112:
10108:
10104:
10100:
10096:
10092:
10085:
10074:
10070:
10066:
10062:
10058:
10054:
10050:
10046:
10042:
10035:
10028:
10020:
10016:
10011:
10006:
10002:
9998:
9994:
9990:
9986:
9979:
9971:
9967:
9962:
9957:
9953:
9949:
9942:
9935:
9927:
9923:
9919:
9915:
9911:
9907:
9900:
9892:
9888:
9883:
9878:
9874:
9870:
9866:
9862:
9858:
9851:
9849:
9840:
9836:
9831:
9826:
9822:
9818:
9815:(2): 434–50.
9814:
9810:
9806:
9799:
9784:
9780:
9773:
9765:
9761:
9756:
9751:
9746:
9741:
9737:
9733:
9729:
9725:
9721:
9714:
9706:
9702:
9697:
9692:
9689:(2): 157–67.
9688:
9684:
9680:
9673:
9665:
9661:
9657:
9653:
9649:
9645:
9638:
9623:
9619:
9612:
9604:
9600:
9596:
9592:
9589:(3): 141–80.
9588:
9584:
9577:
9569:
9565:
9561:
9557:
9554:(3): 94–100.
9553:
9549:
9542:
9534:
9530:
9526:
9522:
9518:
9514:
9507:
9499:
9495:
9491:
9485:
9481:
9477:
9473:
9466:
9455:
9451:
9447:
9443:
9439:
9435:
9431:
9427:
9423:
9416:
9409:
9401:
9397:
9393:
9389:
9385:
9384:10.1038/38444
9381:
9377:
9373:
9369:
9365:
9358:
9350:
9346:
9342:
9338:
9333:
9328:
9325:(4): 858–70.
9324:
9320:
9316:
9309:
9301:
9297:
9293:
9289:
9284:
9279:
9275:
9271:
9267:
9263:
9259:
9252:
9244:
9238:
9230:
9226:
9221:
9216:
9211:
9206:
9202:
9198:
9195:(8): e41781.
9194:
9190:
9186:
9179:
9171:
9167:
9162:
9157:
9153:
9149:
9145:
9141:
9137:
9130:
9122:
9118:
9113:
9108:
9103:
9098:
9094:
9090:
9086:
9082:
9078:
9071:
9063:
9059:
9055:
9051:
9047:
9043:
9036:
9028:
9024:
9019:
9014:
9010:
9006:
9003:(4): 815–29.
9002:
8998:
8994:
8987:
8979:
8975:
8970:
8965:
8960:
8955:
8951:
8947:
8943:
8936:
8928:
8924:
8919:
8914:
8910:
8906:
8902:
8898:
8894:
8887:
8879:
8875:
8871:
8867:
8863:
8859:
8856:(7): 654–67.
8855:
8851:
8844:
8836:
8830:
8826:
8821:
8820:
8811:
8803:
8799:
8794:
8789:
8784:
8779:
8775:
8771:
8767:
8760:
8752:
8748:
8744:
8740:
8736:
8732:
8725:
8717:
8713:
8708:
8703:
8699:
8695:
8692:(2): 272–80.
8691:
8687:
8683:
8676:
8668:
8664:
8659:
8654:
8650:
8646:
8642:
8638:
8634:
8627:
8612:
8608:
8601:
8593:
8589:
8584:
8579:
8575:
8571:
8567:
8563:
8559:
8555:
8551:
8547:
8540:
8532:
8528:
8523:
8518:
8514:
8510:
8507:(1): 133–46.
8506:
8502:
8498:
8491:
8483:
8479:
8474:
8469:
8465:
8461:
8457:
8453:
8449:
8442:
8434:
8430:
8425:
8420:
8417:(3): 506–21.
8416:
8412:
8408:
8401:
8393:
8389:
8384:
8379:
8375:
8371:
8367:
8363:
8359:
8352:
8344:
8340:
8336:
8332:
8328:
8324:
8317:
8309:
8305:
8301:
8297:
8294:(2): 237–72.
8293:
8289:
8282:
8274:
8270:
8266:
8262:
8258:
8254:
8247:
8239:
8235:
8231:
8227:
8224:(2): 123–60.
8223:
8219:
8212:
8204:
8200:
8196:
8192:
8188:
8184:
8180:
8176:
8169:
8161:
8157:
8153:
8149:
8145:
8141:
8134:
8126:
8122:
8116:
8112:
8108:
8101:
8094:
8089:
8085:
8083:0-8153-4072-9
8079:
8075:
8071:
8064:
8057:
8053:
8049:
8048:
8043:
8036:
8028:
8024:
8019:
8014:
8010:
8006:
8002:
7995:
7987:
7983:
7978:
7973:
7969:
7965:
7961:
7954:
7946:
7942:
7938:
7934:
7930:
7926:
7923:(1–2): 9–21.
7922:
7918:
7911:
7903:
7899:
7895:
7891:
7887:
7883:
7875:
7869:
7865:
7862:
7859:Created from
7856:
7848:
7844:
7840:
7836:
7831:
7826:
7822:
7818:
7814:
7810:
7802:
7794:
7790:
7785:
7780:
7776:
7772:
7769:(3): 309–15.
7768:
7764:
7760:
7753:
7745:
7741:
7736:
7731:
7727:
7723:
7719:
7715:
7711:
7707:
7703:
7696:
7688:
7684:
7680:
7678:3-540-29114-8
7674:
7670:
7666:
7662:
7655:
7647:
7643:
7638:
7633:
7629:
7625:
7621:
7614:
7606:
7602:
7598:
7594:
7590:
7586:
7579:
7571:
7567:
7562:
7557:
7552:
7547:
7543:
7539:
7535:
7528:
7512:
7506:
7490:
7483:
7475:
7471:
7467:
7463:
7459:
7455:
7451:
7447:
7442:
7437:
7434:(2): 021920.
7433:
7429:
7425:
7418:
7410:
7406:
7401:
7396:
7392:
7388:
7384:
7380:
7376:
7372:
7371:
7366:
7359:
7351:
7347:
7342:
7337:
7333:
7329:
7326:(7745): 436.
7325:
7321:
7317:
7310:
7302:
7298:
7293:
7288:
7284:
7280:
7277:(4): 363–71.
7276:
7272:
7268:
7261:
7253:
7249:
7245:
7241:
7237:
7233:
7228:
7223:
7220:(4): 503–14.
7219:
7215:
7208:
7200:
7196:
7192:
7188:
7184:
7180:
7176:
7172:
7168:
7164:
7157:
7149:
7145:
7140:
7135:
7131:
7127:
7123:
7119:
7115:
7108:
7106:
7097:
7093:
7088:
7083:
7079:
7075:
7071:
7067:
7063:
7056:
7048:
7044:
7039:
7034:
7030:
7026:
7022:
7015:
7013:
7011:
7002:
6998:
6993:
6988:
6984:
6980:
6976:
6969:
6967:
6951:
6947:
6941:
6933:
6929:
6925:
6921:
6917:
6910:
6902:
6898:
6894:
6890:
6886:
6879:
6863:
6859:
6855:
6848:
6846:
6829:
6825:
6821:
6814:
6806:
6802:
6797:
6792:
6787:
6782:
6778:
6774:
6770:
6766:
6762:
6755:
6747:
6743:
6739:
6735:
6731:
6727:
6723:
6719:
6712:
6704:
6700:
6696:
6692:
6689:(4): 819–40.
6688:
6684:
6677:
6669:
6665:
6661:
6657:
6653:
6649:
6642:
6623:
6619:
6615:
6611:
6607:
6604:(5): 751–53.
6603:
6599:
6592:
6585:
6577:
6570:
6562:
6558:
6554:
6550:
6547:(4): 137–41.
6546:
6542:
6538:
6531:
6523:
6519:
6515:
6511:
6507:
6503:
6496:
6485:
6481:
6477:
6473:
6469:
6465:
6461:
6457:
6453:
6449:
6445:
6438:
6431:
6429:
6417:
6413:
6409:
6405:
6401:
6397:
6393:
6389:
6385:
6381:
6377:
6370:
6363:
6361:
6347:
6342:
6337:
6333:
6329:
6325:
6321:
6314:
6309:
6302:
6297:
6292:
6288:
6284:
6280:
6276:
6269:
6264:
6263:
6260:
6252:
6248:
6244:
6240:
6236:
6232:
6225:
6217:
6213:
6209:
6205:
6201:
6197:
6194:(6): 430–40.
6193:
6189:
6182:
6180:
6171:
6167:
6163:
6159:
6155:
6151:
6147:
6143:
6136:
6134:
6122:
6118:
6114:
6110:
6106:
6102:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6083:
6076:
6068:
6064:
6059:
6054:
6050:
6046:
6043:(8): 261–66.
6042:
6038:
6034:
6027:
6019:
6015:
6010:
6005:
6001:
5997:
5993:
5989:
5985:
5978:
5970:
5966:
5962:
5958:
5954:
5950:
5943:
5935:
5931:
5927:
5923:
5919:
5915:
5912:(4): 664–71.
5911:
5907:
5900:
5892:
5888:
5884:
5880:
5877:(5): 289–97.
5876:
5872:
5865:
5858:
5854:
5851:
5846:
5838:
5834:
5829:
5824:
5820:
5816:
5812:
5805:
5797:
5793:
5789:
5785:
5781:
5777:
5770:
5768:
5766:
5749:
5745:
5739:
5731:
5727:
5723:
5719:
5715:
5711:
5707:
5703:
5699:
5695:
5688:
5680:
5676:
5671:
5666:
5662:
5658:
5654:
5650:
5646:
5639:
5631:
5627:
5622:
5617:
5612:
5607:
5603:
5599:
5598:BMC Res Notes
5595:
5588:
5586:
5574:
5570:
5566:
5562:
5558:
5554:
5550:
5543:
5536:
5528:
5524:
5520:
5516:
5512:
5508:
5505:(5): 817–24.
5504:
5500:
5493:
5485:
5481:
5476:
5471:
5466:
5461:
5457:
5453:
5449:
5445:
5441:
5434:
5426:
5422:
5417:
5412:
5408:
5404:
5400:
5396:
5392:
5388:
5384:
5377:
5369:
5365:
5360:
5355:
5351:
5347:
5343:
5339:
5335:
5328:
5320:
5316:
5312:
5308:
5304:
5300:
5293:
5291:
5282:
5278:
5274:
5270:
5266:
5262:
5258:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5239:
5231:
5227:
5223:
5219:
5215:
5211:
5204:
5196:
5192:
5187:
5182:
5178:
5174:
5169:
5164:
5160:
5156:
5152:
5145:
5137:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5120:
5115:
5111:
5107:
5103:
5096:
5088:
5084:
5080:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5061:
5053:
5049:
5045:
5041:
5036:
5031:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5012:
4996:
4992:
4985:
4977:
4971:
4967:
4960:
4952:
4948:
4943:
4938:
4934:
4930:
4926:
4922:
4919:(2): 564–74.
4918:
4914:
4910:
4903:
4888:
4884:
4877:
4869:
4865:
4861:
4857:
4853:
4849:
4845:
4841:
4837:
4833:
4826:
4824:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4802:
4797:
4793:
4789:
4785:
4781:
4778:(3): 449–54.
4777:
4773:
4769:
4762:
4754:
4752:0-7167-4955-6
4748:
4744:
4737:
4735:
4733:
4731:
4722:
4718:
4714:
4710:
4706:
4702:
4698:
4694:
4690:
4686:
4679:
4671:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4651:
4648:(1): 153–61.
4647:
4643:
4636:
4625:
4621:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4601:
4597:
4593:
4589:
4585:
4581:
4577:
4570:
4563:
4561:
4559:
4557:
4548:
4544:
4539:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4498:
4491:
4483:
4479:
4475:
4471:
4469:0-8153-3218-1
4465:
4461:
4460:
4452:
4450:
4441:
4439:0-387-90762-9
4435:
4431:
4424:
4416:
4414:0-8053-4553-1
4410:
4405:
4404:
4395:
4380:
4376:
4370:
4362:
4358:
4357:Basic Biology
4354:
4347:
4339:
4335:
4329:
4325:
4324:
4316:
4308:
4307:
4302:
4296:
4292:
4280:
4277:
4271:
4268:
4265:
4264:Southern blot
4262:
4256:
4255:Ribosomal DNA
4253:
4250:
4247:
4244:
4241:
4238:
4235:
4232:
4229:
4226:
4223:
4220:
4217:
4214:
4211:
4208:
4205:
4202:
4199:
4196:
4193:
4190:
4187:
4186:
4179:
4176:
4175:Alec Jeffreys
4171:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4140:
4138:
4133:
4129:
4127:
4123:
4116:
4112:
4111:
4101:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4088:
4083:
4079:
4078:Linus Pauling
4075:
4071:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4047:In May 1952,
4045:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4006:Francis Crick
3999:
3996:
3992:
3987:
3983:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3944:Colin MacLeod
3941:
3936:
3934:
3929:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3906:
3903:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3876:
3874:
3870:
3866:
3862:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3841:Francis Crick
3838:
3834:
3829:
3824:
3817:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3797:
3787:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3762:
3758:
3757:Phylogenetics
3748:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3721:
3715:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3679:
3676:
3675:gene products
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3633:, especially
3632:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3615:
3605:
3603:
3600:selection or
3599:
3595:
3590:
3589:Deoxyribozyme
3580:
3578:
3574:
3569:
3565:
3562:
3556:
3554:
3550:
3549:Alec Jeffreys
3546:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3533:DNA profiling
3530:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3501:
3500:DNA profiling
3494:DNA profiling
3491:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3412:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3332:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3303:
3293:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3262:
3260:
3255:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3231:
3223:
3219:
3208:
3204:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3194:
3189:
3179:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3164:messenger RNA
3160:
3155:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3138:, which is a
3137:
3132:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3072:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3051:
3047:
3038:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3015:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2984:endonucleases
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2958:
2955:
2950:
2936:
2933:
2929:
2923:
2921:
2917:
2909:
2904:
2900:
2898:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2883:chromosomes.
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2824:
2821:
2811:
2809:
2803:
2793:
2791:
2787:
2782:
2780:
2776:
2773:
2769:
2758:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2739:
2738:Cell division
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2717:produces the
2716:
2712:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2688:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2650:messenger RNA
2647:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2623:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2562:
2557:
2553:
2552:noncoding DNA
2549:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2532:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2484:
2483:Noncoding DNA
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2458:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2403:
2398:
2389:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2342:
2341:intercalation
2336:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2309:
2305:
2304:free radicals
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2265:
2264:tobacco smoke
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2218:
2216:
2212:
2211:glycosylation
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2187:
2182:
2178:
2173:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2142:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2107:
2103:
2100:
2096:
2095:
2090:
2086:
2071:
2064:
2055:
2053:
2050:by repelling
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2023:
2021:
2017:
2012:
2008:
2007:Hachimoji DNA
2002:
1992:
1990:
1986:
1981:
1972:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1947:
1943:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1923:
1921:
1917:
1911:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1894:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1830:exobiologists
1825:
1815:
1813:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1797:
1792:
1789:Although the
1787:
1785:
1781:
1780:Francis Crick
1777:
1773:
1769:
1768:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1750:
1749:in solution.
1748:
1744:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1728:that include
1727:
1726:conformations
1720:
1716:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1701:DNA structure
1698:
1694:
1684:
1682:
1678:
1677:transcription
1674:
1670:
1666:
1660:
1659:DNA supercoil
1650:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1631:
1629:
1624:
1623:messenger RNA
1620:
1614:
1604:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1576:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1557:
1554:
1546:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1519:
1510:
1507:
1499:
1493:
1489:
1469:
1463:(also called
1462:
1449:
1447:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1400:
1399:complementary
1391:
1386:. Bottom, an
1385:
1381:
1368:
1364:
1363:
1355:
1351:
1350:
1345:
1335:
1333:
1329:
1324:
1320:
1312:
1311:Hoechst stain
1307:
1293:
1290:
1289:
1287:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1262:
1259:
1258:
1257:
1253:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1233:
1232:
1231:
1227:
1222:
1219:
1218:
1217:
1213:
1208:
1205:
1204:
1203:
1199:
1198:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1178:
1173:
1169:
1159:
1157:
1153:
1145:
1133:
1129:
1117:
1107:
1105:
1094:
1086:
1078:
1070:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1053:base-stacking
1050:
1042:
1037:
1033:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1009:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
980:, which is a
979:
978:2-deoxyribose
975:
971:
966:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
935:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
905:
901:
897:
892:
883:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
808:cell division
805:
800:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
781:transcription
778:
774:
771:). It is the
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
745:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
691:
687:
684:
680:
677:units called
676:
671:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
648:nucleic acids
645:
641:
637:
634:of all known
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
605:
598:
514:
503:
498:
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491:
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136:
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95:
87:
80:
72:
64:
55:
47:
46:
43:
39:
35:
30:
19:
15701:
15684:
15667:
15655:from Commons
15650:
15629:
15565:Bacterial
15540:Lambda phage
15414:
15204:Constituents
15131:irreversible
15016:Key elements
14913:Key elements
14836:
14827:Genetic code
14817:Introduction
14668:Genetic code
14602:the Americas
14578:Quantitative
14548:Cytogenetics
14543:Conservation
14481:
14436:Introduction
14360:
14349:
14339:
14315:Forms_of_DNA
14310:
14300:
14293:
14190:Online books
14180:
14150:
14128:
14107:
14081:
14060:
14041:
14019:
14000:
13965:
13961:
13934:
13912:
13889:
13869:
13849:
13809:(2): 20–26.
13806:
13802:
13792:
13783:
13779:
13773:
13764:
13755:
13710:
13706:
13696:
13685:the original
13676:
13669:
13619:
13615:
13602:
13593:
13584:
13541:
13535:
13525:
13513:. Retrieved
13502:
13492:
13480:. Retrieved
13474:
13464:
13452:. Retrieved
13438:
13430:the original
13425:
13416:
13393:
13387:
13345:(2): 84–97.
13342:
13338:
13328:
13307:
13299:
13287:. Retrieved
13283:
13274:
13242:(1): 39–56.
13239:
13235:
13225:
13206:
13202:
13192:
13159:
13155:
13149:
13114:
13110:
13100:
13090:the original
13080:(1): 66–76.
13077:
13062:the original
13049:
13045:
13029:
13020:
13007:
12998:
12994:
12988:
12953:
12949:
12939:
12904:
12900:
12890:
12857:
12853:
12847:
12835:
12833:
12805:
12801:
12794:(6): 345–69.
12791:
12787:
12780:(1): ?.
12777:
12773:
12763:
12759:
12750:
12733:
12729:
12716:
12697:
12693:
12683:
12666:
12662:
12652:
12638:: 1198–203.
12635:
12631:
12621:
12597:(1): 80–97.
12594:
12590:
12580:
12569:
12565:
12561:
12549:
12545:
12526:
12522:
12509:
12505:
12496:
12492:
12479:
12475:
12462:
12458:
12445:
12412:
12408:
12402:
12393:überlassend.
12391:
12390:
12386:
12382:
12372:
12339:
12335:
12329:
12294:
12290:
12280:
12243:
12239:
12229:
12217:. Retrieved
12205:
12201:
12191:
12150:
12146:
12140:
12107:
12103:
12097:
12046:
12042:
12035:
11994:
11990:
11977:
11932:
11929:PLOS Biology
11928:
11918:
11891:
11885:
11850:
11846:
11840:
11817:
11811:
11784:
11775:
11730:
11726:
11716:
11689:
11685:
11675:
11640:
11636:
11626:
11601:
11597:
11576:. Retrieved
11559:
11549:
11541:the original
11531:
11519:. Retrieved
11515:the original
11505:
11462:
11458:
11448:
11415:
11411:
11405:
11360:
11356:
11346:
11334:. Retrieved
11325:
11315:
11290:
11286:
11280:
11245:
11241:
11231:
11196:
11190:
11157:
11153:
11147:
11104:
11098:
11088:
11076:. Retrieved
11070:
11060:
11048:. Retrieved
11037:
11027:
11015:. Retrieved
11006:ScienceDaily
11004:
10994:
10982:. Retrieved
10963:
10918:
10914:
10904:
10863:
10859:
10853:
10828:
10824:
10818:
10777:
10773:
10767:
10726:
10722:
10716:
10671:
10667:
10657:
10624:
10620:
10614:
10571:
10567:
10561:
10520:
10516:
10510:
10475:
10471:
10461:
10418:
10414:
10404:
10379:
10375:
10369:
10339:(1): 45–54.
10336:
10332:
10326:
10293:
10289:
10283:
10250:
10246:
10240:
10228:. Retrieved
10225:www.rcsb.org
10224:
10214:
10181:
10177:
10171:
10136:
10132:
10094:
10090:
10084:
10073:the original
10044:
10040:
10027:
9992:
9988:
9978:
9951:
9947:
9934:
9909:
9905:
9899:
9864:
9860:
9812:
9808:
9798:
9786:. Retrieved
9783:www.rcsb.org
9782:
9772:
9727:
9723:
9713:
9686:
9682:
9672:
9647:
9643:
9637:
9625:. Retrieved
9622:www.rcsb.org
9621:
9611:
9586:
9582:
9576:
9551:
9547:
9541:
9516:
9512:
9506:
9471:
9465:
9425:
9421:
9408:
9367:
9363:
9357:
9322:
9318:
9308:
9265:
9261:
9251:
9237:
9192:
9188:
9178:
9146:(2): 84–91.
9143:
9139:
9129:
9084:
9080:
9070:
9045:
9041:
9035:
9000:
8996:
8986:
8949:
8945:
8935:
8900:
8896:
8886:
8853:
8849:
8843:
8818:
8810:
8773:
8769:
8759:
8734:
8730:
8724:
8689:
8685:
8675:
8640:
8636:
8626:
8614:. Retrieved
8611:www.rcsb.org
8610:
8600:
8557:
8553:
8539:
8504:
8500:
8490:
8455:
8451:
8441:
8414:
8410:
8400:
8365:
8361:
8351:
8326:
8322:
8316:
8291:
8287:
8281:
8256:
8252:
8246:
8221:
8217:
8211:
8178:
8174:
8168:
8143:
8139:
8133:
8110:
8100:
8091:
8073:
8063:
8055:
8045:
8035:
8008:
8004:
7994:
7967:
7963:
7953:
7920:
7916:
7910:
7885:
7882:Biochemistry
7881:
7874:
7855:
7812:
7808:
7801:
7766:
7762:
7752:
7709:
7705:
7695:
7660:
7654:
7627:
7623:
7613:
7591:(2): 89–97.
7588:
7584:
7578:
7541:
7537:
7527:
7515:. Retrieved
7505:
7493:. Retrieved
7482:
7431:
7427:
7417:
7374:
7368:
7358:
7323:
7319:
7309:
7274:
7270:
7260:
7217:
7213:
7207:
7166:
7162:
7156:
7121:
7117:
7069:
7065:
7055:
7028:
7024:
6982:
6978:
6953:. Retrieved
6949:
6940:
6915:
6909:
6888:
6878:
6866:. Retrieved
6857:
6832:. Retrieved
6823:
6813:
6768:
6764:
6754:
6721:
6717:
6711:
6686:
6682:
6676:
6654:(1): 45–63.
6651:
6647:
6641:
6629:. Retrieved
6622:the original
6601:
6597:
6584:
6575:
6569:
6544:
6540:
6530:
6508:(1): 49–72.
6505:
6501:
6495:
6447:
6443:
6379:
6375:
6323:
6319:
6278:
6274:
6259:
6234:
6230:
6224:
6191:
6187:
6145:
6141:
6121:the original
6092:
6088:
6075:
6040:
6036:
6026:
5991:
5987:
5977:
5952:
5948:
5942:
5909:
5905:
5899:
5874:
5870:
5864:
5845:
5821:(1): 29–38.
5818:
5814:
5804:
5779:
5775:
5752:. Retrieved
5748:the original
5738:
5697:
5693:
5687:
5652:
5648:
5638:
5601:
5597:
5552:
5549:Biochemistry
5548:
5535:
5502:
5498:
5492:
5447:
5443:
5433:
5390:
5386:
5376:
5341:
5337:
5327:
5302:
5298:
5248:
5244:
5238:
5213:
5209:
5203:
5158:
5154:
5144:
5109:
5105:
5095:
5070:
5066:
5060:
5025:
5021:
5011:
4999:. Retrieved
4984:
4965:
4959:
4916:
4912:
4902:
4890:. Retrieved
4887:www.rcsb.org
4886:
4876:
4835:
4831:
4814:the original
4775:
4771:
4761:
4743:Biochemistry
4742:
4688:
4684:
4678:
4645:
4641:
4635:
4579:
4575:
4504:
4500:
4490:
4458:
4429:
4423:
4402:
4394:
4382:. Retrieved
4378:
4369:
4356:
4346:
4322:
4315:
4304:
4295:
4172:
4141:
4134:
4130:
4125:
4121:
4114:
4108:
4106:
4082:Robert Corey
4074:antiparallel
4046:
4030:Martha Chase
4010:James Watson
4003:
3940:Oswald Avery
3937:
3930:
3918:cell nucleus
3914:Jean Brachet
3907:
3902:Pneumococcus
3901:
3877:
3858:
3845:James Watson
3823:
3799:
3784:anthropology
3764:
3741:streptavidin
3718:
3711:
3671:gene finding
3663:phylogenetic
3617:
3592:
3570:
3566:
3557:
3536:
3503:
3472:viral vector
3456:biochemistry
3437:
3403:
3361:, including
3333:
3305:
3286:endonuclease
3278:recombinases
3263:
3256:
3237:
3156:
3144:retroviruses
3133:
3113:proofreading
3105:
3091:
3078:
3055:
3050:supercoiling
3044:
3016:
2980:exonucleases
2962:
2935:accessible.
2924:
2913:
2885:
2848:
2817:
2805:
2783:
2777:
2764:
2736:
2713:. Next, one
2681:transfer RNA
2670:
2665:
2662:genetic code
2643:
2632:Genetic code
2593:
2559:
2533:
2501:chloroplasts
2497:mitochondria
2493:cell nucleus
2486:
2467:Cell nucleus
2442:Transmission
2430:human genome
2407:
2382:chemotherapy
2339:
2337:
2276:DNA sequence
2269:
2258:, the major
2184:
2174:
2147:
2069:
2052:nucleophiles
2029:
2004:
1977:
1971:Branched DNA
1932:Branched DNA
1926:Branched DNA
1912:
1903:G-quadruplex
1895:
1876:
1861:G-quadruplex
1827:
1803:right-handed
1800:
1796:paracrystals
1790:
1788:
1776:James Watson
1765:
1761:
1751:
1723:
1662:
1653:Supercoiling
1632:
1619:DNA sequence
1616:
1577:
1561:chromosome 1
1550:
1502:
1500:
1464:
1455:-content (%
1450:
1438:
1431:
1417:-content. A
1402:base pairing
1396:
1387:
1377:
1338:Base pairing
1327:
1319:binding site
1316:
1268:
1255:
1229:
1215:
1201:
1195:
1175:
1165:
1152:methyl group
1113:
1046:
1022:antiparallel
1010:
967:
939:double helix
936:
909:
848:chloroplasts
840:mitochondria
832:cell nucleus
801:
789:genetic code
768:
765:antiparallel
746:
730:base pairing
672:
650:. Alongside
632:reproduction
624:double helix
611:
512:
511:
433:Quantitative
403:Cytogenetics
398:Conservation
280:Introduction
140:double helix
78:
42:
29:
15560:P1-derived
15328:Antisense
15221:Nucleotides
15216:Nucleosides
15211:Nucleobases
14982:Translation
14819:to genetics
14648:Epigenetics
14342:Study Guide
14312:Proteopedia
14302:Proteopedia
13156:Experientia
12694:J Biol Chem
11078:17 February
10097:: 283–315.
7630:(1): 6–21.
6916:Nature News
6889:Nature News
6648:Biopolymers
6148:: 369–413.
5955:(1): 1–12.
5338:Biopolymers
5305:: 293–321.
5073:: 2838–44.
4384:21 November
4351:Purcell A.
4154:, allowing
4070:space group
4016:within the
3991:blue plaque
3873:nucleobases
3814:reliability
3720:DNA origami
3529:crime scene
3527:found at a
3488:agriculture
3464:transformed
3405:Ancient DNA
3399:cosmic dust
3381:, found in
3375:outer space
3348:outer space
3318:as part of
3117:exonuclease
3100:active site
3080:Polymerases
3075:Polymerases
3019:DNA ligases
2876:acetylation
2868:methylation
2864:ionic bonds
2808:neutrophils
2691:Replication
2658:translation
2604:pseudogenes
2600:centromeres
2556:genome size
2451:translation
2422:prokaryotes
2410:chromosomes
2402:nuclear DNA
2366:carcinogens
2362:doxorubicin
2292:ultraviolet
2256:benzopyrene
2191:vertebrates
2154:methylation
2141:Deamination
2040:strong acid
1891:human cells
1808:methylation
1584:nuclear DNA
1488:Pribnow box
1427:temperature
1328:(see below)
1132:pyrimidines
916:nucleotides
856:prokaryotes
836:nuclear DNA
804:chromosomes
797:translation
793:amino acids
738:pyrimidines
710:deoxyribose
686:nucleobases
679:nucleotides
94:10 - 10 bp
15716:Categories
15669:Quotations
15512:Morpholino
15425:Organellar
15333:Processual
15298:Regulatory
15242:non-coding
15126:reversible
15089:lac operon
15065:imprinting
15060:Epigenetic
15052:Regulation
15007:Eukaryotic
14953:5' capping
14904:Eukaryotic
14653:Geneticist
14627:South Asia
14573:Population
14553:Ecological
14522:Amino acid
14502:Nucleotide
14477:Chromosome
14257:Audio help
14248:2007-02-12
13454:6 February
13396:. Oxford:
13052:: 109–21.
12568:: 248–64.
12389:: 441–60.
12297:(5): 239.
11935:(3): E73.
11336:22 October
10047:: 133–63.
9650:: 729–49.
8544:Birney E,
7487:Reusch W.
6868:2 December
6834:2 December
6724:: 286–98.
5744:"Untitled"
5604:(1): 106.
5028:: 99–134.
4379:Genome.gov
4287:References
4055:, took an
3910:sea urchin
3894:experiment
3700:at right.
3482:, used in
3395:red giants
3383:meteorites
3379:pyrimidine
3280:, such as
3168:terminator
3148:telomerase
3031:DNA repair
2972:hydrolysis
2893:stem-loops
2860:nucleosome
2731:DNA ligase
2654:amino-acid
2620:divergence
2475:Chromosome
2414:eukaryotes
2358:daunomycin
2317:insertions
2294:light and
2250:between a
2209:, and the
2048:hydrolysis
1887:DNA repair
1883:telomerase
1791:B-DNA form
1747:polyamines
1580:eukaryotes
1573:85 mm
1569:base pairs
1565:chromosome
1539:base pairs
1521:Schematic
1411:GC-content
1313:dye 33258.
1191:epigenetic
1130:, and the
1104:base pairs
959:biopolymer
955:nucleotide
951:nucleoside
947:nucleobase
930:(3.4
886:Properties
757:non-coding
753:replicated
646:(RNA) are
642:. DNA and
428:Population
408:Ecological
333:Geneticist
247:Amino acid
227:Nucleotide
204:Chromosome
156:base pairs
123:base pairs
71:10 - 10 bp
15686:Resources
15472:Analogues
15457:Hachimoji
15240:(coding,
15195:Types of
14997:Bacterial
14894:Bacterial
14568:Molecular
14563:Microbial
14538:Classical
14147:Wilkins M
13909:Judson HF
13843:Berry A,
13786:(1): 100.
13576:258314143
13001:: 519–76.
12836:genonemes
12529:: 422–31.
12499:: 267–71.
12482:: 290–95.
12465:: 284–91.
12291:3 Biotech
11855:CiteSeerX
11568:0362-4331
11287:Biochimie
11131:0028-0836
10984:10 August
10576:CiteSeerX
10376:Biochimie
8850:BioEssays
7830:1874/5219
7763:BioEssays
7222:CiteSeerX
6858:Space.com
6631:29 August
6561:189888972
6216:205496065
6095:: 21–53.
5177:1664-8021
5128:0009-2665
5087:0002-7863
5044:0066-4154
4933:0305-1048
4860:0907-4449
4792:0306-3283
4705:0006-2928
4662:0022-2836
4604:0028-0836
4529:2041-1723
4478:145080076
4403:iGenetics
4231:Haplotype
4091:The Eagle
3995:The Eagle
3938:In 1943,
3931:In 1937,
3926:cytoplasm
3920:and that
3878:In 1909,
3800:DNA as a
3768:phylogeny
3725:polyhedra
3655:mutations
3623:data mine
3450:. Modern
3328:evolution
3324:RNA world
3320:ribozymes
3316:catalysis
3296:Evolution
3152:telomeres
3129:helicases
3125:DNA clamp
3121:replisome
3092:templates
3057:Helicases
2964:Nucleases
2897:nucleases
2888:protein A
2852:chromatin
2729:) before
2646:phenotype
2596:Telomeres
2529:enhancers
2525:promoters
2471:Chromatin
2378:aflatoxin
2370:teratogen
2354:acridines
2321:deletions
2266:, and DNA
2199:mutations
2195:deaminate
2170:crosstalk
2150:chromatin
1907:chelation
1879:telomeres
1846:bacterium
1838:biosphere
1545:Karyotype
1523:karyogram
1492:promoters
1344:Base pair
1256:Thymidine
1254:Modified
1228:Modified
1214:Modified
1200:Modified
970:phosphate
928:ångströms
876:chromatin
868:cytoplasm
675:monomeric
638:and many
636:organisms
423:Molecular
418:Microbial
393:Classical
294:molecular
290:Evolution
15595:Category
15530:Phagemid
15381:Ribozyme
15109:microRNA
15023:Ribosome
15002:Archaeal
14958:Splicing
14930:Promoter
14899:Archaeal
14843: →
14839: →
14767:Category
14693:Heredity
14663:Genomics
14507:Mutation
14497:Heredity
14461:Glossary
14451:Timeline
14425:Genetics
14259: ·
14149:(2003).
14102:Stent GS
14040:(2006).
14038:Ridley M
13992:12540907
13933:(1994).
13911:(1979).
13847:(2003).
13845:Watson J
13825:23386793
13747:16590258
13658:Archived
13646:12540909
13568:37100935
13515:26 April
13509:Archived
13482:25 April
13448:Archived
13379:16578429
13266:12981234
13176:15421335
13141:19871359
13086:20257017
12931:20474956
12882:46277758
12874:11533721
12830:17769043
12613:13103145
12538:Archived
12429:17901982
12364:51905843
12356:30073589
12321:29744271
12272:11806830
12175:18818351
12132:19421208
12081:19424153
12019:16541064
11969:13222080
11961:15024422
11910:55106399
11877:14734307
11803:45951728
11767:25918425
11667:19684594
11578:27 March
11572:Archived
11521:27 March
11440:14511630
11330:Archived
11307:12595138
11272:11950565
11223:17172731
11182:41788896
11139:33597786
11072:CNN News
11044:Archived
11017:9 August
11011:Archived
10978:Archived
10955:21836052
10896:24740859
10888:11734907
10845:15866038
10802:11057666
10649:85976762
10641:11360970
10598:15217990
10545:12110897
10502:39505263
10494:12423347
10453:16838012
10353:16369571
10318:23225873
10310:16619049
10267:11283701
10230:27 March
10206:24946189
10198:12516863
10163:39614573
10111:15952889
10069:26171993
10061:12045093
9970:15128295
9926:16246147
9891:11058099
9788:27 March
9764:12808131
9705:15479634
9664:10966474
9627:27 March
9603:10473346
9533:11497996
9498:12596902
9454:Archived
9442:11498575
9349:26965112
9341:15853876
9300:21101836
9283:11147202
9229:22952587
9189:PLOS ONE
9170:23158400
9121:23300576
9081:PLOS ONE
9062:11859186
9027:20598083
8978:19023416
8927:11591672
8878:32463239
8870:17563084
8802:11178285
8751:12083509
8716:11827946
8667:15905142
8616:27 March
8592:17571346
8531:15596463
8482:11236998
8433:15988757
8392:11181995
8343:11562309
8273:10799645
8203:21600302
8160:19812404
8125:Archived
8088:Archived
8052:Archived
8027:12947387
8005:Oncogene
7945:10064846
7902:12885257
7864:Archived
7861:PDB 1JDG
7847:24801094
7793:16479578
7744:19372393
7687:16570853
7646:11782440
7605:16403636
7570:23133442
7474:17574854
7466:17358380
7409:30792304
7350:30809059
7301:16515737
7244:10338214
7191:12050675
7148:17012276
6932:87341731
6901:Archived
6862:Archived
6828:Archived
6824:BBC News
6805:12486233
6746:20589136
6738:12086319
6703:10891271
6484:Archived
6472:13054693
6416:Archived
6404:13054694
6346:Archived
6301:Archived
6208:12042765
6170:18144189
6162:11395412
6109:16004565
6018:15520290
5969:15680581
5934:23748148
5926:15389973
5891:15851066
5853:Archived
5837:28721182
5679:16710414
5630:30813969
5573:Archived
5569:15609994
5527:24479358
5484:10393911
5425:10733978
5368:23818176
5230:28941008
5195:30619465
5136:27319741
4995:Archived
4951:16449200
4892:27 March
4868:12657780
4721:27950750
4624:Archived
4612:13054692
4547:26455586
4507:: 8440.
4482:Archived
4375:"Uracil"
4361:Archived
4338:Archived
4189:Autosome
4182:See also
4061:Photo 51
4022:heredity
3993:outside
3972:cytosine
3745:aptamers
3598:in vitro
3480:proteins
3468:plasmids
3446:and the
3391:universe
3367:cytosine
3096:hydroxyl
2998:against
2996:bacteria
2990:are the
2982:, while
2856:histones
2843:histones
2772:biofilms
2707:helicase
2677:ribosome
2534:In many
2523:such as
2513:heredity
2509:genotype
2505:nucleoid
2434:sequence
2346:aromatic
2290:such as
2272:mutagens
2254:form of
2245:covalent
2231:Mutation
2158:cytosine
2121:cytosine
1978:In DNA,
1871:telomere
1647:bacteria
1635:plasmids
1601:egg cell
1490:in some
1423:covalent
1230:Cytosine
1069:cytosine
1057:aromatic
1032:in RNA.
943:backbone
880:histones
860:bacteria
828:protists
773:sequence
712:, and a
690:cytosine
652:proteins
473:Category
358:template
349:Genomics
327:Research
232:Mutation
222:Heredity
179:Genetics
119:packaged
15732:Helices
15622:Biology
15535:Plasmid
14862:RNA→DNA
14857:RNA→RNA
14845:Protein
14446:History
14441:Outline
14246: (
14217:minutes
13970:Bibcode
13931:Olby RC
13816:3561883
13715:Bibcode
13654:4428347
13624:Bibcode
13546:Bibcode
13476:AP News
13370:1063734
13347:Bibcode
13257:2147348
13184:2522535
13132:2135445
12980:7968924
12922:2167760
12810:Bibcode
12802:Science
12742:4609088
12604:2599350
12552:: 7–22.
12312:5935598
12219:30 June
12183:2755388
12155:Bibcode
12147:Science
12112:Bibcode
12089:4430815
12051:Bibcode
12027:4316391
11999:Bibcode
11781:Baldi P
11758:4434688
11735:Bibcode
11708:9000012
11658:2746877
11618:9383394
11497:4229883
11489:2989708
11467:Bibcode
11432:9068179
11397:8016106
11365:Bibcode
11263:3481857
11109:Bibcode
11050:5 March
10946:3161613
10923:Bibcode
10868:Bibcode
10810:9879073
10782:Bibcode
10759:4283694
10751:8469282
10731:Bibcode
10708:1372984
10676:Bibcode
10621:Science
10606:4939632
10553:4331004
10525:Bibcode
10444:5607947
10423:Bibcode
10396:9466696
10361:7779574
10275:8547149
10155:7514143
10019:7592405
9839:8336674
9732:Bibcode
9568:8178371
9450:1883924
9422:Science
9400:4328827
9392:9305837
9372:Bibcode
9292:9893710
9220:3430683
9197:Bibcode
9161:4378900
9112:3530553
9089:Bibcode
9042:Science
9018:2962764
8969:2581603
8658:1569473
8583:2212820
8562:Bibcode
8522:4246714
8460:Bibcode
8370:Bibcode
8362:Science
8308:3936066
8238:1881402
8183:Bibcode
7986:9289489
7925:Bibcode
7839:8261512
7784:2754416
7735:3263819
7714:Bibcode
7706:Science
7561:3488762
7544:: 238.
7517:30 June
7495:30 June
7446:Bibcode
7400:6413494
7379:Bibcode
7370:Science
7328:Bibcode
7292:3478329
7199:4422211
7171:Bibcode
7139:1636468
7096:9353250
7047:9553037
7001:3907856
6773:Bibcode
6668:9097733
6606:Bibcode
6522:7441761
6480:4280080
6452:Bibcode
6412:4268222
6384:Bibcode
6328:Bibcode
6283:Bibcode
6251:2482766
6117:1427671
6067:1771674
6058:7173306
5828:5506767
5796:1715276
5754:13 June
5730:4355527
5722:7219534
5702:Bibcode
5657:Bibcode
5621:6391780
5519:7476180
5452:Bibcode
5416:1300792
5395:Bibcode
5359:3844552
5319:6236744
5281:4315465
5273:7432492
5253:Bibcode
5186:6305559
5161:: 640.
5052:9759484
5001:13 July
4942:1360284
4840:Bibcode
4810:5499957
4801:1179624
4713:4991030
4670:7338906
4620:4253007
4584:Bibcode
4538:4608029
4509:Bibcode
4237:Meiosis
4201:DNA Day
4126:in vivo
4122:in vivo
4040:of the
4032:in the
4012:at the
3980:thymine
3976:adenine
3968:guanine
3892:in his
3820:History
3647:aligned
3559:of the
3452:biology
3371:thymine
3340:guanine
3336:adenine
3250:, when
3084:enzymes
2974:of the
2968:enzymes
2920:enzymes
2790:ecology
2753:called
2608:fossils
2561:C-value
2536:species
2388:cells.
2260:mutagen
2205:in the
2162:histone
2131:thymine
2044:protons
2026:Acidity
1991:below.
1980:fraying
1767:in vivo
1671:called
1669:enzymes
1639:viruses
1553:diploid
1376:Top, a
1301:Grooves
1288:Others
1216:Guanine
1202:Adenine
1116:purines
1085:thymine
1077:guanine
1061:adenine
982:pentose
912:polymer
864:archaea
816:animals
742:purines
708:called
702:thymine
698:adenine
694:guanine
640:viruses
628:genetic
616:polymer
614:) is a
285:History
257:Outline
152:element
146:). The
15608:Portal
15550:Fosmid
15545:Cosmid
15495:Hexose
15417:acids
15369:Others
14612:Europe
14597:Africa
14531:Fields
14517:Allele
14492:Genome
14325:Nature
14295:Nature
14178:about
14157:
14135:
14116:
14090:
14067:
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13962:Nature
13954:Olby R
13941:
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13537:Nature
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13289:18 May
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12260:
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11952:368168
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10723:Nature
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10517:Nature
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6955:18 May
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5677:
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5628:
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4576:Nature
4545:
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4527:
4476:
4466:
4436:
4411:
4330:
4162:, and
4152:codons
4110:Nature
3912:eggs,
3898:traits
3641:, and
3555:case.
3521:saliva
3474:. The
3432:, and
3369:, and
3363:uracil
3146:, and
2874:, and
2751:enzyme
2666:codons
2638:, and
2540:genome
2481:, and
2428:; the
2426:genome
2416:, and
2386:cancer
2360:, and
2329:cancer
2296:X-rays
2248:adduct
2233:, and
2221:Damage
2032:acidic
1920:D-loop
1849:GFAJ-1
1812:Z form
1762:et al.
1736:, and
1699:, and
1513:Amount
1485:TATAAT
1332:B form
1277:Uracil
1274:Base J
1269:Uracil
1172:genome
1144:uracil
1083:) and
1030:ribose
1002:5′-end
998:3′-end
986:carbon
984:(five-
926:of 34
846:or in
820:plants
785:uracil
656:lipids
471:
385:Fields
242:Allele
217:Genome
142:(type
15652:Media
15575:Human
15353:Y RNA
14990:Types
14887:Types
14737:Lists
14617:Italy
14456:Index
13688:(PDF)
13681:(PDF)
13661:(PDF)
13650:S2CID
13612:(PDF)
13572:S2CID
13180:S2CID
13065:(PDF)
13042:(PDF)
13033:See:
13017:(PDF)
12878:S2CID
12762:[
12726:(PDF)
12508:[
12449:See:
12433:S2CID
12360:S2CID
12179:S2CID
12085:S2CID
12023:S2CID
11987:(PDF)
11965:S2CID
11493:S2CID
11436:S2CID
11388:44126
11178:S2CID
10892:S2CID
10806:S2CID
10755:S2CID
10699:48712
10645:S2CID
10602:S2CID
10549:S2CID
10498:S2CID
10357:S2CID
10314:S2CID
10271:S2CID
10202:S2CID
10159:S2CID
10076:(PDF)
10065:S2CID
10037:(PDF)
9944:(PDF)
9457:(PDF)
9446:S2CID
9418:(PDF)
9396:S2CID
9345:S2CID
9296:S2CID
8874:S2CID
8827:–38.
7843:S2CID
7470:S2CID
7436:arXiv
7248:S2CID
7195:S2CID
6928:S2CID
6742:S2CID
6625:(PDF)
6594:(PDF)
6557:S2CID
6487:(PDF)
6476:S2CID
6440:(PDF)
6419:(PDF)
6408:S2CID
6372:(PDF)
6349:(PDF)
6316:(PDF)
6304:(PDF)
6271:(PDF)
6212:S2CID
6166:S2CID
6124:(PDF)
6113:S2CID
6085:(PDF)
5930:S2CID
5726:S2CID
5576:(PDF)
5545:(PDF)
5523:S2CID
5475:22151
5277:S2CID
4717:S2CID
4627:(PDF)
4616:S2CID
4572:(PDF)
4353:"DNA"
3513:semen
3509:blood
3282:RAD51
3140:viral
3000:phage
2957:EcoRV
2558:, or
2544:exons
2438:genes
2207:brain
1738:Z-DNA
1734:B-DNA
1730:A-DNA
1719:Z-DNA
1409:high
994:atoms
974:sugar
924:pitch
870:, in
824:fungi
769:bases
706:sugar
704:), a
600:
262:Index
148:atoms
144:B-DNA
15703:Data
14386:See
14155:ISBN
14133:ISBN
14114:ISBN
14088:ISBN
14065:ISBN
14046:ISBN
14024:ISBN
14005:ISBN
13988:PMID
13939:ISBN
13917:ISBN
13895:ISBN
13874:ISBN
13855:ISBN
13821:PMID
13743:PMID
13642:PMID
13564:PMID
13517:2023
13484:2023
13456:2011
13402:ISBN
13375:PMID
13314:ISBN
13291:2023
13262:PMID
13172:PMID
13137:PMID
13082:PMID
12976:PMID
12927:PMID
12870:PMID
12826:PMID
12738:PMID
12609:PMID
12425:PMID
12352:PMID
12317:PMID
12268:PMID
12221:2022
12171:PMID
12128:PMID
12077:PMID
12015:PMID
11957:PMID
11906:OCLC
11896:ISBN
11873:PMID
11826:ISBN
11799:OCLC
11789:ISBN
11763:PMID
11704:PMID
11663:PMID
11614:PMID
11580:2023
11564:ISSN
11523:2023
11485:PMID
11428:PMID
11393:PMID
11338:2017
11303:PMID
11268:PMID
11219:PMID
11209:ISBN
11170:PMID
11154:Cell
11135:PMID
11127:ISSN
11080:2021
11052:2015
11039:NASA
11019:2011
10986:2011
10974:NASA
10951:PMID
10884:PMID
10841:PMID
10798:PMID
10747:PMID
10704:PMID
10637:PMID
10594:PMID
10541:PMID
10490:PMID
10449:PMID
10392:PMID
10349:PMID
10306:PMID
10263:PMID
10232:2023
10194:PMID
10151:PMID
10107:PMID
10057:PMID
10015:PMID
9966:PMID
9922:PMID
9887:PMID
9835:PMID
9790:2023
9760:PMID
9701:PMID
9683:Cell
9660:PMID
9629:2023
9599:PMID
9564:PMID
9529:PMID
9494:PMID
9484:ISBN
9438:PMID
9388:PMID
9337:PMID
9288:PMID
9225:PMID
9166:PMID
9117:PMID
9058:PMID
9023:PMID
8974:PMID
8923:PMID
8866:PMID
8829:ISBN
8798:PMID
8747:PMID
8712:PMID
8663:PMID
8618:2023
8588:PMID
8527:PMID
8478:PMID
8429:PMID
8388:PMID
8339:PMID
8304:PMID
8269:PMID
8234:PMID
8199:PMID
8156:PMID
8115:ISBN
8078:ISBN
8023:PMID
7982:PMID
7941:PMID
7898:PMID
7835:PMID
7809:Cell
7789:PMID
7740:PMID
7683:PMID
7673:ISBN
7642:PMID
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