1938:
vaccines are thought to be easier to produce than traditional vaccines derived from killed or altered pathogens, because it can take months or years to grow and study a pathogen and determine which molecular parts to extract, inactivate, and use in a vaccine. Small molecules with conventional therapeutic properties can target RNA and DNA structures, thereby treating novel diseases. However, research is scarce on small molecules targeting RNA and approved drugs for human illness. Ribavirin, branaplam, and ataluren are currently available medications that stabilize double-stranded RNA structures and control splicing in a variety of disorders.
57:
538:
978:
224:
1445:
750:, although in single strand dinucleotide contexts, RNA can rarely also adopt the B-form most commonly observed in DNA. The A-form geometry results in a very deep and narrow major groove and a shallow and wide minor groove. A second consequence of the presence of the 2'-hydroxyl group is that in conformationally flexible regions of an RNA molecule (that is, not involved in formation of a double helix), it can chemically attack the adjacent phosphodiester bond to cleave the backbone.
671:
754:
1193:
7991:
6901:
338:
29:
1557:
1968:
731:
1642:
830:. In order to create, i.e., design, RNA for any given secondary structure, two or three bases would not be enough, but four bases are enough. This is likely why nature has "chosen" a four base alphabet: fewer than four would not allow the creation of all structures, while more than four bases are not necessary to do so. Since RNA is charged, metal ions such as
645:, contain self-complementary sequences that allow parts of the RNA to fold and pair with itself to form double helices. Analysis of these RNAs has revealed that they are highly structured. Unlike DNA, their structures do not consist of long double helices, but rather collections of short helices packed together into structures akin to proteins.
1207:, and one is synthesized elsewhere. In the cytoplasm, ribosomal RNA and protein combine to form a nucleoprotein called a ribosome. The ribosome binds mRNA and carries out protein synthesis. Several ribosomes may be attached to a single mRNA at any time. Nearly all the RNA found in a typical eukaryotic cell is rRNA.
6242:
Balmayor, Elizabeth R.; Geiger, Johannes P.; Aneja, Manish K.; Berezhanskyy, Taras; Utzinger, Maximilian; Mykhaylyk, Olga; Rudolph, Carsten; Plank, Christian (May 2016). "Chemically modified RNA induces osteogenesis of stem cells and human tissue explants as well as accelerates bone healing in rats".
1403:
At first, regulatory RNA was thought to be a eukaryotic phenomenon, a part of the explanation for why so much more transcription in higher organisms was seen than had been predicted. But as soon as researchers began to look for possible RNA regulators in bacteria, they turned up there as well, termed
810:
often present in rRNA are the most common. The specific roles of many of these modifications in RNA are not fully understood. However, it is notable that, in ribosomal RNA, many of the post-transcriptional modifications occur in highly functional regions, such as the peptidyl transferase center and
6076:
Palacino, James; Swalley, Susanne E; Song, Cheng; Cheung, Atwood K; Shu, Lei; Zhang, Xiaolu; Van
Hoosear, Mailin; Shin, Youngah; Chin, Donovan N; Keller, Caroline Gubser; Beibel, Martin; Renaud, Nicole A; Smith, Thomas M; Salcius, Michael; Shi, Xiaoying (2015-06-01). "SMN2 splice modulators enhance
1941:
Protein-coding mRNAs have emerged as new therapeutic candidates, with RNA replacement being particularly beneficial for brief but torrential protein expression. In vitro transcribed mRNAs (IVT-mRNA) have been used to deliver proteins for bone regeneration, pluripotency, and heart function in animal
1408:
theory. There are indications that the enterobacterial sRNAs are involved in various cellular processes and seem to have significant role in stress responses such as membrane stress, starvation stress, phosphosugar stress and DNA damage. Also, it has been suggested that sRNAs have been evolved to
1937:
RNA, initially deemed unsuitable for therapeutics due to its short half-life, has been made useful through advances in stabilization. Therapeutic applications arise as RNA folds into complex conformations and binds proteins, nucleic acids, and small molecules to form catalytic centers. RNA-based
1500:. snoRNAs associate with enzymes and guide them to a spot on an RNA by basepairing to that RNA. These enzymes then perform the nucleotide modification. rRNAs and tRNAs are extensively modified, but snRNAs and mRNAs can also be the target of base modification. RNA can also be methylated.
1942:
models. SiRNAs, short RNA molecules, play a crucial role in innate defense against viruses and chromatin structure. They can be artificially introduced to silence specific genes, making them valuable for gene function studies, therapeutic target validation, and drug development.
912:
activity of the enzyme. The enzyme then progresses along the template strand in the 3’ to 5’ direction, synthesizing a complementary RNA molecule with elongation occurring in the 5’ to 3’ direction. The DNA sequence also dictates where termination of RNA synthesis will occur.
6120:
Roy, Bijoyita; Friesen, Westley J.; Tomizawa, Yuki; Leszyk, John D.; Zhuo, Jin; Johnson, Briana; Dakka, Jumana; Trotta, Christopher R.; Xue, Xiaojiao; Mutyam, Venkateshwar; Keeling, Kim M.; Mobley, James A.; Rowe, Steven M.; Bedwell, David M.; Welch, Ellen M. (2016-10-04).
6397:
Warren, Luigi; Manos, Philip D.; Ahfeldt, Tim; Loh, Yuin-Han; Li, Hu; Lau, Frank; Ebina, Wataru; Mandal, Pankaj K.; Smith, Zachary D.; Meissner, Alexander; Daley, George Q.; Brack, Andrew S.; Collins, James J.; Cowan, Chad; Schlaeger, Thorsten M. (November 2010).
2530:
Mikkola S, Stenman E, Nurmi K, Yousefi-Salakdeh E, Strömberg R, Lönnberg H (1999). "The mechanism of the metal ion promoted cleavage of RNA phosphodiester bonds involves a general acid catalysis by the metal aquo ion on the departure of the leaving group".
1203:(rRNA) is the catalytic component of the ribosomes. The rRNA is the component of the ribosome that hosts translation. Eukaryotic ribosomes contain four different rRNA molecules: 18S, 5.8S, 28S and 5S rRNA. Three of the rRNA molecules are synthesized in the
1163:. In prokaryotic cells, which do not have nucleus and cytoplasm compartments, mRNA can bind to ribosomes while it is being transcribed from DNA. After a certain amount of time, the message degrades into its component nucleotides with the assistance of
1681:) was later shown to be responsible for RNA degradation, not RNA synthesis. In 1956 Alex Rich and David Davies hybridized two separate strands of RNA to form the first crystal of RNA whose structure could be determined by X-ray crystallography.
1361:
complex so that messenger RNA could not be transcribed from them. Additional lncRNAs, currently defined as RNAs of more than 200 base pairs that do not appear to have coding potential, have been found associated with regulation of
1245:
regions near the genes to be regulated. Later studies have shown that RNAs also regulate genes. There are several kinds of RNA-dependent processes in eukaryotes regulating the expression of genes at various points, such as
6353:
Preskey, David; Allison, Thomas F.; Jones, Mark; Mamchaoui, Kamel; Unger, Christian (May 2016). "Synthetically modified mRNA for efficient and fast human iPS cell generation and direct transdifferentiation to myoblasts".
1845:
hypothesized that RNA might be catalytic and suggested that the earliest forms of life (self-replicating molecules) could have relied on RNA both to carry genetic information and to catalyze biochemical reactions—an
722:
between cytosine and guanine, between adenine and uracil and between guanine and uracil. However, other interactions are possible, such as a group of adenine bases binding to each other in a bulge, or the GNRA
1573:(dsRNA) is RNA with two complementary strands, similar to the DNA found in all cells, but with the replacement of thymine by uracil and the adding of one oxygen atom. dsRNA forms the genetic material of some
1627:
joins a upstream 3' acceptor to a downstream 5' donor splice site. So far the function of circRNAs is largely unknown, although for few examples a microRNA sponging activity has been demonstrated.
1516:
composed of RNA that encodes a number of proteins. The viral genome is replicated by some of those proteins, while other proteins protect the genome as the virus particle moves to a new host cell.
718:
group is attached to the 3' position of one ribose and the 5' position of the next. The phosphate groups have a negative charge each, making RNA a charged molecule (polyanion). The bases form
6455:
Elangovan, Satheesh; Khorsand, Behnoush; Do, Anh-Vu; Hong, Liu; Dewerth, Alexander; Kormann, Michael; Ross, Ryan D.; Rick Sumner, D.; Allamargot, Chantal; Salem, Aliasger K. (November 2015).
1395:, which are known regulatory sites in the DNA near genes they regulate. They up-regulate the transcription of the gene(s) under control of the enhancer from which they are transcribed.
1391:. It is not clear at present whether they are a unique category of RNAs of various lengths or constitute a distinct subset of lncRNAs. In any case, they are transcribed from
1948:
have emerged as an important new class of vaccines, using mRNA to manufacture proteins which provoke an immune response. Their first successful large-scale application came in the form of
5747:
6191:
Qadir, Muhammad Imran; Bukhat, Sherien; Rasul, Sumaira; Manzoor, Hamid; Manzoor, Majid (2019-09-03). "RNA therapeutics: Identification of novel targets leading to drug discovery".
1665:. It was later discovered that prokaryotic cells, which do not have a nucleus, also contain nucleic acids. The role of RNA in protein synthesis was suspected already in 1939.
6989:
525:—and potentially performed catalytic functions in cells—a function performed today by protein enzymes, with the notable and important exception of the ribosome, which is a
1711:
were discovered, showing for the first time that enzymes could copy RNA into DNA (the opposite of the usual route for transmission of genetic information). For this work,
558:
Unlike double-stranded DNA, RNA is usually a single-stranded molecule (ssRNA) in many of its biological roles and consists of much shorter chains of nucleotides. However,
767:
RNA is transcribed with only four bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine and uracil), but these bases and attached sugars can be modified in numerous ways as the RNAs mature.
5906:
1619:
In the late 1970s, it was shown that there is a single stranded covalently closed, i.e. circular form of RNA expressed throughout the animal and plant kingdom (see
884:
such as proteins, one can define topology of a folded RNA molecule. This is often done based on arrangement of intra-chain contacts within a folded RNA, termed as
1472:(snRNA), or the introns can be ribozymes that are spliced by themselves. RNA can also be altered by having its nucleotides modified to nucleotides other than
6739:
2411:
Salazar M, Fedoroff OY, Miller JM, Ribeiro NS, Reid BR (April 1993). "The DNA strand in DNA.RNA hybrid duplexes is neither B-form nor A-form in solution".
1805:, to silence genes. Adding to the Nobel prizes for research on RNA, in 2009 it was awarded for the elucidation of the atomic structure of the ribosome to
1409:
have important role in stress responses because of their kinetic properties that allow for rapid response and stabilisation of the physiological state.
1689:
5446:
Fiers W, et al. (April 1976). "Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene".
5758:
2595:"Identification of critical elements in the tRNA acceptor stem and T(Psi)C loop necessary for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infectivity"
1520:
are another group of pathogens, but they consist only of RNA, do not encode any protein and are replicated by a host plant cell's polymerase.
5100:"Double-Stranded RNA Is Produced by Positive-Strand RNA Viruses and DNA Viruses but Not in Detectable Amounts by Negative-Strand RNA Viruses"
3301:"The evolution of controlled multitasked gene networks: the role of introns and other noncoding RNAs in the development of complex organisms"
5006:
Blevins T, Rajeswaran R, Shivaprasad PV, Beknazariants D, Si-Ammour A, Park HS, Vazquez F, Robertson D, Meins F, Hohn T, Pooggin MM (2006).
2343:
Lee JC, Gutell RR (December 2004). "Diversity of base-pair conformations and their occurrence in rRNA structure and RNA structural motifs".
1005:
that is produced. However, many RNAs do not code for protein (about 97% of the transcriptional output is non-protein-coding in eukaryotes).
2116:
802:
There are more than 100 other naturally occurring modified nucleosides. The greatest structural diversity of modifications can be found in
2152:
6764:
369:
5939:
5217:
Hsu MT, Coca-Prados M (July 1979). "Electron microscopic evidence for the circular form of RNA in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells".
6937:
5972:
3390:
2297:
Nissen P, Hansen J, Ban N, Moore PB, Steitz TA (August 2000). "The structural basis of ribosome activity in peptide bond synthesis".
954:(such as poliovirus) use this type of enzyme to replicate their genetic material. Also, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase is part of the
1404:
as small RNA (sRNA). Currently, the ubiquitous nature of systems of RNA regulation of genes has been discussed as support for the
5499:"Introduction of a Chimeric Chalcone Synthase Gene into Petunia Results in Reversible Co-Suppression of Homologous Genes in trans"
2865:"Ribosome structure and activity are altered in cells lacking snoRNPs that form pseudouridines in the peptidyl transferase center"
7586:
6886:
562:(dsRNA) can form and (moreover) a single RNA molecule can, by complementary base pairing, form intrastrand double helixes, as in
2906:"Incorporating chemical modification constraints into a dynamic programming algorithm for prediction of RNA secondary structure"
7324:
1108:(piRNA), tRNA-derived small RNA (tsRNA) and small rDNA-derived RNA (srRNA). There are certain exceptions as in the case of the
822:
elements that are hydrogen bonds within the molecule. This leads to several recognizable "domains" of secondary structure like
4498:"" "Biological significance of a family of regularly spaced repeats in the genomes of archaea, bacteria and mitochondria"
1024:(rRNA), both of which are involved in the process of translation. There are also non-coding RNAs involved in gene regulation,
7105:
5916:
3507:
3275:
2741:
2569:
2387:
2192:
2162:
2123:
1818:
1282:
545:
ribosomal subunit. Ribosomal RNA is in brown, proteins in blue. The active site is a small segment of rRNA, indicated in red.
6744:
5182:
Whitehead KA, Dahlman JE, Langer RS, Anderson DG (2011). "Silencing or stimulation? siRNA delivery and the immune system".
3881:"Cryo-Electron Microscopy Visualization of a Large Insertion in the 5S ribosomal RNA of the Extremely Halophilic Archaeon
6588:
6400:"Highly Efficient Reprogramming to Pluripotency and Directed Differentiation of Human Cells with Synthetic Modified mRNA"
6969:
6759:
6553:
4545:
Brouns S, Jore MM, Lundgren M, Westra E, Slijkhuis R, Snijders A, Dickman M, Makarova K, Koonin E, Der Oost JV (2008).
3787:
Luehrsen KR, Nicholson DE, Eubanks DC, Fox GE (1981). "An archaebacterial 5S rRNA contains a long insertion sequence".
2057:
Copley SD, Smith E, Markowitz HJ (December 2007). "The origin of the RNA world: co-evolution of genes and metabolism".
6520:
6286:
Plews, Jordan R.; Li, JianLiang; Jones, Mark; Moore, Harry D.; Mason, Chris; Andrews, Peter W.; Na, Jie (2010-12-30).
4910:"Large retrotransposon derivatives: abundant, conserved but nonautonomous retroelements of barley and related genomes"
1147:
cells, once precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA) has been transcribed from DNA, it is processed to mature mRNA. This removes its
7672:
7077:
920:
1677:) after he discovered an enzyme that can synthesize RNA in the laboratory. However, the enzyme discovered by Ochoa (
1417:
pairing with mRNA to down-regulate its translation, either by affecting stability or affecting cis-binding ability.
7959:
7430:
4395:
EGH Wagner, P Romby. (2015). "Small RNAs in bacteria and archaea: who they are, what they do, and how they do it".
3840:"Very similar strains of Halococcus salifodinae are found in geographically separated permo-triassic salt deposits"
2683:
Cantara WA, Crain PF, Rozenski J, McCloskey JA, Harris KA, Zhang X, Vendeix FA, Fabris D, Agris PF (January 2011).
2446:
Sedova A, Banavali NK (February 2016). "RNA approaches the B-form in stacked single strand dinucleotide contexts".
1902:
1319:
with a region of its target mRNAs. Once the base pairing occurs, other proteins direct the mRNA to be destroyed by
1221:. It tags proteins encoded by mRNAs that lack stop codons for degradation and prevents the ribosome from stalling.
1181:
chain at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis during translation. It has sites for amino acid attachment and an
1918:
1801:
in the same year. The discovery of gene regulatory RNAs has led to attempts to develop drugs made of RNA, such as
7964:
7358:
7231:
7175:
1545:
1251:
814:
The functional form of single-stranded RNA molecules, just like proteins, frequently requires a specific spatial
5878:
7170:
5347:
362:
242:
36:(green) and the ribose-phosphate backbone (blue). This is a single strand of RNA that folds back upon itself.
7861:
7747:
7258:
7189:
6930:
6514:
589:
position, whereas deoxyribose does not. The hydroxyl groups in the ribose backbone make RNA more chemically
6994:
6845:
5055:
Jana S, Chakraborty C, Nandi S, Deb JK (November 2004). "RNA interference: potential therapeutic targets".
1678:
947:
5368:
Rich A, Davies D (1956). "A New Two-Stranded
Helical Structure: Polyadenylic Acid and Polyuridylic Acid".
7974:
7969:
7954:
7579:
1578:
4710:
Omer AD, Ziesche S, Decatur WA, Fournier MJ, Dennis PP (May 2003). "RNA-modifying machines in archaea".
8025:
7317:
7209:
6593:
131:
3671:
6749:
6734:
5775:
Szathmáry E (June 1999). "The origin of the genetic code: amino acids as cofactors in an RNA world".
5697:
5638:
Fichou Y, Férec C (December 2006). "The potential of oligonucleotides for therapeutic applications".
1346:
586:
355:
3410:
462:
Some RNA molecules play an active role within cells by catalyzing biological reactions, controlling
393:
molecule that is essential for most biological functions, either by performing the function itself (
7543:
7253:
7041:
6954:
6923:
6754:
6573:
5968:"Molecular Precursors of the RNA-World in Space: New Nitriles in the G+0.693–0.027 Molecular Cloud"
5147:
Schultz U, Kaspers B, Staeheli P (May 2004). "The interferon system of non-mammalian vertebrates".
3126:
Nudler E, Gottesman ME (August 2002). "Transcription termination and anti-termination in E. coli".
1541:
1189:
recognition that binds to a specific sequence on the messenger RNA chain through hydrogen bonding.
901:
656:
that catalyzes the assembly of proteins—revealed that its active site is composed entirely of RNA.
506:
149:
3730:"Profiling and identification of small rDNA-derived RNAs and their potential biological functions"
3624:
771:(Ψ), in which the linkage between uracil and ribose is changed from a C–N bond to a C–C bond, and
7214:
7031:
7016:
5673:
4812:"Site-specific ribose methylation of preribosomal RNA: a novel function for small nucleolar RNAs"
4426:
Winklef WC (2005). "Riboswitches and the role of noncoding RNAs in bacterial metabolic control".
4124:
1670:
1436:, acts via regulatory RNAs in archaea and bacteria to provide protection against virus invaders.
1432:
Archaea also have systems of regulatory RNA. The CRISPR system, recently being used to edit DNA
1358:
908:
sequence in the DNA (usually found "upstream" of a gene). The DNA double helix is unwound by the
5722:
2127:
1768:
that introduced genes can silence similar genes of the plant's own, now known to be a result of
8035:
8030:
7994:
7687:
7572:
7368:
7219:
7144:
7036:
6546:
6123:"Ataluren stimulates ribosomal selection of near-cognate tRNAs to promote nonsense suppression"
5816:
3405:
3087:"Turning mirror-image oligonucleotides into drugs: the evolution of Spiegelmer(®) therapeutics"
2561:
2555:
2002:
1997:
1982:
1785:
1727:
and his team determined the first complete nucleotide sequence of an RNA virus genome, that of
1636:
950:
that use RNA as their template for synthesis of a new strand of RNA. For instance, a number of
835:
815:
690:
sugar, with carbons numbered 1' through 5'. A base is attached to the 1' position, in general,
665:
466:, or sensing and communicating responses to cellular signals. One of these active processes is
3497:
1742:
were discovered in both mammalian viruses and in cellular genes, resulting in a 1993 Nobel to
1311:, specific short RNA molecules, pair with mRNA regions and target them for degradation. This
8020:
7871:
7715:
7460:
7310:
7134:
7119:
6999:
6881:
6715:
6680:
5548:"pSAT RNA interference vectors: a modular series for multiple gene down-regulation in plants"
5195:
1780:
1708:
1529:
1422:
1156:
1097:
994:
738:
An important structural component of RNA that distinguishes it from DNA is the presence of a
402:
322:
302:
267:
179:
174:
4908:
Kalendar R, Vicient CM, Peleg O, Anamthawat-Jonsson K, Bolshoy A, Schulman AH (March 2004).
3672:"Sperm tsRNAs contribute to intergenerational inheritance of an acquired metabolic disorder"
896:
Synthesis of RNA typically occurs in the cell nucleus and is usually catalyzed by an enzyme—
7906:
7889:
7720:
7450:
7241:
7139:
7057:
6780:
6598:
6299:
6288:"Activation of Pluripotency Genes in Human Fibroblast Cells by a Novel mRNA Based Approach"
6134:
5991:
5825:
5455:
5404:
5312:
5303:
Caspersson T, Schultz J (1939). "Pentose nucleotides in the cytoplasm of growing tissues".
5226:
4766:
4615:
4558:
4204:
4149:
4138:"Potent and Specific Genetic Interference by double stranded RNA in Ceanorhabditis elegans"
3796:
3741:
3686:
3581:
3457:
3219:
3041:
2986:
2917:
2306:
2037:
1847:
1602:
1238:
1105:
467:
451:, denoted by the letters G, U, A, and C) that directs synthesis of specific proteins. Many
20:
4663:"Sno/scaRNAbase: a curated database for small nucleolar RNAs and cajal body-specific RNAs"
4274:
3431:
3317:
3300:
8:
7901:
7884:
7742:
7625:
7440:
7389:
7067:
6860:
6850:
6810:
6710:
6690:
6583:
6578:
5879:"Scientists announce a breakthrough in determining life's origin on Earth—and maybe Mars"
3391:"Challenging the dogma: the hidden layer of non-protein-coding RNAs in complex organisms"
2017:
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1565:
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so that they gain or lose the ability to bind chromatin to regulate expression of genes.
1410:
1332:
1274:
1255:
1242:
1101:
1073:
982:
819:
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126:
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6138:
5995:
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5316:
5230:
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4208:
4153:
3800:
3745:
3690:
3585:
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2921:
2310:
1151:—non-coding sections of the pre-mRNA. The mRNA is then exported from the nucleus to the
56:
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7465:
7202:
7085:
6820:
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4373:
4348:
4283:
4258:
4225:
4192:
4173:
4059:
4034:
4006:
3981:
Jacob F, Monod J (1961). "Genetic
Regulatory Mechanisms in the Synthesis of Proteins".
3909:
3880:
3838:
Stan-Lotter H, McGenity TJ, Legat A, Denner EB, Glaser K, Stetter KO, Wanner G (1999).
3820:
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3062:
3029:
3010:
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2815:
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Higgs PG (August 2000). "RNA secondary structure: physical and computational aspects".
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1806:
1747:
1697:
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1658:
1342:
1012:("ncRNA") can be encoded by their own genes (RNA genes), but can also derive from mRNA
916:
905:
292:
287:
262:
184:
5788:
5523:
5498:
5008:"Four plant Dicers mediate viral small RNA biogenesis and DNA virus induced silencing"
4828:
4811:
4755:"Targeted ribose methylation of RNA in vivo directed by tailored antisense RNA guides"
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6216:
6208:
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6094:
6050:
6042:
5863:
5851:
5792:
5748:"Common sequence structure properties and stable regions in RNA secondary structures"
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5577:
5528:
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3934:"The tmRNA website: reductive evolution of tmRNA in plastids and other endosymbionts"
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2512:
2463:
2428:
2393:
2383:
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2322:
2268:
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2198:
2188:
2158:
2074:
1953:
1728:
1469:
792:
653:
594:
342:
227:
106:
7286:
6062:
5624:
5432:
5254:
5084:
4845:
4739:
4531:
4010:
3714:
3656:
3609:
3247:
3210:
Ahlquist P (May 2002). "RNA-dependent RNA polymerases, viruses, and RNA silencing".
3155:
3014:
2475:
2280:
1822:
7705:
6865:
6840:
6484:
6468:
6427:
6411:
6363:
6325:
6307:
6252:
6200:
6160:
6142:
6086:
6032:
5999:
5841:
5833:
5784:
5647:
5604:
5567:
5559:
5518:
5510:
5483:
5463:
5412:
5377:
5332:
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5277:
5234:
5191:
5156:
5119:
5111:
5064:
5027:
5019:
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4921:
4880:
4872:
4823:
4796:
4774:
4719:
4682:
4674:
4633:
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4574:
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4435:
4368:
4360:
4319:
4278:
4270:
4220:
4212:
4177:
4157:
4094:
4085:
Gottesman S (2005). "Micros for microbes: non-coding regulatory RNAs in bacteria".
4054:
4046:
3990:
3953:
3945:
3904:
3896:
3851:
3824:
3804:
3759:
3749:
3694:
3636:
3589:
3549:
3544:
3532:
3465:
3415:
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3353:
3312:
3227:
3182:
3135:
3098:
3057:
3049:
2994:
2935:
2925:
2876:
2835:
2827:
2786:
2778:
2704:
2696:
2655:
2614:
2606:
2536:
2502:
2455:
2420:
2352:
2314:
2260:
2225:
2066:
1949:
1926:
1890:
1810:
1769:
1685:
1601:. In eukaryotes, double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) plays a role in the activation of the
1586:
1304:
1298:
1247:
955:
885:
537:
234:
6472:
5651:
5416:
3357:
1850:. In May 2022, scientists discovered that RNA can form spontaneously on prebiotic
977:
470:, a universal function in which RNA molecules direct the synthesis of proteins on
7829:
7800:
7512:
7263:
7100:
6946:
6725:
6312:
4810:
Kiss-László Z, Henry Y, Bachellerie JP, Caizergues-Ferrer M, Kiss T (June 1996).
4461:
Tucker BJ, Breaker RR (2005). "Riboswitches as versatile gene control elements".
4137:
3856:
3839:
3754:
3103:
3086:
2318:
2070:
1922:
1743:
1716:
1712:
1674:
1533:
1230:
989:
Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the type of RNA that carries information from DNA to the
772:
463:
5281:
4925:
3053:
2644:"Inosine biosynthesis in transfer RNA by an enzymatic insertion of hypoxanthine"
775:(T) are found in various places (the most notable ones being in the TΨC loop of
652:(like enzymes). For instance, determination of the structure of the ribosome—an
7921:
7824:
7641:
7090:
7062:
6855:
6795:
6695:
6415:
6367:
6037:
6020:
4608:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4439:
4364:
2998:
2910:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2904:
Mathews DH, Disney MD, Childs JL, Schroeder SJ, Zuker M, Turner DH (May 2004).
2782:
2767:"Small nucleolar RNA-guided post-transcriptional modification of cellular RNAs"
1973:
1851:
1798:
1790:
1421:
have also been discovered. They are cis-acting regulatory RNA sequences acting
1350:
1262:
1025:
1009:
897:
761:
642:
394:
282:
207:
6004:
5967:
5160:
5068:
4474:
4098:
3448:
Mattick JS (October 2004). "The hidden genetic program of complex organisms".
2557:
Clinical gene analysis and manipulation: Tools, techniques and troubleshooting
2356:
2264:
1649:
Research on RNA has led to many important biological discoveries and numerous
8009:
7856:
7846:
7727:
7682:
7660:
7496:
7425:
7353:
7348:
7291:
6978:
6480:
6423:
6375:
6321:
6264:
6212:
6156:
6098:
6046:
4876:
3517:
3285:
2751:
2202:
2032:
2012:
1945:
1826:
1759:
1532:
DNA copies from their RNA; these DNA copies are then transcribed to new RNA.
1488:. In eukaryotes, modifications of RNA nucleotides are in general directed by
1444:
1414:
1370:
1354:
1312:
1200:
1128:
1081:
1021:
951:
827:
811:
the subunit interface, implying that they are important for normal function.
768:
719:
582:
493:
422:
410:
398:
6147:
5940:"Loads of Precursors For RNA Have Been Detected in The Center of Our Galaxy"
5608:
5595:
Ruvkun G (October 2001). "Molecular biology. Glimpses of a tiny RNA world".
4809:
4628:
4570:
4347:
Orom UA, Derrien T, Beringer M, Gumireddy K, Gardini A, et al. (2010).
4216:
4193:"Polycomb proteins targeted by a short repeat RNA to the mouse X chromosome"
3900:
3698:
3593:
3231:
2930:
2579:
2397:
746:. The presence of this functional group causes the helix to mostly take the
8015:
7939:
7759:
7677:
7596:
7553:
7363:
7165:
7095:
6964:
6805:
6685:
6498:
6441:
6383:
6339:
6272:
6220:
6174:
6106:
6054:
5944:
5855:
5796:
5659:
5616:
5581:
5532:
5424:
5289:
5203:
5168:
5133:
5076:
5041:
4992:
4943:
4894:
4731:
4696:
4588:
4523:
4482:
4447:
4382:
4333:
4292:
4234:
4106:
4068:
4002:
3967:
3918:
3865:
3773:
3706:
3648:
3625:"Long non-coding RNAs: new players in cell differentiation and development"
3601:
3558:
3477:
3427:
3375:
3326:
3239:
3147:
3112:
3071:
3006:
2949:
2890:
2849:
2800:
2718:
2628:
2516:
2467:
2364:
2326:
2272:
2237:
2229:
2083:
The proposal that life on Earth arose from an RNA World is widely accepted.
2078:
1739:
1724:
1720:
1666:
1662:
1654:
1620:
1614:
1388:
1382:
1366:
1266:
1170:
1164:
1136:
1089:
1037:
1017:
967:
924:
874:
823:
796:
780:
563:
517:" existed in which RNA served as both living organisms' storage method for
475:
406:
272:
6090:
5876:
5837:
5563:
5475:
4837:
4788:
4647:
4169:
3816:
3196:
2831:
2700:
2669:
2432:
1833:
that enabled the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19.
1303:
Post-transcriptional expression levels of many genes can be controlled by
7851:
7564:
7268:
7197:
6785:
5246:
5023:
5005:
4974:
4678:
4324:
4307:
3949:
2027:
2007:
1914:
1882:
1855:
1794:
1755:
1650:
1624:
1465:
1178:
940:
904:. Initiation of transcription begins with the binding of the enzyme to a
753:
730:
670:
617:
571:
19:
This article is about the biological macromolecule. For other uses, see
5698:"Hungarian and US scientists win Nobel for COVID-19 vaccine discoveries"
5514:
5395:
Holley RW, et al. (March 1965). "Structure of a ribonucleic acid".
5381:
3670:
Chen Q, Yan M, Cao Z, Li X, Zhang Y, Shi J, et al. (January 2016).
2981:
2424:
1623:). circRNAs are thought to arise via a "back-splice" reaction where the
1315:-based process involves steps that first process the RNA so that it can
997:) in the cell cytoplasm. The coding sequence of the mRNA determines the
7911:
7620:
7615:
7610:
7517:
7491:
7226:
6790:
6659:
6639:
6614:
5812:"Catalytic Synthesis of Polyribonucleic Acid on Prebiotic Rock Glasses"
5268:
Dahm R (February 2005). "Friedrich
Miescher and the discovery of DNA".
3419:
1898:
1886:
1866:
1842:
1814:
1754:) were discovered in the early 1980s, leading to a 1989 Nobel award to
1704:
1598:
1594:
1537:
1497:
1426:
1418:
1270:
1174:
1144:
1113:
1069:
1065:
998:
881:
842:
784:
711:
683:
598:
485:
432:
418:
202:
116:
96:
73:
33:
6457:"Chemically modified RNA activated matrices enhance bone regeneration"
6204:
4907:
4408:
J.W. Nelson, R.R. Breaker (2017) "The lost language of the RNA World."
2459:
1917:
and gas clouds. In July 2022, astronomers reported massive amounts of
1797:
in 2006, and another Nobel for studies on the transcription of RNA to
1556:
1289:(miRNAs), specific short RNA molecules that can base-pair with mRNAs.
1192:
28:
7775:
7548:
7522:
7404:
7394:
5467:
5324:
5238:
4779:
4754:
3808:
3502:. Stockholm: School of Biotechnology, Royal Institute of Technology.
2540:
1987:
1910:
1894:
1590:
1509:
1493:
1481:
1473:
1405:
1392:
1363:
1316:
1259:
1234:
1204:
1182:
1152:
1061:
1057:
1029:
928:
831:
724:
715:
649:
522:
514:
159:
4050:
3640:
1836:
7929:
7780:
7710:
7445:
7246:
7236:
7160:
6830:
6800:
6644:
6634:
6562:
6527:
Anna Marie Pyle's
Seminar: RNA Structure, Function, and Recognition
6021:"The Noncoding RNA Revolution—Trashing Old Rules to Forge New Ones"
5986:
5883:
2529:
1967:
1906:
1874:
1776:
1751:
1477:
1461:
1320:
1286:
1214:
1132:
1093:
1045:
1041:
990:
932:
909:
739:
695:
590:
526:
489:
471:
448:
218:
101:
91:
48:
6915:
4161:
2187:(5th ed.). WH Freeman and Company. pp. 118–19, 781–808.
7934:
7455:
7399:
6982:
4349:"'Long noncoding RNAs with enhancer-like function in human cells"
4308:"Evolution, biogenesis and function of promoter- associated RNAs"
3879:
Tirumalai MR, Kaelber JT, Park DR, Tran Q, Fox GE (August 2020).
2022:
1878:
1764:
1485:
1218:
1117:
1109:
1085:
1002:
788:
699:
691:
609:
605:
444:
436:
390:
5907:"NASA Ames Reproduces the Building Blocks of Life in Laboratory"
5546:
Dafny-Yelin M, Chung SM, Frankman EL, Tzfira T (December 2007).
1684:
The sequence of the 77 nucleotides of a yeast tRNA was found by
7949:
7944:
7894:
7527:
7435:
7302:
6654:
6629:
6241:
4957:
Podlevsky JD, Bley CJ, Omana RV, Qi X, Chen JJ (January 2008).
3572:
Storz G (May 2002). "An expanding universe of noncoding RNAs".
1870:
1735:
1517:
1513:
1453:
1278:
1148:
1033:
1013:
936:
743:
707:
703:
687:
613:
577:
510:
456:
440:
111:
86:
5755:
Dissertation, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität, Freiburg im
Breisgau
5545:
5445:
5181:
4495:
4125:
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2006
3837:
1905:(PAHs), is one of the most carbon-rich compounds found in the
1661:, who called the material 'nuclein' since it was found in the
509:, prior to the evolution of DNA and possibly of protein-based
7752:
7409:
7004:
3171:"Structure of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of poliovirus"
2682:
1802:
1582:
1574:
1308:
1210:
1186:
1140:
747:
734:
Structure of a fragment of an RNA, showing a guanosyl subunit
675:
638:
452:
6352:
4661:
Xie J, Zhang M, Zhou T, Hua X, Tang L, Wu W (January 2007).
4346:
3728:
Wei H, Zhou B, Zhang F, Tu Y, Hu Y, Zhang B, Zhai Q (2013).
2903:
2410:
6531:
5911:
4752:
3786:
1641:
1338:
1273:
have also been shown to use regulatory RNA systems such as
1160:
1131:(mRNA) carries information about a protein sequence to the
1077:
853:-ribonucleotides. All chirality centers are located in the
803:
776:
634:
630:
626:
505:
It has become widely accepted in science that early in the
414:
397:) or by forming a template for the production of proteins (
5877:
Foundation for
Applied Molecular Evolution (3 June 2022).
4709:
4547:"Small CRISPR RNAs guide antiviral defense in prokaryotes"
3342:"Non-coding RNAs: the architects of eukaryotic complexity"
1196:
A diagram of how mRNA is used to create polypeptide chains
502:) then links amino acids together to form coded proteins.
7814:
6974:
6619:
6075:
5394:
2863:
King TH, Liu B, McCully RR, Fournier MJ (February 2003).
2377:
2093:
2091:
1992:
1862:
1536:
also spread by copying DNA and RNA from one another, and
551:
550:
The chemical structure of RNA is very similar to that of
542:
78:
6517:
Link collection (structures, sequences, tools, journals)
6119:
4544:
3931:
3878:
3499:
Mining the transcriptome – methods and applications
2216:
Tinoco I, Bustamante C (October 1999). "How RNA folds".
1528:
Reverse transcribing viruses replicate their genomes by
1349:. Their roles, at first mysterious, were shown by
1072:
long. Long RNAs, also called large RNAs, mainly include
6454:
6190:
5054:
4753:
Cavaillé J, Nicoloso M, Bachellerie JP (October 1996).
4305:
3270:(3rd ed.). Sinauer. pp. 261–76, 297, 339–44.
2816:"The Peptidyl Transferase Center: a Window to the Past"
2814:
Tirumalai MR, Rivas M, Tran Q, Fox GE (November 2021).
1789:. Studies on RNA interference earned a Nobel Prize for
5496:
5184:
Annual Review of
Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
5146:
4496:
Mojica FJ, Diez-Villasenor C, Soria E, Juez G (2000).
2862:
2533:
Journal of the Chemical Society, Perkin Transactions 2
2088:
1448:
Uridine to pseudouridine is a common RNA modification.
1241:– regulators with specific short binding sites within
1120:), which have an insertion, thus increasing its size.
521:—a role fulfilled today by DNA, except in the case of
6396:
4861:"Viroids: an Ariadne's thread into the RNA labyrinth"
4604:"A general two-metal-ion mechanism for catalytic RNA"
2813:
1645:
Robert W. Holley, left, poses with his research team.
1159:
into its corresponding protein form with the help of
1135:, the protein synthesis factories in the cell. It is
1016:. The most prominent examples of non-coding RNAs are
569:
While the sugar-phosphate "backbone" of DNA contains
409:. The nucleic acids constitute one of the four major
4956:
2685:"The RNA Modification Database, RNAMDB: 2011 update"
2491:"RNA bulges as architectural and recognition motifs"
2296:
2056:
1963:
1775:
At about the same time, 22 nt long RNAs, now called
32:
A hairpin loop from a pre-mRNA. Highlighted are the
6356:
Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications
3030:"Salt dependence of nucleic acid hairpin stability"
2292:
2290:
1387:The third major group of regulatory RNAs is called
1068:
in length, and long RNAs are greater than 200
1056:According to the length of RNA chain, RNA includes
625:Like DNA, most biologically active RNAs, including
5965:
4191:Zhao J, Sun BK, Erwin JA, Song JJ, Lee JT (2008).
4119:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2006".
2182:
1177:that transfers a specific amino acid to a growing
6285:
5302:
4306:Taft RJ, Kaplan CD, Simons C, Mattick JS (2009).
4080:
4078:
3168:
2962:
1881:, were reportedly formed in the laboratory under
1837:Relevance for prebiotic chemistry and abiogenesis
1630:
818:. The scaffold for this structure is provided by
8007:
5809:
5723:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2023"
5674:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2023"
4858:
4190:
4113:
3932:Gueneau de Novoa P, Williams KP (January 2004).
3491:
3489:
3487:
2287:
2215:
1452:Many RNAs are involved in modifying other RNAs.
1398:
873:-RNA is much more stable against degradation by
6127:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
6019:Cech, Thomas R.; Steitz, Joan A. (March 2014).
5966:Rivilla, Victor M.; et al. (8 July 2022).
5497:Napoli C, Lemieux C, Jorgensen R (April 1990).
4660:
3125:
2731:
923:by enzymes after transcription. For example, a
6077:U1–pre-mRNA association and rescue SMA mice".
5216:
4075:
4028:
4026:
4024:
4022:
4020:
3727:
3169:Hansen JL, Long AM, Schultz SC (August 1997).
3084:
2553:
2445:
2338:
2336:
2178:
2176:
2174:
455:encode their genetic information using an RNA
7580:
7318:
6931:
6547:
6186:
6184:
5959:
5898:
5810:Jerome, Craig A.; et al. (19 May 2022).
4460:
4032:
3622:
3565:
3484:
3265:
2641:
1723:were awarded a Nobel Prize in 1975. In 1976,
1581:). Double-stranded RNA, such as viral RNA or
1508:Like DNA, RNA can carry genetic information.
1292:
900:—using DNA as a template, a process known as
363:
5803:
4601:
4252:
4250:
4248:
4246:
4244:
3669:
3298:
3078:
2488:
2378:Barciszewski J, Frederic B, Clark C (1999).
1921:, including possible RNA precursors, in the
1885:conditions, using starter chemicals such as
5931:
5870:
5637:
4017:
3261:
3259:
3257:
2734:TRNA: Structure, biosynthesis, and function
2333:
2171:
1523:
834:are needed to stabilise many secondary and
806:, while pseudouridine and nucleosides with
648:In this fashion, RNAs can achieve chemical
431:) to convey genetic information (using the
7594:
7587:
7573:
7325:
7311:
7086:Precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA / hnRNA)
6938:
6924:
6554:
6540:
6181:
6018:
5367:
4859:Daròs JA, Elena SF, Flores R (June 2006).
4259:"Genome regulation by long noncoding RNAs"
3980:
2963:Burghardt B, Hartmann AK (February 2007).
1357:of blocks of chromatin via recruitment of
1036:other RNA molecules, and the catalysis of
1028:and other roles. Certain RNAs are able to
585:group attached to the pentose ring in the
370:
356:
6488:
6431:
6329:
6311:
6164:
6146:
6036:
6003:
5985:
5973:Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences
5845:
5774:
5571:
5522:
5348:"Enzymatic synthesis of ribonucleic acid"
5123:
5031:
4982:
4933:
4884:
4827:
4778:
4686:
4637:
4627:
4578:
4513:
4372:
4323:
4282:
4256:
4241:
4224:
4084:
4058:
3957:
3908:
3855:
3763:
3753:
3548:
3409:
3365:
3316:
3186:
3102:
3061:
2980:
2939:
2929:
2880:
2839:
2790:
2708:
2659:
2618:
2506:
2342:
5904:
5370:Journal of the American Chemical Society
5196:10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-061010-114133
5149:Developmental and Comparative Immunology
3254:
3209:
2592:
1854:, presumed to have been abundant on the
1640:
1555:
1443:
1281:. Fire and Mello were awarded the 2006
1191:
1173:(tRNA) is a small RNA chain of about 80
976:
752:
729:
669:
559:
541:Three-dimensional representation of the
536:
27:
6887:List of genetics research organizations
5745:
4425:
3447:
3388:
3339:
3299:Mattick JS, Gagen MJ (September 2001).
3027:
2642:Elliott MS, Trewyn RW (February 1984).
2183:Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L (2002).
1932:
1492:(snoRNA; 60–300 nt), found in the
1326:
1032:chemical reactions such as cutting and
8008:
7732:
5594:
5057:Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology
4123:Nobel Media AB 2014. Web. 6 Aug 2018.
3616:
2560:. Cambridge University Press. p.
2150:
1551:
727:that has a guanine–adenine base-pair.
532:
7568:
7306:
7106:Histone acetylation and deacetylation
6919:
6535:
5937:
5345:
5097:
4275:10.1146/annurev-biochem-051410-092902
3721:
3663:
3571:
3530:
3495:
3318:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003951
3085:Vater A, Klussmann S (January 2015).
2250:
2124:University of California, Los Angeles
1819:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1337:Next to be linked to regulation were
1283:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1155:, where it is bound to ribosomes and
791:(I). Inosine plays a key role in the
554:, but differs in three primary ways:
7697:
7171:Ribosome-nascent chain complex (RNC)
5267:
4135:
3623:Fatica A, Bozzoni I (January 2014).
2764:
1439:
1425:. They change shape when they bind
1269:inducing increased gene expression.
1143:) corresponds to one amino acid. In
779:). Another notable modified base is
16:Family of large biological molecules
7652:
6945:
3533:"Ribozyme diagnostics comes of age"
2648:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
1779:, were found to have a role in the
1139:so that every three nucleotides (a
13:
6523:Images of DNA, RNA, and complexes.
6257:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.02.018
4602:Steitz TA, Steitz JA (July 1993).
2489:Hermann T, Patel DJ (March 2000).
2380:RNA biochemistry and biotechnology
993:, the sites of protein synthesis (
783:, a deaminated adenine base whose
14:
8047:
7711:Micro
6508:
3470:10.1038/scientificamerican1004-60
1829:for their discoveries concerning
1229:The earliest known regulators of
1224:
1123:
1080:. Small RNAs mainly include 5.8S
417:. RNA is assembled as a chain of
413:essential for all known forms of
7990:
7989:
7431:Cis-natural antisense transcript
7332:
6900:
6899:
6448:
6390:
6346:
6193:Journal of Cellular Biochemistry
5116:10.1128/JVI.80.10.5059-5064.2006
4724:10.1046/j.1365-2958.2003.03483.x
4515:10.1046/j.1365-2958.2000.01838.x
3140:10.1046/j.1365-2443.2002.00563.x
2965:"RNA secondary structure design"
2611:10.1128/JVI.75.10.4902-4906.2001
1966:
1903:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
1376:
742:group at the 2' position of the
337:
336:
223:
222:
55:
7666:precursor, heterogenous nuclear
7359:Signal recognition particle RNA
7176:Post-translational modification
6279:
6235:
6113:
6069:
6012:
5938:Starr, Michelle (8 July 2022).
5768:
5739:
5715:
5690:
5666:
5631:
5588:
5539:
5490:
5439:
5388:
5361:
5339:
5296:
5261:
5210:
5175:
5140:
5091:
5048:
4999:
4950:
4901:
4852:
4803:
4746:
4703:
4654:
4595:
4538:
4489:
4454:
4419:
4402:
4389:
4340:
4299:
4184:
4129:
3974:
3925:
3872:
3831:
3780:
3524:
3441:
3382:
3333:
3305:Molecular Biology and Evolution
3292:
3203:
3162:
3119:
3021:
2956:
2897:
2856:
2807:
2758:
2725:
2676:
2635:
2586:
2554:Jankowski JA, Polak JM (1996).
2547:
2523:
2482:
2439:
2404:
2371:
2253:Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics
2117:"Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids"
1608:
961:
678:. Hydrogen atoms are not shown.
7796:Trans-acting small interfering
7760:Enhancer RNAs
7678:Transfer
3550:10.1016/j.chembiol.2004.07.002
3268:The Cell: A Molecular Approach
3266:Cooper GC, Hausman RE (2004).
2732:Söll D, RajBhandary U (1995).
2244:
2209:
2144:
2109:
2050:
1631:Key discoveries in RNA biology
1503:
710:, and cytosine and uracil are
1:
7683:Ribosomal
7661:Messenger
6473:10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.09.050
6461:Journal of Controlled Release
5789:10.1016/S0168-9525(99)01730-8
5652:10.1016/j.tibtech.2006.10.003
5417:10.1126/science.147.3664.1462
4829:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81308-2
3995:10.1016/s0022-2836(61)80072-7
3188:10.1016/S0969-2126(97)00261-X
3028:Tan ZJ, Chen SJ (July 2008).
2882:10.1016/S1097-2765(03)00040-6
2661:10.1016/S0021-9258(17)43367-9
2508:10.1016/S0969-2126(00)00110-6
2099:"RNA: The Versatile Molecule"
2044:
1399:Regulatory RNA in prokaryotes
948:RNA-dependent RNA polymerases
706:(U). Adenine and guanine are
674:Watson-Crick base pairs in a
6846:Missing heritability problem
6561:
6313:10.1371/journal.pone.0014397
4035:"The rise of regulatory RNA"
4033:Morris K, Mattick J (2014).
3983:Journal of Molecular Biology
3857:10.1099/00221287-145-12-3565
3755:10.1371/journal.pone.0056842
3340:Mattick JS (November 2001).
3104:10.1016/j.drudis.2014.09.004
2695:(Database issue): D195-201.
2593:Yu Q, Morrow CD (May 2001).
2382:. Springer. pp. 73–87.
2345:Journal of Molecular Biology
2319:10.1126/science.289.5481.920
2218:Journal of Molecular Biology
2071:10.1016/j.bioorg.2007.08.001
1909:and may have been formed in
1690:1968 Nobel Prize in Medicine
1688:in 1965, winning Holley the
1679:polynucleotide phosphorylase
1542:RNA that is used as template
1112:of the members of the genus
1051:
891:
659:
7:
5905:Marlaire R (3 March 2015).
5757:. p. 1. Archived from
5282:10.1016/j.ydbio.2004.11.028
4969:(Database issue): D339–43.
4926:10.1534/genetics.166.3.1437
4673:(Database issue): D183–87.
3944:(Database issue): D104–08.
3389:Mattick JS (October 2003).
3358:10.1093/embo-reports/kve230
3054:10.1529/biophysj.108.131524
1959:
1762:. In 1990, it was found in
1750:. Catalytic RNA molecules (
1657:were discovered in 1868 by
1579:double-stranded RNA viruses
972:
958:pathway in many organisms.
946:There are also a number of
10:
8052:
7862:Multicopy single-stranded
7706:Interferential
7518:Reverse transcribing virus
6416:10.1016/j.stem.2010.08.012
6368:10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.09.102
6038:10.1016/j.cell.2014.03.008
4440:10.1016/j.cbpa.2005.09.016
4365:10.1016/j.cell.2010.09.001
4257:Rinn JL, Chang HY (2012).
4136:Fire, et al. (1998).
2999:10.1103/PhysRevE.75.021920
2736:. ASM Press. p. 165.
1634:
1612:
1605:against viral infections.
1563:
1380:
1330:
1296:
1293:RNA interference by miRNAs
1064:are shorter than 200
985:, a ribozyme that cuts RNA
965:
663:
604:The complementary base to
18:
7985:
7920:
7870:
7813:
7776:Guide
7768:
7696:
7651:
7634:
7603:
7536:
7505:
7484:
7418:
7377:
7341:
7279:
7188:
7153:
7127:
7118:
7076:
7050:
7024:
7015:
6953:
6895:
6874:
6773:
6724:
6668:
6607:
6569:
6005:10.3389/fspas.2022.876870
5161:10.1016/j.dci.2003.09.009
5069:10.1007/s00253-004-1732-1
4959:"The telomerase database"
4475:10.1016/j.sbi.2005.05.003
4099:10.1016/j.tig.2005.05.008
2357:10.1016/j.jmb.2004.09.072
2265:10.1017/S0033583500003620
1544:for building the ends of
1347:X chromosome inactivation
1213:(tmRNA) is found in many
869:-RNA can be synthesized.
593:than DNA by lowering the
421:. Cellular organisms use
7738:Small nuclear
7237:sequestration (P-bodies)
4877:10.1038/sj.embor.7400706
4463:Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol
2783:10.1093/emboj/20.14.3617
1524:In reverse transcription
1468:, which contain several
1258:shutting down blocks of
931:are added to eukaryotic
841:The naturally occurring
612:, whereas in RNA, it is
507:history of life on Earth
7852:Genomic
7485:Cis-regulatory elements
7456:Repeat-associated siRNA
7215:Gene regulatory network
6148:10.1073/pnas.1605336113
6079:Nature Chemical Biology
5640:Trends in Biotechnology
5609:10.1126/science.1066315
4629:10.1073/pnas.90.14.6498
4571:10.1126/science.1159689
4399:(Vol. 90, pp. 133–208).
4217:10.1126/science.1163045
4039:Nature Reviews Genetics
3901:10.1002/2211-5463.12962
3699:10.1126/science.aad7977
3629:Nature Reviews Genetics
3594:10.1126/science.1072249
3537:Chemistry & Biology
3232:10.1126/science.1069132
2931:10.1073/pnas.0401799101
2154:Analysis of Chromosomes
1671:Nobel Prize in Medicine
1233:were proteins known as
1060:and long RNA. Usually,
857:-ribose. By the use of
484:) molecules to deliver
7955:Artificial chromosomes
7743:Small nucleolar
7369:Transfer-messenger RNA
7220:cis-regulatory element
5012:Nucleic Acids Research
4963:Nucleic Acids Research
4712:Molecular Microbiology
4667:Nucleic Acids Research
4428:Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol
3938:Nucleic Acids Research
3531:Rossi JJ (July 2004).
2820:Microbiol Mol Biol Rev
2689:Nucleic Acids Research
2230:10.1006/jmbi.1999.3001
2003:List of RNA Biologists
1998:History of RNA Biology
1983:Biomolecular structure
1646:
1637:History of RNA biology
1561:
1546:eukaryotic chromosomes
1449:
1252:post-transcriptionally
1211:Transfer-messenger RNA
1197:
986:
880:Like other structured
764:
735:
679:
666:Nucleic acid structure
581:instead. Ribose has a
546:
37:
7748:Small Cajal Body RNAs
7461:Small interfering RNA
6882:List of genetic codes
6521:Nucleic Acid Database
6091:10.1038/nchembio.1837
5838:10.1089/ast.2022.0027
5564:10.1104/pp.107.106062
5270:Developmental Biology
5098:Virol, J (May 2006).
2832:10.1128/MMBR.00104-21
1709:reverse transcriptase
1644:
1635:Further information:
1559:
1447:
1353:and others to be the
1195:
1098:small interfering RNA
1044:; these are known as
980:
756:
733:
673:
540:
403:deoxyribonucleic acid
323:Personalized medicine
317:Personalized medicine
180:Quantitative genetics
175:Mendelian inheritance
31:
7801:Subgenomic messenger
7716:Small interfering
7688:Transfer-messenger
7451:Piwi-interacting RNA
7242:alternative splicing
7232:Post-transcriptional
7058:Transcription factor
6781:Behavioural genetics
4397:Advances in genetics
4325:10.4161/cc.8.15.9154
3850:(Pt 12): 3565–3574.
3091:Drug Discovery Today
2765:Kiss T (July 2001).
2059:Bioorganic Chemistry
2038:RNA world hypothesis
1933:Medical applications
1831:modified nucleosides
1703:In the early 1970s,
1603:innate immune system
1530:reverse transcribing
1490:small nucleolar RNAs
1411:Bacterial small RNAs
1327:Long non-coding RNAs
1275:bacterial small RNAs
1271:Bacteria and archaea
1256:long non-coding RNAs
1106:Piwi-interacting RNA
820:secondary structural
474:. This process uses
243:Branches of genetics
21:RNA (disambiguation)
7390:Small nucleolar RNA
7166:Transfer RNA (tRNA)
6861:Population genomics
6851:Molecular evolution
6811:Genetic engineering
6304:2010PLoSO...514397P
6139:2016PNAS..11312508R
6133:(44): 12508–12513.
5996:2022FrASS...9.6870R
5830:2022AsBio..22..629J
5515:10.1105/tpc.2.4.279
5460:1976Natur.260..500F
5409:1965Sci...147.1462H
5382:10.1021/ja01595a086
5317:1939Natur.143..602C
5231:1979Natur.280..339H
5104:Journal of Virology
4771:1996Natur.383..732C
4620:1993PNAS...90.6498S
4563:2008Sci...321..960B
4209:2008Sci...322..750Z
4154:1998Natur.391..806F
3883:Halococcus morrhuae
3801:1981Natur.293..755L
3746:2013PLoSO...856842W
3691:2016Sci...351..397C
3586:2002Sci...296.1260S
3462:2004SciAm.291d..60M
3450:Scientific American
3224:2002Sci...296.1270A
3046:2008BpJ....95..738T
3034:Biophysical Journal
2991:2007PhRvE..75b1920B
2922:2004PNAS..101.7287M
2701:10.1093/nar/gkq1028
2599:Journal of Virology
2425:10.1021/bi00067a007
2311:2000Sci...289..920N
2018:RNA-based evolution
1919:prebiotic molecules
1571:Double-stranded RNA
1566:Double-stranded RNA
1560:Double-stranded RNA
1552:Double-stranded RNA
1343:long noncoding RNAs
1333:Long Non-coding RNA
1102:small nucleolar RNA
1074:long non-coding RNA
983:hammerhead ribozyme
939:are removed by the
836:tertiary structures
758:Secondary structure
654:RNA-protein complex
560:double-stranded RNA
533:Comparison with DNA
519:genetic information
213:Genetic engineering
170:Population genetics
43:Part of a series on
7830:Chloroplast
7673:modified Messenger
7636:Ribonucleic acids
7471:Trans-acting siRNA
7466:Small temporal RNA
7441:Long noncoding RNA
7280:Influential people
7259:Post-translational
7078:Post-transcription
6821:Genetic monitoring
5777:Trends in Genetics
5746:Siebert S (2006).
5024:10.1093/nar/gkl886
4975:10.1093/nar/gkm700
4679:10.1093/nar/gkl873
4263:Annu. Rev. Biochem
4087:Trends in Genetics
3950:10.1093/nar/gkh102
3420:10.1002/bies.10332
2157:. Agrotech Press.
2151:Shukla RN (2014).
2103:University of Utah
1893:commonly found in
1807:Venki Ramakrishnan
1698:Marshall Nirenberg
1694:Har Gobind Khorana
1659:Friedrich Miescher
1647:
1562:
1470:small nuclear RNAs
1450:
1413:generally act via
1198:
987:
917:Primary transcript
865:-ribonucleotides,
861:-ribose or rather
816:tertiary structure
765:
736:
686:in RNA contains a
680:
547:
185:Molecular genetics
144:History and topics
38:
8026:Molecular biology
8003:
8002:
7880:Xeno
7842:Complementary
7815:Deoxyribonucleic
7809:
7808:
7786:Small hairpin
7562:
7561:
7476:Short hairpin RNA
7385:Small nuclear RNA
7342:Protein synthesis
7300:
7299:
7184:
7183:
7114:
7113:
6990:Special transfers
6913:
6912:
6836:He Jiankui affair
6826:Genetic genealogy
6816:Genetic diversity
6745:the British Isles
6650:Genetic variation
6515:RNA World website
6205:10.1002/jcb.29364
5764:on March 9, 2012.
5403:(3664): 1462–65.
5110:(10): 5059–5064.
3895:(10): 1938–1946.
3795:(5835): 755–756.
3685:(6271): 397–400.
3580:(5571): 1260–63.
3509:978-91-7178-436-0
3277:978-0-87893-214-6
3218:(5571): 1270–73.
2969:Physical Review E
2743:978-1-55581-073-3
2571:978-0-521-47896-0
2460:10.1002/bip.22750
2389:978-0-7923-5862-6
2194:978-0-7167-4684-3
2164:978-93-84568-17-7
1954:COVID-19 pandemic
1950:COVID-19 vaccines
1915:interstellar dust
1852:basalt lava glass
1729:bacteriophage MS2
1440:In RNA processing
1250:repressing genes
1040:formation in the
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
849:-RNA composed of
848:
808:2'-O-methylribose
793:wobble hypothesis
595:activation energy
468:protein synthesis
433:nitrogenous bases
380:
379:
107:Genetic variation
8043:
7993:
7992:
7970:Yeast
7791:Small temporal
7721:Piwi-interacting
7649:
7648:
7645:
7626:Deoxynucleotides
7589:
7582:
7575:
7566:
7565:
7327:
7320:
7313:
7304:
7303:
7125:
7124:
7022:
7021:
6940:
6933:
6926:
6917:
6916:
6903:
6902:
6866:Reverse genetics
6841:Medical genetics
6556:
6549:
6542:
6533:
6532:
6503:
6502:
6492:
6452:
6446:
6445:
6435:
6394:
6388:
6387:
6350:
6344:
6343:
6333:
6315:
6283:
6277:
6276:
6239:
6233:
6232:
6188:
6179:
6178:
6168:
6150:
6117:
6111:
6110:
6073:
6067:
6066:
6040:
6016:
6010:
6009:
6007:
5989:
5963:
5957:
5956:
5954:
5952:
5935:
5929:
5928:
5926:
5924:
5915:. Archived from
5902:
5896:
5895:
5893:
5891:
5874:
5868:
5867:
5849:
5807:
5801:
5800:
5772:
5766:
5765:
5763:
5752:
5743:
5737:
5736:
5734:
5733:
5719:
5713:
5712:
5710:
5709:
5694:
5688:
5687:
5685:
5684:
5670:
5664:
5663:
5635:
5629:
5628:
5603:(5543): 797–99.
5592:
5586:
5585:
5575:
5552:Plant Physiology
5543:
5537:
5536:
5526:
5494:
5488:
5487:
5468:10.1038/260500a0
5454:(5551): 500–07.
5443:
5437:
5436:
5392:
5386:
5385:
5365:
5359:
5358:
5352:
5346:Ochoa S (1959).
5343:
5337:
5336:
5325:10.1038/143602c0
5311:(3623): 602–03.
5300:
5294:
5293:
5265:
5259:
5258:
5239:10.1038/280339a0
5225:(5720): 339–40.
5214:
5208:
5207:
5179:
5173:
5172:
5144:
5138:
5137:
5127:
5095:
5089:
5088:
5052:
5046:
5045:
5035:
5003:
4997:
4996:
4986:
4954:
4948:
4947:
4937:
4905:
4899:
4898:
4888:
4856:
4850:
4849:
4831:
4807:
4801:
4800:
4782:
4780:10.1038/383732a0
4765:(6602): 732–35.
4750:
4744:
4743:
4707:
4701:
4700:
4690:
4658:
4652:
4651:
4641:
4631:
4614:(14): 6498–502.
4599:
4593:
4592:
4582:
4557:(5891): 960–64.
4542:
4536:
4535:
4517:
4493:
4487:
4486:
4458:
4452:
4451:
4423:
4417:
4416:, eaam8812 1–11.
4406:
4400:
4393:
4387:
4386:
4376:
4344:
4338:
4337:
4327:
4303:
4297:
4296:
4286:
4254:
4239:
4238:
4228:
4203:(5902): 750–56.
4188:
4182:
4181:
4148:(6669): 806–11.
4133:
4127:
4117:
4111:
4110:
4082:
4073:
4072:
4062:
4030:
4015:
4014:
3978:
3972:
3971:
3961:
3929:
3923:
3922:
3912:
3876:
3870:
3869:
3859:
3835:
3829:
3828:
3809:10.1038/293755a0
3784:
3778:
3777:
3767:
3757:
3725:
3719:
3718:
3676:
3667:
3661:
3660:
3620:
3614:
3613:
3569:
3563:
3562:
3552:
3528:
3522:
3521:
3496:Wirta W (2006).
3493:
3482:
3481:
3445:
3439:
3438:
3436:
3430:. Archived from
3413:
3395:
3386:
3380:
3379:
3369:
3337:
3331:
3330:
3320:
3296:
3290:
3289:
3263:
3252:
3251:
3207:
3201:
3200:
3190:
3166:
3160:
3159:
3123:
3117:
3116:
3106:
3082:
3076:
3075:
3065:
3025:
3019:
3018:
2984:
2960:
2954:
2953:
2943:
2933:
2901:
2895:
2894:
2884:
2860:
2854:
2853:
2843:
2811:
2805:
2804:
2794:
2771:The EMBO Journal
2762:
2756:
2755:
2729:
2723:
2722:
2712:
2680:
2674:
2673:
2663:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2622:
2590:
2584:
2583:
2551:
2545:
2544:
2541:10.1039/a903691a
2527:
2521:
2520:
2510:
2486:
2480:
2479:
2443:
2437:
2436:
2408:
2402:
2401:
2375:
2369:
2368:
2340:
2331:
2330:
2305:(5481): 920–30.
2294:
2285:
2284:
2248:
2242:
2241:
2213:
2207:
2206:
2180:
2169:
2168:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2138:
2132:
2126:. Archived from
2121:
2113:
2107:
2106:
2095:
2086:
2085:
2054:
1976:
1971:
1970:
1927:Milky Way Galaxy
1891:organic compound
1811:Thomas A. Steitz
1770:RNA interference
1686:Robert W. Holley
1587:RNA interference
1534:Retrotransposons
1345:associated with
1305:RNA interference
1299:RNA interference
1285:for discovering
1008:These so-called
1001:sequence in the
956:RNA interference
886:circuit topology
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
620:form of thymine.
383:Ribonucleic acid
372:
365:
358:
345:
340:
339:
235:Medical genetics
231:
226:
225:
59:
40:
39:
8051:
8050:
8046:
8045:
8044:
8042:
8041:
8040:
8006:
8005:
8004:
7999:
7981:
7922:Cloning vectors
7916:
7902:Locked
7866:
7816:
7805:
7764:
7692:
7639:
7638:
7630:
7599:
7593:
7563:
7558:
7532:
7513:Retrotransposon
7501:
7480:
7419:Gene regulation
7414:
7373:
7337:
7331:
7301:
7296:
7275:
7210:Transcriptional
7180:
7149:
7110:
7101:Polyadenylation
7072:
7046:
7011:
7005:Protein→Protein
6956:
6949:
6947:Gene expression
6944:
6914:
6909:
6891:
6870:
6769:
6760:the Middle East
6726:Archaeogenetics
6720:
6664:
6603:
6565:
6560:
6511:
6506:
6453:
6449:
6395:
6391:
6351:
6347:
6284:
6280:
6240:
6236:
6189:
6182:
6118:
6114:
6074:
6070:
6017:
6013:
5964:
5960:
5950:
5948:
5936:
5932:
5922:
5920:
5919:on 5 March 2015
5903:
5899:
5889:
5887:
5875:
5871:
5808:
5804:
5773:
5769:
5761:
5750:
5744:
5740:
5731:
5729:
5721:
5720:
5716:
5707:
5705:
5696:
5695:
5691:
5682:
5680:
5672:
5671:
5667:
5636:
5632:
5593:
5589:
5544:
5540:
5495:
5491:
5444:
5440:
5393:
5389:
5376:(14): 3548–49.
5366:
5362:
5350:
5344:
5340:
5301:
5297:
5266:
5262:
5215:
5211:
5180:
5176:
5145:
5141:
5096:
5092:
5053:
5049:
5018:(21): 6233–46.
5004:
5000:
4955:
4951:
4906:
4902:
4857:
4853:
4808:
4804:
4751:
4747:
4708:
4704:
4659:
4655:
4600:
4596:
4543:
4539:
4494:
4490:
4459:
4455:
4424:
4420:
4407:
4403:
4394:
4390:
4345:
4341:
4318:(15): 2332–38.
4304:
4300:
4255:
4242:
4189:
4185:
4134:
4130:
4121:Nobelprize.org.
4118:
4114:
4083:
4076:
4051:10.1038/nrg3722
4031:
4018:
3979:
3975:
3930:
3926:
3877:
3873:
3836:
3832:
3785:
3781:
3726:
3722:
3674:
3668:
3664:
3641:10.1038/nrg3606
3621:
3617:
3570:
3566:
3529:
3525:
3510:
3494:
3485:
3446:
3442:
3434:
3411:10.1.1.476.7561
3393:
3387:
3383:
3338:
3334:
3297:
3293:
3278:
3264:
3255:
3208:
3204:
3167:
3163:
3124:
3120:
3083:
3079:
3026:
3022:
2982:physics/0609135
2961:
2957:
2916:(19): 7287–92.
2902:
2898:
2861:
2857:
2826:(4): e0010421.
2812:
2808:
2777:(14): 3617–22.
2763:
2759:
2744:
2730:
2726:
2681:
2677:
2640:
2636:
2591:
2587:
2572:
2552:
2548:
2528:
2524:
2487:
2483:
2444:
2440:
2419:(16): 4207–15.
2409:
2405:
2390:
2376:
2372:
2341:
2334:
2295:
2288:
2249:
2245:
2214:
2210:
2195:
2181:
2172:
2165:
2149:
2145:
2136:
2134:
2130:
2119:
2115:
2114:
2110:
2097:
2096:
2089:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2042:
1972:
1965:
1962:
1935:
1923:galactic center
1861:In March 2015,
1839:
1821:was awarded to
1748:Richard Roberts
1717:Renato Dulbecco
1713:David Baltimore
1675:Arthur Kornberg
1639:
1633:
1617:
1611:
1568:
1554:
1526:
1506:
1442:
1401:
1385:
1379:
1335:
1329:
1301:
1295:
1231:gene expression
1227:
1126:
1054:
1010:non-coding RNAs
981:Structure of a
975:
970:
964:
919:RNAs are often
894:
748:A-form geometry
668:
662:
643:non-coding RNAs
623:
575:, RNA contains
535:
464:gene expression
376:
335:
328:
327:
318:
310:
309:
308:
307:
256:
248:
247:
239:
217:
198:
190:
189:
145:
137:
136:
123:
122:
121:
67:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
8049:
8039:
8038:
8033:
8028:
8023:
8018:
8001:
8000:
7998:
7997:
7986:
7983:
7982:
7980:
7979:
7978:
7977:
7972:
7967:
7962:
7952:
7947:
7942:
7937:
7932:
7926:
7924:
7918:
7917:
7915:
7914:
7909:
7907:Peptide
7904:
7899:
7898:
7897:
7892:
7887:
7885:Glycol
7876:
7874:
7868:
7867:
7865:
7864:
7859:
7854:
7849:
7844:
7839:
7838:
7837:
7832:
7821:
7819:
7811:
7810:
7807:
7806:
7804:
7803:
7798:
7793:
7788:
7783:
7778:
7772:
7770:
7766:
7765:
7763:
7762:
7757:
7756:
7755:
7750:
7745:
7740:
7730:
7725:
7724:
7723:
7718:
7713:
7702:
7700:
7694:
7693:
7691:
7690:
7685:
7680:
7675:
7670:
7669:
7668:
7657:
7655:
7646:
7632:
7631:
7629:
7628:
7623:
7618:
7613:
7607:
7605:
7601:
7600:
7597:nucleic acids
7592:
7591:
7584:
7577:
7569:
7560:
7559:
7557:
7556:
7551:
7546:
7544:Telomerase RNA
7540:
7538:
7534:
7533:
7531:
7530:
7525:
7520:
7515:
7509:
7507:
7503:
7502:
7500:
7499:
7494:
7488:
7486:
7482:
7481:
7479:
7478:
7473:
7468:
7463:
7458:
7453:
7448:
7443:
7438:
7433:
7428:
7422:
7420:
7416:
7415:
7413:
7412:
7407:
7402:
7397:
7392:
7387:
7381:
7379:
7378:RNA processing
7375:
7374:
7372:
7371:
7366:
7361:
7356:
7351:
7345:
7343:
7339:
7338:
7330:
7329:
7322:
7315:
7307:
7298:
7297:
7295:
7294:
7289:
7287:François Jacob
7283:
7281:
7277:
7276:
7274:
7273:
7272:
7271:
7266:
7256:
7251:
7250:
7249:
7244:
7239:
7229:
7224:
7223:
7222:
7217:
7207:
7206:
7205:
7194:
7192:
7186:
7185:
7182:
7181:
7179:
7178:
7173:
7168:
7163:
7157:
7155:
7151:
7150:
7148:
7147:
7142:
7137:
7131:
7129:
7122:
7116:
7115:
7112:
7111:
7109:
7108:
7103:
7098:
7093:
7088:
7082:
7080:
7074:
7073:
7071:
7070:
7065:
7063:RNA polymerase
7060:
7054:
7052:
7048:
7047:
7045:
7044:
7039:
7034:
7028:
7026:
7019:
7013:
7012:
7010:
7009:
7008:
7007:
7002:
6997:
6987:
6986:
6985:
6967:
6961:
6959:
6951:
6950:
6943:
6942:
6935:
6928:
6920:
6911:
6910:
6908:
6907:
6896:
6893:
6892:
6890:
6889:
6884:
6878:
6876:
6872:
6871:
6869:
6868:
6863:
6858:
6856:Plant genetics
6853:
6848:
6843:
6838:
6833:
6828:
6823:
6818:
6813:
6808:
6803:
6798:
6796:Genome editing
6793:
6788:
6783:
6777:
6775:
6774:Related topics
6771:
6770:
6768:
6767:
6762:
6757:
6752:
6747:
6742:
6737:
6731:
6729:
6722:
6721:
6719:
6718:
6713:
6708:
6703:
6698:
6696:Immunogenetics
6693:
6688:
6683:
6678:
6672:
6670:
6666:
6665:
6663:
6662:
6657:
6652:
6647:
6642:
6637:
6632:
6627:
6622:
6617:
6611:
6609:
6608:Key components
6605:
6604:
6602:
6601:
6596:
6591:
6586:
6581:
6576:
6570:
6567:
6566:
6559:
6558:
6551:
6544:
6536:
6530:
6529:
6524:
6518:
6510:
6509:External links
6507:
6505:
6504:
6447:
6410:(5): 618–630.
6404:Cell Stem Cell
6389:
6362:(3): 743–751.
6345:
6298:(12): e14397.
6278:
6234:
6199:(2): 898–929.
6180:
6112:
6085:(7): 511–517.
6068:
6011:
5958:
5930:
5897:
5869:
5824:(6): 629–636.
5802:
5767:
5738:
5727:NobelPrize.org
5714:
5689:
5678:NobelPrize.org
5665:
5646:(12): 563–70.
5630:
5587:
5558:(4): 1272–81.
5538:
5503:The Plant Cell
5489:
5438:
5387:
5360:
5338:
5295:
5260:
5209:
5174:
5155:(5): 499–508.
5139:
5090:
5047:
4998:
4949:
4920:(3): 1437–50.
4900:
4851:
4822:(7): 1077–88.
4802:
4745:
4702:
4653:
4594:
4537:
4502:Mol. Microbiol
4488:
4453:
4434:(6): 594–602.
4418:
4401:
4388:
4339:
4298:
4240:
4183:
4128:
4112:
4093:(7): 399–404.
4074:
4016:
3973:
3924:
3871:
3830:
3779:
3720:
3662:
3615:
3564:
3523:
3508:
3483:
3440:
3437:on 2009-03-06.
3404:(10): 930–39.
3381:
3352:(11): 986–91.
3332:
3311:(9): 1611–30.
3291:
3276:
3253:
3202:
3181:(8): 1109–22.
3161:
3128:Genes to Cells
3118:
3077:
3020:
2955:
2896:
2869:Molecular Cell
2855:
2806:
2757:
2742:
2724:
2675:
2654:(4): 2407–10.
2634:
2605:(10): 4902–6.
2585:
2570:
2546:
2535:(8): 1619–26.
2522:
2481:
2438:
2403:
2388:
2370:
2351:(5): 1225–49.
2332:
2286:
2259:(3): 199–253.
2243:
2208:
2193:
2170:
2163:
2143:
2108:
2087:
2065:(6): 430–443.
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1979:
1978:
1977:
1974:Biology portal
1961:
1958:
1934:
1931:
1838:
1835:
1823:Katalin Karikó
1817:. In 2023 the
1799:Roger Kornberg
1632:
1629:
1613:Main article:
1610:
1607:
1585:, can trigger
1564:Main article:
1553:
1550:
1525:
1522:
1505:
1502:
1441:
1438:
1423:allosterically
1400:
1397:
1378:
1375:
1351:Jeannie T. Lee
1328:
1325:
1294:
1291:
1263:epigenetically
1226:
1225:Regulatory RNA
1223:
1125:
1124:In translation
1122:
1053:
1050:
1026:RNA processing
974:
971:
963:
960:
898:RNA polymerase
893:
890:
828:internal loops
826:, bulges, and
762:telomerase RNA
720:hydrogen bonds
664:Main article:
661:
658:
622:
621:
616:, which is an
602:
567:
548:
534:
531:
411:macromolecules
395:non-coding RNA
378:
377:
375:
374:
367:
360:
352:
349:
348:
347:
346:
330:
329:
326:
325:
319:
316:
315:
312:
311:
306:
305:
300:
295:
290:
285:
283:Immunogenetics
280:
275:
270:
265:
259:
258:
257:
254:
253:
250:
249:
246:
245:
238:
237:
232:
215:
210:
208:DNA sequencing
205:
199:
196:
195:
192:
191:
188:
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
157:
152:
146:
143:
142:
139:
138:
135:
134:
129:
120:
119:
114:
109:
104:
99:
94:
89:
84:
81:
76:
70:
69:
68:
66:Key components
65:
64:
61:
60:
52:
51:
45:
44:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8048:
8037:
8036:Nucleic acids
8034:
8032:
8031:Biotechnology
8029:
8027:
8024:
8022:
8019:
8017:
8014:
8013:
8011:
7996:
7988:
7987:
7984:
7976:
7973:
7971:
7968:
7966:
7963:
7961:
7958:
7957:
7956:
7953:
7951:
7948:
7946:
7943:
7941:
7938:
7936:
7933:
7931:
7928:
7927:
7925:
7923:
7919:
7913:
7910:
7908:
7905:
7903:
7900:
7896:
7893:
7891:
7890:Threose
7888:
7886:
7883:
7882:
7881:
7878:
7877:
7875:
7873:
7869:
7863:
7860:
7858:
7855:
7853:
7850:
7848:
7847:Deoxyribozyme
7845:
7843:
7840:
7836:
7835:Mitochondrial
7833:
7831:
7828:
7827:
7826:
7823:
7822:
7820:
7818:
7812:
7802:
7799:
7797:
7794:
7792:
7789:
7787:
7784:
7782:
7779:
7777:
7774:
7773:
7771:
7767:
7761:
7758:
7754:
7751:
7749:
7746:
7744:
7741:
7739:
7736:
7735:
7734:
7731:
7729:
7726:
7722:
7719:
7717:
7714:
7712:
7709:
7708:
7707:
7704:
7703:
7701:
7699:
7695:
7689:
7686:
7684:
7681:
7679:
7676:
7674:
7671:
7667:
7664:
7663:
7662:
7659:
7658:
7656:
7654:
7653:Translational
7650:
7647:
7643:
7637:
7633:
7627:
7624:
7622:
7619:
7617:
7614:
7612:
7609:
7608:
7606:
7602:
7598:
7590:
7585:
7583:
7578:
7576:
7571:
7570:
7567:
7555:
7552:
7550:
7547:
7545:
7542:
7541:
7539:
7535:
7529:
7526:
7524:
7521:
7519:
7516:
7514:
7511:
7510:
7508:
7504:
7498:
7497:SECIS element
7495:
7493:
7490:
7489:
7487:
7483:
7477:
7474:
7472:
7469:
7467:
7464:
7462:
7459:
7457:
7454:
7452:
7449:
7447:
7444:
7442:
7439:
7437:
7434:
7432:
7429:
7427:
7426:Antisense RNA
7424:
7423:
7421:
7417:
7411:
7408:
7406:
7403:
7401:
7398:
7396:
7393:
7391:
7388:
7386:
7383:
7382:
7380:
7376:
7370:
7367:
7365:
7362:
7360:
7357:
7355:
7354:Ribosomal RNA
7352:
7350:
7349:Messenger RNA
7347:
7346:
7344:
7340:
7336:
7328:
7323:
7321:
7316:
7314:
7309:
7308:
7305:
7293:
7292:Jacques Monod
7290:
7288:
7285:
7284:
7282:
7278:
7270:
7267:
7265:
7262:
7261:
7260:
7257:
7255:
7254:Translational
7252:
7248:
7245:
7243:
7240:
7238:
7235:
7234:
7233:
7230:
7228:
7225:
7221:
7218:
7216:
7213:
7212:
7211:
7208:
7204:
7201:
7200:
7199:
7196:
7195:
7193:
7191:
7187:
7177:
7174:
7172:
7169:
7167:
7164:
7162:
7159:
7158:
7156:
7152:
7146:
7143:
7141:
7138:
7136:
7133:
7132:
7130:
7126:
7123:
7121:
7117:
7107:
7104:
7102:
7099:
7097:
7094:
7092:
7089:
7087:
7084:
7083:
7081:
7079:
7075:
7069:
7066:
7064:
7061:
7059:
7056:
7055:
7053:
7049:
7043:
7040:
7038:
7035:
7033:
7030:
7029:
7027:
7023:
7020:
7018:
7017:Transcription
7014:
7006:
7003:
7001:
6998:
6996:
6993:
6992:
6991:
6988:
6984:
6980:
6976:
6973:
6972:
6971:
6970:Central dogma
6968:
6966:
6963:
6962:
6960:
6958:
6952:
6948:
6941:
6936:
6934:
6929:
6927:
6922:
6921:
6918:
6906:
6898:
6897:
6894:
6888:
6885:
6883:
6880:
6879:
6877:
6873:
6867:
6864:
6862:
6859:
6857:
6854:
6852:
6849:
6847:
6844:
6842:
6839:
6837:
6834:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6812:
6809:
6807:
6804:
6802:
6799:
6797:
6794:
6792:
6789:
6787:
6784:
6782:
6779:
6778:
6776:
6772:
6766:
6763:
6761:
6758:
6756:
6753:
6751:
6748:
6746:
6743:
6741:
6738:
6736:
6733:
6732:
6730:
6727:
6723:
6717:
6714:
6712:
6709:
6707:
6704:
6702:
6699:
6697:
6694:
6692:
6689:
6687:
6684:
6682:
6679:
6677:
6674:
6673:
6671:
6667:
6661:
6658:
6656:
6653:
6651:
6648:
6646:
6643:
6641:
6638:
6636:
6633:
6631:
6628:
6626:
6623:
6621:
6618:
6616:
6613:
6612:
6610:
6606:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6592:
6590:
6587:
6585:
6582:
6580:
6577:
6575:
6572:
6571:
6568:
6564:
6557:
6552:
6550:
6545:
6543:
6538:
6537:
6534:
6528:
6525:
6522:
6519:
6516:
6513:
6512:
6500:
6496:
6491:
6486:
6482:
6478:
6474:
6470:
6466:
6462:
6458:
6451:
6443:
6439:
6434:
6429:
6425:
6421:
6417:
6413:
6409:
6405:
6401:
6393:
6385:
6381:
6377:
6373:
6369:
6365:
6361:
6357:
6349:
6341:
6337:
6332:
6327:
6323:
6319:
6314:
6309:
6305:
6301:
6297:
6293:
6289:
6282:
6274:
6270:
6266:
6262:
6258:
6254:
6250:
6246:
6238:
6230:
6226:
6222:
6218:
6214:
6210:
6206:
6202:
6198:
6194:
6187:
6185:
6176:
6172:
6167:
6162:
6158:
6154:
6149:
6144:
6140:
6136:
6132:
6128:
6124:
6116:
6108:
6104:
6100:
6096:
6092:
6088:
6084:
6080:
6072:
6064:
6060:
6056:
6052:
6048:
6044:
6039:
6034:
6030:
6026:
6022:
6015:
6006:
6001:
5997:
5993:
5988:
5983:
5979:
5975:
5974:
5969:
5962:
5947:
5946:
5941:
5934:
5918:
5914:
5913:
5908:
5901:
5886:
5885:
5880:
5873:
5865:
5861:
5857:
5853:
5848:
5843:
5839:
5835:
5831:
5827:
5823:
5819:
5818:
5813:
5806:
5798:
5794:
5790:
5786:
5783:(6): 223–29.
5782:
5778:
5771:
5760:
5756:
5749:
5742:
5728:
5724:
5718:
5703:
5699:
5693:
5679:
5675:
5669:
5661:
5657:
5653:
5649:
5645:
5641:
5634:
5626:
5622:
5618:
5614:
5610:
5606:
5602:
5598:
5591:
5583:
5579:
5574:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5557:
5553:
5549:
5542:
5534:
5530:
5525:
5520:
5516:
5512:
5509:(4): 279–89.
5508:
5504:
5500:
5493:
5485:
5481:
5477:
5473:
5469:
5465:
5461:
5457:
5453:
5449:
5442:
5434:
5430:
5426:
5422:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5406:
5402:
5398:
5391:
5383:
5379:
5375:
5371:
5364:
5356:
5355:Nobel Lecture
5349:
5342:
5334:
5330:
5326:
5322:
5318:
5314:
5310:
5306:
5299:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5279:
5276:(2): 274–88.
5275:
5271:
5264:
5256:
5252:
5248:
5244:
5240:
5236:
5232:
5228:
5224:
5220:
5213:
5205:
5201:
5197:
5193:
5189:
5185:
5178:
5170:
5166:
5162:
5158:
5154:
5150:
5143:
5135:
5131:
5126:
5121:
5117:
5113:
5109:
5105:
5101:
5094:
5086:
5082:
5078:
5074:
5070:
5066:
5063:(6): 649–57.
5062:
5058:
5051:
5043:
5039:
5034:
5029:
5025:
5021:
5017:
5013:
5009:
5002:
4994:
4990:
4985:
4980:
4976:
4972:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4953:
4945:
4941:
4936:
4931:
4927:
4923:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4904:
4896:
4892:
4887:
4882:
4878:
4874:
4871:(6): 593–98.
4870:
4866:
4862:
4855:
4847:
4843:
4839:
4835:
4830:
4825:
4821:
4817:
4813:
4806:
4798:
4794:
4790:
4786:
4781:
4776:
4772:
4768:
4764:
4760:
4756:
4749:
4741:
4737:
4733:
4729:
4725:
4721:
4718:(3): 617–29.
4717:
4713:
4706:
4698:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4680:
4676:
4672:
4668:
4664:
4657:
4649:
4645:
4640:
4635:
4630:
4625:
4621:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4598:
4590:
4586:
4581:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4552:
4548:
4541:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4508:(1): 244–46.
4507:
4503:
4499:
4492:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4469:(3): 342–48.
4468:
4464:
4457:
4449:
4445:
4441:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4422:
4415:
4411:
4405:
4398:
4392:
4384:
4380:
4375:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4343:
4335:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4302:
4294:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4276:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4253:
4251:
4249:
4247:
4245:
4236:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4194:
4187:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4162:10.1038/35888
4159:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4132:
4126:
4122:
4116:
4108:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4092:
4088:
4081:
4079:
4070:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4045:(6): 423–37.
4044:
4040:
4036:
4029:
4027:
4025:
4023:
4021:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3989:(3): 318–56.
3988:
3984:
3977:
3969:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3928:
3920:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3889:FEBS Open Bio
3886:
3884:
3875:
3867:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3834:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3783:
3775:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3740:(2): e56842.
3739:
3735:
3731:
3724:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3673:
3666:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3619:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3568:
3560:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3543:(7): 894–95.
3542:
3538:
3534:
3527:
3519:
3515:
3511:
3505:
3501:
3500:
3492:
3490:
3488:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3444:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3392:
3385:
3377:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3336:
3328:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3295:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3273:
3269:
3262:
3260:
3258:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3206:
3198:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3165:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3134:(8): 755–68.
3133:
3129:
3122:
3114:
3110:
3105:
3100:
3097:(1): 147–55.
3096:
3092:
3088:
3081:
3073:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3040:(2): 738–52.
3039:
3035:
3031:
3024:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2975:(2): 021920.
2974:
2970:
2966:
2959:
2951:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2900:
2892:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2875:(2): 425–35.
2874:
2870:
2866:
2859:
2851:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2810:
2802:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2761:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2739:
2735:
2728:
2720:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2679:
2671:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2638:
2630:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2589:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2558:
2550:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2526:
2518:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2501:(3): R47–54.
2500:
2496:
2492:
2485:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2442:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2407:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2385:
2381:
2374:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2339:
2337:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2293:
2291:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2247:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2224:(2): 271–81.
2223:
2219:
2212:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2190:
2186:
2179:
2177:
2175:
2166:
2160:
2156:
2155:
2147:
2133:on 2015-09-23
2129:
2125:
2118:
2112:
2104:
2100:
2094:
2092:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2053:
2049:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2033:Transcriptome
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2013:Macromolecule
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1975:
1969:
1964:
1957:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1946:mRNA vaccines
1943:
1939:
1930:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1859:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1844:
1834:
1832:
1828:
1827:Drew Weissman
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1787:
1782:
1778:
1773:
1771:
1767:
1766:
1761:
1760:Sidney Altman
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1701:
1699:
1695:
1692:(shared with
1691:
1687:
1682:
1680:
1676:
1673:(shared with
1672:
1669:won the 1959
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1655:Nucleic acids
1652:
1643:
1638:
1628:
1626:
1622:
1616:
1606:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1593:, as well as
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1567:
1558:
1549:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1521:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1501:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1446:
1437:
1435:
1430:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1396:
1394:
1390:
1389:enhancer RNAs
1384:
1377:Enhancer RNAs
1374:
1372:
1371:cell division
1368:
1365:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1334:
1324:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1300:
1290:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1267:enhancer RNAs
1264:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1222:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1206:
1202:
1201:Ribosomal RNA
1194:
1190:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1166:
1165:ribonucleases
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1129:Messenger RNA
1121:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1082:ribosomal RNA
1079:
1076:(lncRNA) and
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1049:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1022:ribosomal RNA
1019:
1015:
1011:
1006:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
984:
979:
969:
959:
957:
953:
949:
944:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
911:
907:
903:
902:transcription
899:
889:
887:
883:
878:
876:
844:
839:
837:
833:
829:
825:
824:hairpin loops
821:
817:
812:
809:
805:
800:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
773:ribothymidine
770:
769:Pseudouridine
763:
759:
755:
751:
749:
745:
741:
732:
728:
726:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
677:
672:
667:
657:
655:
651:
646:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
600:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
579:
574:
573:
568:
565:
561:
557:
556:
555:
553:
544:
539:
530:
528:
524:
520:
516:
513:as well, an "
512:
508:
503:
501:
500:
495:
494:ribosomal RNA
491:
487:
483:
482:
477:
473:
469:
465:
460:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
429:
424:
423:messenger RNA
420:
416:
412:
408:
407:nucleic acids
404:
400:
399:messenger RNA
396:
392:
388:
384:
373:
368:
366:
361:
359:
354:
353:
351:
350:
344:
334:
333:
332:
331:
324:
321:
320:
314:
313:
304:
301:
299:
296:
294:
291:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
269:
266:
264:
261:
260:
252:
251:
244:
241:
240:
236:
233:
229:
220:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
200:
194:
193:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
173:
171:
168:
165:
161:
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
147:
141:
140:
133:
130:
128:
125:
124:
118:
115:
113:
110:
108:
105:
103:
100:
98:
95:
93:
90:
88:
85:
82:
80:
77:
75:
72:
71:
63:
62:
58:
54:
53:
50:
47:
46:
42:
41:
35:
30:
26:
22:
8021:RNA splicing
7965:Bacterial
7940:Lambda phage
7635:
7604:Constituents
7554:List of RNAs
7364:Transfer RNA
7334:
7269:irreversible
7154:Key elements
7051:Key elements
6965:Genetic code
6955:Introduction
6806:Genetic code
6740:the Americas
6716:Quantitative
6686:Cytogenetics
6681:Conservation
6624:
6574:Introduction
6464:
6460:
6450:
6407:
6403:
6392:
6359:
6355:
6348:
6295:
6291:
6281:
6248:
6245:Biomaterials
6244:
6237:
6196:
6192:
6130:
6126:
6115:
6082:
6078:
6071:
6031:(1): 77–94.
6028:
6024:
6014:
5977:
5971:
5961:
5949:. Retrieved
5945:ScienceAlert
5943:
5933:
5921:. Retrieved
5917:the original
5910:
5900:
5888:. Retrieved
5882:
5872:
5821:
5817:Astrobiology
5815:
5805:
5780:
5776:
5770:
5759:the original
5754:
5741:
5730:. Retrieved
5726:
5717:
5706:. Retrieved
5704:. 2023-10-02
5701:
5692:
5681:. Retrieved
5677:
5668:
5643:
5639:
5633:
5600:
5596:
5590:
5555:
5551:
5541:
5506:
5502:
5492:
5451:
5447:
5441:
5400:
5396:
5390:
5373:
5369:
5363:
5354:
5341:
5308:
5304:
5298:
5273:
5269:
5263:
5222:
5218:
5212:
5187:
5183:
5177:
5152:
5148:
5142:
5107:
5103:
5093:
5060:
5056:
5050:
5015:
5011:
5001:
4966:
4962:
4952:
4917:
4913:
4903:
4868:
4865:EMBO Reports
4864:
4854:
4819:
4815:
4805:
4762:
4758:
4748:
4715:
4711:
4705:
4670:
4666:
4656:
4611:
4607:
4597:
4554:
4550:
4540:
4505:
4501:
4491:
4466:
4462:
4456:
4431:
4427:
4421:
4413:
4409:
4404:
4396:
4391:
4359:(1): 46–58.
4356:
4352:
4342:
4315:
4311:
4301:
4266:
4262:
4200:
4196:
4186:
4145:
4141:
4131:
4120:
4115:
4090:
4086:
4042:
4038:
3986:
3982:
3976:
3941:
3937:
3927:
3892:
3888:
3882:
3874:
3847:
3844:Microbiology
3843:
3833:
3792:
3788:
3782:
3737:
3733:
3723:
3682:
3678:
3665:
3632:
3628:
3618:
3577:
3573:
3567:
3540:
3536:
3526:
3498:
3456:(4): 60–67.
3453:
3449:
3443:
3432:the original
3401:
3397:
3384:
3349:
3346:EMBO Reports
3345:
3335:
3308:
3304:
3294:
3267:
3215:
3211:
3205:
3178:
3174:
3164:
3131:
3127:
3121:
3094:
3090:
3080:
3037:
3033:
3023:
2972:
2968:
2958:
2913:
2909:
2899:
2872:
2868:
2858:
2823:
2819:
2809:
2774:
2770:
2760:
2733:
2727:
2692:
2688:
2678:
2651:
2647:
2637:
2602:
2598:
2588:
2556:
2549:
2532:
2525:
2498:
2494:
2484:
2454:(2): 65–82.
2451:
2447:
2441:
2416:
2413:Biochemistry
2412:
2406:
2379:
2373:
2348:
2344:
2302:
2298:
2256:
2252:
2246:
2221:
2217:
2211:
2185:Biochemistry
2184:
2153:
2146:
2135:. Retrieved
2128:the original
2111:
2082:
2062:
2058:
2052:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1869:, including
1860:
1840:
1784:
1774:
1763:
1744:Philip Sharp
1740:RNA splicing
1733:
1725:Walter Fiers
1721:Howard Temin
1705:retroviruses
1702:
1683:
1667:Severo Ochoa
1651:Nobel Prizes
1648:
1618:
1615:Circular RNA
1609:Circular RNA
1597:response in
1569:
1540:contains an
1527:
1507:
1498:cajal bodies
1466:spliceosomes
1451:
1433:
1431:
1419:Riboswitches
1402:
1386:
1383:Enhancer RNA
1367:pluripotency
1336:
1302:
1228:
1209:
1199:
1171:Transfer RNA
1169:
1127:
1090:transfer RNA
1055:
1038:peptide bond
1018:transfer RNA
1007:
988:
968:List of RNAs
962:Types of RNA
945:
925:poly(A) tail
915:
895:
879:
840:
813:
801:
797:genetic code
781:hypoxanthine
766:
744:ribose sugar
737:
681:
647:
641:, and other
624:
618:unmethylated
576:
570:
549:
504:
498:
497:
480:
479:
476:transfer RNA
461:
427:
426:
386:
382:
381:
303:Quantitative
273:Cytogenetics
268:Conservation
150:Introduction
25:
7960:P1-derived
7728:Antisense
7621:Nucleotides
7616:Nucleosides
7611:Nucleobases
7120:Translation
6957:to genetics
6786:Epigenetics
6251:: 131–146.
4410:Sci. Signal
3635:(1): 7–21.
2448:Biopolymers
2028:RNA origami
2008:RNA Society
1952:during the
1883:outer space
1867:nucleobases
1856:early Earth
1795:Craig Mello
1791:Andrew Fire
1781:development
1756:Thomas Cech
1625:spliceosome
1599:vertebrates
1510:RNA viruses
1504:RNA genomes
1427:metabolites
1307:, in which
1185:region for
1179:polypeptide
1175:nucleotides
1104:(snoRNAs),
1020:(tRNA) and
995:translation
952:RNA viruses
941:spliceosome
882:biopolymers
712:pyrimidines
572:deoxyribose
523:RNA viruses
486:amino acids
419:nucleotides
401:). RNA and
34:nucleobases
8010:Categories
7912:Morpholino
7825:Organellar
7733:Processual
7698:Regulatory
7642:non-coding
7492:Riboswitch
7436:CRISPR RNA
7264:reversible
7227:lac operon
7203:imprinting
7198:Epigenetic
7190:Regulation
7145:Eukaryotic
7091:5' capping
7042:Eukaryotic
6791:Geneticist
6765:South Asia
6711:Population
6691:Ecological
6660:Amino acid
6640:Nucleotide
6615:Chromosome
5987:2206.01053
5980:: 876870.
5732:2023-10-03
5708:2023-10-03
5683:2023-10-03
4312:Cell Cycle
2137:2015-08-26
2045:References
1911:red giants
1899:Pyrimidine
1895:meteorites
1887:pyrimidine
1843:Carl Woese
1815:Ada Yonath
1786:C. elegans
1595:interferon
1591:eukaryotes
1538:telomerase
1381:See also:
1341:and other
1331:See also:
1297:See also:
1239:activators
1235:repressors
1157:translated
1145:eukaryotic
1114:Halococcus
1062:small RNAs
999:amino acid
966:See also:
845:of RNA is
843:enantiomer
787:is called
785:nucleoside
684:nucleotide
608:in DNA is
599:hydrolysis
405:(DNA) are
298:Population
278:Ecological
203:Geneticist
117:Amino acid
97:Nucleotide
74:Chromosome
7872:Analogues
7857:Hachimoji
7640:(coding,
7595:Types of
7549:Vault RNA
7523:RNA virus
7506:Parasites
7405:RNase MRP
7395:Guide RNA
7333:Types of
7135:Bacterial
7032:Bacterial
6706:Molecular
6701:Microbial
6676:Classical
6481:0168-3659
6467:: 22–28.
6424:1934-5909
6376:0006-291X
6322:1932-6203
6265:0142-9612
6229:201806158
6213:0730-2312
6157:0027-8424
6099:1552-4450
6047:0092-8674
5864:248917871
5190:: 77–96.
3518:185406288
3406:CiteSeerX
3398:BioEssays
3286:174924833
3175:Structure
2752:183036381
2495:Structure
2203:179705944
1988:RNA virus
1848:RNA world
1841:In 1968,
1777:microRNAs
1752:ribozymes
1734:In 1977,
1494:nucleolus
1415:antisense
1406:RNA World
1393:enhancers
1364:stem cell
1355:silencing
1321:nucleases
1317:base-pair
1313:antisense
1287:microRNAs
1260:chromatin
1205:nucleolus
1183:anticodon
1153:cytoplasm
1133:ribosomes
1100:(siRNA),
1096:(miRNA),
1058:small RNA
1052:In length
1046:ribozymes
892:Synthesis
725:tetraloop
716:phosphate
660:Structure
650:catalysis
515:RNA world
472:ribosomes
391:polymeric
293:Molecular
288:Microbial
263:Classical
164:molecular
160:Evolution
7995:Category
7930:Phagemid
7781:Ribozyme
7446:MicroRNA
7247:microRNA
7161:Ribosome
7140:Archaeal
7096:Splicing
7068:Promoter
7037:Archaeal
6981: →
6977: →
6905:Category
6831:Heredity
6801:Genomics
6645:Mutation
6635:Heredity
6599:Glossary
6589:Timeline
6563:Genetics
6499:26415855
6442:20888316
6384:26449459
6340:21209933
6292:PLOS ONE
6273:26923361
6221:31478252
6175:27702906
6107:26030728
6063:14852160
6055:24679528
5884:Phys.org
5856:35588195
5797:10354582
5660:17045686
5625:83506718
5617:11679654
5582:17766396
5533:12354959
5433:40989800
5425:14263761
5290:15680349
5255:19968869
5204:22432611
5169:15062646
5134:16641297
5085:20963666
5077:15372214
5042:17090584
4993:18073191
4944:15082561
4914:Genetics
4895:16741503
4846:10418885
4740:20326977
4732:12694609
4697:17099227
4589:18703739
4532:22216574
4524:10760181
4483:15919195
4448:16226486
4383:20887892
4334:19597344
4293:22663078
4269:: 1–25.
4235:18974356
4107:15913835
4069:24776770
4011:19804795
4003:13718526
3968:14681369
3919:32865340
3866:10627054
3774:23418607
3734:PLOS ONE
3715:21738301
3707:26721680
3657:12295847
3649:24296535
3610:35295924
3602:12016301
3559:15271347
3478:15487671
3428:14505360
3376:11713189
3327:11504843
3248:42526536
3240:12016304
3156:23191624
3148:12167155
3113:25236655
3072:18424500
3015:17574854
3007:17358380
2950:15123812
2891:12620230
2850:34756086
2801:11447102
2719:21071406
2629:11312362
2580:33838261
2517:10745015
2476:35949700
2468:26443416
2398:52403776
2365:15561141
2327:10937990
2281:37230785
2273:11191843
2238:10550208
2079:17897696
1960:See also
1907:universe
1875:cytosine
1865:and RNA
1462:pre-mRNA
1359:Polycomb
1243:enhancer
1219:plastids
1215:bacteria
1094:microRNA
1092:(tRNA),
1084:(rRNA),
1042:ribosome
1034:ligating
1030:catalyse
991:ribosome
973:Overview
933:pre-mRNA
921:modified
910:helicase
906:promoter
740:hydroxyl
702:(G), or
696:cytosine
583:hydroxyl
527:ribozyme
492:, where
490:ribosome
449:cytosine
343:Category
228:template
219:Genomics
197:Research
102:Mutation
92:Heredity
49:Genetics
7935:Plasmid
7400:RNase P
7000:RNA→DNA
6995:RNA→RNA
6983:Protein
6584:History
6579:Outline
6490:4631704
6433:3656821
6331:3012685
6300:Bibcode
6166:5098639
6135:Bibcode
5992:Bibcode
5923:5 March
5847:9233534
5826:Bibcode
5702:Reuters
5597:Science
5573:2151715
5484:4289674
5476:1264203
5456:Bibcode
5405:Bibcode
5397:Science
5333:4140563
5313:Bibcode
5227:Bibcode
5125:1472073
5033:1669714
4984:2238860
4935:1470764
4886:1479586
4838:8674114
4797:4334683
4789:8878486
4767:Bibcode
4688:1669756
4648:8341661
4616:Bibcode
4580:5898235
4559:Bibcode
4551:Science
4374:4108080
4284:3858397
4226:2748911
4205:Bibcode
4197:Science
4178:4355692
4170:9486653
4150:Bibcode
4060:4314111
3910:7530397
3825:4341755
3817:6169998
3797:Bibcode
3765:3572043
3742:Bibcode
3687:Bibcode
3679:Science
3582:Bibcode
3574:Science
3458:Bibcode
3367:1084129
3220:Bibcode
3212:Science
3197:9309225
3063:2440479
3042:Bibcode
2987:Bibcode
2918:Bibcode
2841:8579967
2710:3013656
2670:6365911
2433:7682844
2307:Bibcode
2299:Science
2105:. 2015.
2023:Aptamer
1925:of the
1901:, like
1879:thymine
1765:Petunia
1736:introns
1663:nucleus
1621:circRNA
1575:viruses
1518:Viroids
1514:genomes
1460:out of
1458:spliced
1454:Introns
1434:in situ
1149:introns
1118:Archaea
1110:5S rRNA
1086:5S rRNA
1014:introns
1003:protein
937:introns
795:of the
789:inosine
708:purines
700:guanine
692:adenine
610:thymine
606:adenine
511:enzymes
488:to the
453:viruses
445:adenine
437:guanine
389:) is a
155:History
127:Outline
7950:Fosmid
7945:Cosmid
7895:Hexose
7817:acids
7769:Others
7528:Viroid
6750:Europe
6735:Africa
6669:Fields
6655:Allele
6630:Genome
6497:
6487:
6479:
6440:
6430:
6422:
6382:
6374:
6338:
6328:
6320:
6271:
6263:
6227:
6219:
6211:
6173:
6163:
6155:
6105:
6097:
6061:
6053:
6045:
5951:9 July
5890:3 June
5862:
5854:
5844:
5795:
5658:
5623:
5615:
5580:
5570:
5531:
5524:159885
5521:
5482:
5474:
5448:Nature
5431:
5423:
5331:
5305:Nature
5288:
5253:
5247:460409
5245:
5219:Nature
5202:
5167:
5132:
5122:
5083:
5075:
5040:
5030:
4991:
4981:
4942:
4932:
4893:
4883:
4844:
4836:
4795:
4787:
4759:Nature
4738:
4730:
4695:
4685:
4646:
4636:
4587:
4577:
4530:
4522:
4481:
4446:
4381:
4371:
4332:
4291:
4281:
4233:
4223:
4176:
4168:
4142:Nature
4105:
4067:
4057:
4009:
4001:
3966:
3959:308836
3956:
3917:
3907:
3864:
3823:
3815:
3789:Nature
3772:
3762:
3713:
3705:
3655:
3647:
3608:
3600:
3557:
3516:
3506:
3476:
3426:
3408:
3374:
3364:
3325:
3284:
3274:
3246:
3238:
3195:
3154:
3146:
3111:
3070:
3060:
3013:
3005:
2948:
2941:409911
2938:
2889:
2848:
2838:
2799:
2792:125535
2789:
2750:
2740:
2717:
2707:
2668:
2627:
2620:114245
2617:
2578:
2568:
2515:
2474:
2466:
2431:
2396:
2386:
2363:
2325:
2279:
2271:
2236:
2201:
2191:
2161:
2077:
1913:or in
1871:uracil
1813:, and
1309:miRNAs
1279:CRISPR
1265:, and
929:5' cap
927:and a
704:uracil
688:ribose
639:snRNAs
614:uracil
591:labile
578:ribose
457:genome
447:, and
441:uracil
341:
255:Fields
112:Allele
87:Genome
7975:Human
7753:Y RNA
7537:Other
7410:Y RNA
7128:Types
7025:Types
6875:Lists
6755:Italy
6594:Index
6225:S2CID
6059:S2CID
5982:arXiv
5860:S2CID
5762:(PDF)
5751:(PDF)
5621:S2CID
5480:S2CID
5429:S2CID
5351:(PDF)
5329:S2CID
5251:S2CID
5081:S2CID
4842:S2CID
4793:S2CID
4736:S2CID
4639:46959
4528:S2CID
4174:S2CID
4007:S2CID
3821:S2CID
3711:S2CID
3675:(PDF)
3653:S2CID
3606:S2CID
3435:(PDF)
3394:(PDF)
3244:S2CID
3152:S2CID
3011:S2CID
2977:arXiv
2472:S2CID
2277:S2CID
2131:(PDF)
2120:(PDF)
1889:, an
1803:siRNA
1583:siRNA
1512:have
1187:codon
1141:codon
1137:coded
875:RNase
760:of a
698:(C),
694:(A),
682:Each
676:siRNA
132:Index
6495:PMID
6477:ISSN
6438:PMID
6420:ISSN
6380:PMID
6372:ISSN
6336:PMID
6318:ISSN
6269:PMID
6261:ISSN
6217:PMID
6209:ISSN
6171:PMID
6153:ISSN
6103:PMID
6095:ISSN
6051:PMID
6043:ISSN
6025:Cell
5953:2022
5925:2015
5912:NASA
5892:2022
5852:PMID
5793:PMID
5656:PMID
5613:PMID
5578:PMID
5529:PMID
5472:PMID
5421:PMID
5286:PMID
5243:PMID
5200:PMID
5165:PMID
5130:PMID
5073:PMID
5038:PMID
4989:PMID
4940:PMID
4891:PMID
4834:PMID
4816:Cell
4785:PMID
4728:PMID
4693:PMID
4644:PMID
4585:PMID
4520:PMID
4479:PMID
4444:PMID
4379:PMID
4353:Cell
4330:PMID
4289:PMID
4231:PMID
4166:PMID
4103:PMID
4065:PMID
3999:PMID
3964:PMID
3915:PMID
3862:PMID
3813:PMID
3770:PMID
3703:PMID
3645:PMID
3598:PMID
3555:PMID
3514:OCLC
3504:ISBN
3474:PMID
3424:PMID
3372:PMID
3323:PMID
3282:OCLC
3272:ISBN
3236:PMID
3193:PMID
3144:PMID
3109:PMID
3068:PMID
3003:PMID
2946:PMID
2887:PMID
2846:PMID
2797:PMID
2748:OCLC
2738:ISBN
2715:PMID
2666:PMID
2625:PMID
2576:OCLC
2566:ISBN
2513:PMID
2464:PMID
2429:PMID
2394:OCLC
2384:ISBN
2361:PMID
2323:PMID
2269:PMID
2234:PMID
2199:OCLC
2189:ISBN
2159:ISBN
2075:PMID
1877:and
1825:and
1793:and
1758:and
1746:and
1738:and
1719:and
1707:and
1696:and
1496:and
1484:and
1456:are
1369:and
1339:Xist
1277:and
1248:RNAi
1237:and
1217:and
1161:tRNA
1078:mRNA
935:and
804:tRNA
777:tRNA
714:. A
635:rRNA
631:tRNA
627:mRNA
564:tRNA
499:rRNA
481:tRNA
428:mRNA
415:life
8016:RNA
7335:RNA
6979:RNA
6975:DNA
6625:RNA
6620:DNA
6485:PMC
6469:doi
6465:218
6428:PMC
6412:doi
6364:doi
6360:473
6326:PMC
6308:doi
6253:doi
6201:doi
6197:121
6161:PMC
6143:doi
6131:113
6087:doi
6033:doi
6029:157
6000:doi
5842:PMC
5834:doi
5785:doi
5648:doi
5605:doi
5601:294
5568:PMC
5560:doi
5556:145
5519:PMC
5511:doi
5464:doi
5452:260
5413:doi
5401:147
5378:doi
5321:doi
5309:143
5278:doi
5274:278
5235:doi
5223:280
5192:doi
5157:doi
5120:PMC
5112:doi
5065:doi
5028:PMC
5020:doi
4979:PMC
4971:doi
4930:PMC
4922:doi
4918:166
4881:PMC
4873:doi
4824:doi
4775:doi
4763:383
4720:doi
4683:PMC
4675:doi
4634:PMC
4624:doi
4575:PMC
4567:doi
4555:321
4510:doi
4471:doi
4436:doi
4369:PMC
4361:doi
4357:143
4320:doi
4279:PMC
4271:doi
4221:PMC
4213:doi
4201:322
4158:doi
4146:391
4095:doi
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