648:, and thereby influencing the demand side of the market. In explaining the "enormous impact" that he saw after the 1989 event, Leakey said that "up to that time we'd been losing about three and a half thousand to four thousand elephants a year, and a year later we were losing at most sixty." Consumer research in China, the world's largest consumer of ivory, showed that many potential buyers have little understanding of the connection between the ivory trade and steep declines in elephant populations. High-profile government events bring the problem to large numbers of people and affirm a government stance for anyone who had been unclear. The events also aim to signal decreasing acceptance and popularity of ivory goods, making them less desirable by lowering their status and shaming individuals, organizations, and institutions who buy, sell, or own the goods. In China, prices fell by nearly half between 2015 and 2016, following the government announcement that it would begin phasing out its domestic ivory trade. According to Hongxiang Huang in a report by
558:. She asked Hollywood special effects professional Robin Hollister what he would recommend, and introduced him to Leakey. Hollister understood Leakey's intention to create a spectacle, and the importance of producing an immediate dramatic flare-up. He suggested a combination of flammable glue to coat the tusks, and a hidden system of pipes to spray them with fuel. His plans were adopted, and when the Kenyan President held a torch to the waiting pile, "Flames flared up in a scalding blaze. The ivory blackened and started burning, crackling. Deafening applause burst out from the crowd, while television crews from all over the world showed to every corner of the Earth this new sacrifice of Africa."
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22:
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offer an alternative theory: that the increase in price and demand "likely originated" with CITES's experimental allowance of a legal sale of a large amount of ivory in 2008. More recently, however, Save the
Elephants reported the cost of ivory in China has fallen by nearly half, following an announcement by the Chinese government that it would phase out its domestic trade. In Japan, the demand for ivory has decreased since 2012 as a result of new consumer awareness through education about the connection between buying ivory and the killing of elephants.
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years remained, with at least six tons "lost" or stolen during the 2000s alone. Stockpiles of ivory have often been connected to theft and corruption, with multiple countries, including Zambia, Mozambique, Botswana, and the
Philippines, suffering "losses" of several tons. Keeping illicit goods on hand can also signal government plans or active involvement with the ivory trade. Destroying it removes the possibility of corruption as well as the costs associated with operating a secure place of storage.
131:(the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) introduced a control system based on permits, registration, stockpiles, and monitoring. Shortly thereafter, the CITES Secretariat weakened regulations, effectively legalizing stockpiles of poached ivory. For example, countries such as Burundi and Singapore, which were not home to wild elephants, registered 89.5 stone (0.568 t) and 297 stone (1.89 t) of trafficked ivory, respectively. As uncovered by the
706:, which should drive up black market prices and lead to an increase in poaching, rather than a decrease. Karl Mathiesen disputes this claim from a basic economics perspective, pointing out that it is the seizure of the ivory, not destroying it, which takes it off the market and affects its scarcity, so the price should not be significantly affected based on whether that seized ivory is kept stockpiled in a warehouse or destroyed. Although destroying seized ivory should not affect a perfectly
183:
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279:, attracting international attention from the press while the fire burned for three days. It also proved influential among conservationists, encouraging others to dispose of their stockpiles in a similar manner and leading, in part, to the international ban on the ivory trade passed at CITES. Paul Udoto of the Kenya Wildlife Service called it a "desperate measure meant to send a message to the world about the destruction through poaching of Kenya's elephants."
601:
We're going to create by combining kerosene and diesel and compressed air, pushing it at very high pressure, about 16 bar, down a pipe." The question of the effectiveness of the destruction – even the possibility that some of the partially combusted ivory may find its way back to the black market – is a touchy subject. "It's heresy to consider any other form of destruction, leave alone finding any other way to use the ivory or utilise wildlife resources."
755:
to it a significant, long-term increase in poaching due to factors like a reduction of the social stigma of ivory and providing a mechanism to obscure smuggling activities. Christopher Alden, who supported but did not take part in this analysis, specifically criticized requests from countries like
Zimbabwe and Namibia to allow limited sales, due to the likelihood of them having a similar counterproductive outcome.
455:, explained that, moving forward, "any future forfeiture of ivory will be similarly disposed of on a regular basis". Although the sale of ivory has not been banned entirely in Hong Kong, the commitment and actions it has taken are significant not just for being the largest stockpile destroyed to-date, but also because it has been the world's largest ivory market.
143:
based on each country's declared confidence in their effective regulation and control. From 1998 to 2011, other countries were granted exceptions and illegal trafficking at least tripled. The majority of ivory in the 21st century has gone to growing Asian markets, including and especially China, where the material has been viewed as a
483:: In Ethiopia, where the size of the elephant population has decreased by 90% since the 1980s, officials issued a National Ivory Action Plan to address poaching and ivory trafficking. Among other strategies, the Plan includes the publicized destruction of seized ivory. The first such event took place in March 2015, in
754:
Economic research published in 2016 analyzed the efficacy of a one-time legal sale of ivory stockpiles to China and Japan, allowed by CITES in 2008. The idea was to try to flood the market, sinking prices and profitability, but the result was "catastrophic" according to one researcher, who attributes
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publicly boycotted the 2016 Kenyan burn. Botswanan officials believe that burning tusks communicates that the animal does not have value. Instead, confiscated goods like ivory and rhinoceros horns are displayed to symbolize the value of wildlife conservation. An example of this was the 2015 unveiling
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When Hong Kong announced the destruction of its stockpile, it noted "the management burden and the security risk" inherent in the possession of large quantities of valuable material. For example, when the
Philippines decided to burn its stockpile, only a fraction of what it had confiscated over the
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that found that the price of ivory tripled in China during four years following 2011. It correlated that trend to an increase in poaching as well as an increase in the frequency of high-profile events in which stockpiles were destroyed. Research published by the
National Bureau of Economic Research
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has been destroyed in high-profile events in 21 countries around the world. Much of this is due to the help of the
Elephant Protection Initiative (EPI), which aids countries in burning their ivory stockpiles. The EPI was launched by the governments of Botswana, Chad, Ethiopia, Gabon and Tanzania in
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Ultimately, Mathiesen describes the debate as "characterized by a lack of data", while Tom
Milliken concluded in 2014 that the strategy needs to be closely monitored for effectiveness and that more data needs to be collected because as of 2014 there was not sufficient "proof that destroying supply
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Hollister, the original "burn architect" who invented the technique in 1989, was asked to lead the 2016 burn, which was many times bigger than the first. He acknowledged that ivory does not really burn: "we have to raise the temperature in the fires to such a degree that it actually disintegrates.
115:
Hunting for ivory is responsible for significant reductions in elephant populations in several parts of Africa. Between 1979 and 1989, the
African elephant population decreased from 1.3 million to 600,000. Ivory became a billion-dollar market, with about 80% of the supply taken from illegally
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The ban proved effective for about a decade, and saw rising elephant populations, but starting in 1997 CITES began granting exceptions to the ban to allow countries such as
Zimbabwe, Botswana, and Namibia to sell a limited amount of ivory, as well as an exception to Japan to buy a limited amount,
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Advocates also believe that destroying ivory can influence the supply side of the ivory market by sending a strong, highly visible and well-publicized message that the ivory market is dangerous and futile. Similarly, those who would otherwise consider ivory as an investment opportunity may think
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Confiscated ivory could also be sold to pay for conservation efforts. Zimbabwe, for example, which has long opposed the ban on the ivory trade, publicly refuses to destroy its 70-ton stockpile. As of 2016 the country is home to 83,000 elephants, but with its current economic situation it cannot
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the outside; it requires extreme conditions over a long period of time to destroy ivory effectively. Using specialized equipment to burn a tusk at 1,800 °F (1,000 °C), its weight decreases by only 0.25 ounces (7 g) each minute (an average
African elephant tusk is about 50 lb
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value of the destroyed contraband range from $ 150 million to $ 220 million. The ivory was transported to the site in shipping containers then stacked into towers up to 10 ft (3.0 m) tall and 20 ft (6.1 m) in diameter. The ivory towers took personnel from the Kenya
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A related concern expressed by Stiles is that perceived scarcity may lead countries still active in the ivory trade to create stockpiles of their own, owing to "the senseless system now in operation" in countries like the United States, Thailand, and China, whereby international ivory trade is
617:. When the United States held a similar event a few months later, they opted to use a large rock crusher; a short time later, France employed a pulverizer to turn its illegal ivory into a powder onto which was then poured a composite material to ensure that none of the ivory could be used.
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that when an ivory dealer wants to obtain ivory, the most sensible way to do so is not to go hunting, which carries many risks, but to "raid a stockpile by bribing the guy who has the key". She gives examples of tusks being lost from vaults and even courtroom exhibits due to corruption.
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Instead of destroying confiscated ivory, a government could choose to sell it, and put the funds to use in one of several ways. Several of the countries involved in the ivory trade, especially those on the supply side in Africa, are also some of the nations which struggle the most with
403:
to pulverize six tons of amassed ivory. Although the US does not ban the domestic sale of ivory, it is illegal to bring ivory into the country. Its interest in destroying its ivory was also connected to research that found links between the ivory trade and threats to
53:
have been destroyed, typically by burning or crushing, in these high-profile events in 21 countries around the world. Kenya held the first event in 1989, as well as the largest event in 2016, when a total of 105 tonnes (231,000 lb) of ivory were incinerated.
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have been involved in multiple forms of anti-poaching measures, largely in Africa, and American diplomats are actively engaging other governments to take part in eroding the ivory market by destroying stockpiles. Another ivory crush took place in New York City's
588:
When only the outside is affected, the inner ivory is still commercially viable. As there are not yet verified techniques for identifying ivory that was previously burned, some have expressed concerns regarding the possible use of some of the burned stockpiles.
257:, set it on fire. Ivory does not easily burn, but the choice to use fire rather than other means to destroy it was intentional as Leakey wanted the event to produce powerful images for the global media. To make the destruction spectacular, Leakey worked with a
747:. Destroying ivory in those countries is thus often a controversial decision for internal stakeholders as well as external commentators, as the funds gained by selling the material could be used to improve the quality of life for human citizens.
451:: In May 2014, Hong Kong began a systematic destruction of its 28-ton stockpile, which was scheduled to take place over the course of two years. In its announcement of the destruction, Hong Kong's Endangered Species Advisory Committee chairman,
147:
sometimes known as "white gold". In 2015, Chinese officials expressed their intent to phase out the country's involvement with the ivory trade. Prices fell by nearly half in the year prior to a 2016 report, and at the end of that year China's
61:
that endorse the strategy argue that it fosters public support for the protection of elephants and that it sends a message to poachers their work is futile. Critics contend that the technique may increase poaching by creating a perception of
252:
When Leakey took the position, the organization had 12 tons of confiscated illegal ivory in its possession, which he was urged to sell in order to fund conservation efforts. Instead, he piled all of it together and, with Kenyan President
112:, England alone imported 180 stone (1.1 t) just for cutlery handles. In the 1970s, Japan became the largest consumer of ivory, accounting for about 40% of all trade worldwide, with Hong Kong acting as the largest trade hub.
1886:
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431:: China is the world's largest consumer of ivory, accounting for 70% of global demand as of 2014. Many of the countries that have destroyed their ivory accumulated the stockpiles because of their location on the
644:, who was responsible for the first major ivory destruction in Kenya in 1989, argues that these acts are primarily about sending a message to foster a public that sees the value in wildlife itself, not its
751:
afford continuing conservation efforts. According to Environment Minister Oppah Muchinguri-Kashiri, "To us, burning is not an option, we need the resources for sustainable wildlife conservation."
609:
Crushing can also be challenging. In 2013, the Philippines resolved to crush their five-ton stockpile, in part due to environmental objections to a large open fire. They first attempted to use a
511:: In January 2016, Sri Lanka became the first South Asian country to destroy its ivory (1.5 tons confiscated in 2012) and also the first to issue a formal apology for its role in the ivory trade.
536:
Destroying ivory by any practical means is difficult. Burning is the most common method of large-scale destruction of ivory. When Kenya burned 12 tons of it in 1989, it created a major media
363:: The Philippines, a country which the CITES Standing Committee noted as one of the major consumers of ivory in 2012, became the first such nation to destroy its holdings in June 2013. The
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585:(23 kg) and can weigh as much as 130 lb (59 kg). For each of Kenya's burns, organizers used jet oil to increase the temperature and it still persists for about a week.
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between Africa and China. Given its prominent role in the market, China's decision to crush 6.1 tons of ivory in January 2014 was a major cause for celebration among conservationists.
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When Kenyan officials decided to destroy their stockpile in 1989, they had to find a way to do so that would create powerful images. Leakey turned to fellow conservationist
139:, representatives from Tanzania proposed an effective ban on the international ivory trade. After heated debates, the ban was enacted, and went into effect in January 1990.
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441:: France was the first European country to destroy its three tons of seized illegal ivory in February 2014, with tusks fed one-by-one along with other ivory goods into a
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Wildlife Service ten days to build. The pyre also contained exotic animal skins. The amount of ivory destroyed equaled about 5% of the global stock. Gabonese President
135:, the "control system" turned out to be easy to manipulate, ultimately increasing the value of ivory and empowering smugglers. At the October 1989 CITES convention in
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on the tusks and then on smaller, sawn-off pieces. When that did not work, the pieces were repeatedly smashed with a backhoe bucket. What was left was taken to a
659:
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863:
654:, the decline was not likely due to conservation reasons, but because "ne thing that proud Chinese people don't want to be, these days, is behind the times."
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as "an elephant graveyard – piles of bleached white elephant bones – instead of an elephant habitat". Kenyan officials knew the value of the elephant to
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In Botswana, which is home to almost half of the elephants in Africa, officials are opposed to destroying ivory stockpiles as of 2016, and President
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and inspired similar actions around the world. More recently, crushing methods have also been used, as well as combinations of crushing and burning.
984:... Chris Huxley, from the Secretariat staff "registered" some 270 tonnes of poached ivory... 26 tonnes of ivory were flown from Burundi to Dubai...
763:
Although the destruction of ivory is centered upon conservation, there are other considerations which affect institutions' decisions on the matter.
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1110:
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367:, the division coordinating the destruction, had planned to hold a "ceremonial burning", but environmental objections to the idea of legitimated
364:
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called the destruction of ivory "indispensable in the fight against trafficking of threatened species" and said that it sends "a firm message".
517:: In March 2016, the Italian government partnered with the Elephant Action League to burn a tonne of ivory, worth an estimated £3.6 million GBP.
943:
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In the United States, research linking the ivory trade to terrorism and organized crime has tied the destruction of ivory stockpiles to
347:: The first countries to follow Kenya's lead were the United Arab Emirates and Zambia in 1992, destroying 12 and 9.5 tons, respectively.
2044:
1866:
2066:
1000:
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Kenya has held two more ivory burns since 1989. The second was just two years later in 1991, destroying 6.8 tons. Kenyan President
108:, well over 1,000 stone (6.4 t) of ivory were exported to Europe yearly. In the last quarter of the 19th century, the city of
220:
1942:
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considered illegal but domestic trade is permitted, ensuring at least some continued demand and, in Stiles's view, "guaranteeing
674:
573:
413:
1924:
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Several journalists and conservationists have challenged the logic of the strategy, arguing that destroying the ivory makes it
576:(FWS) in 2008, found burning to be an inefficient and highly challenging way to destroy ivory when compared to crushing. Like
1989:
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774:, maintaining stockpiles does too much to enable illegal trade to justify keeping it rather than destroying it. She told
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132:
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market, Daniel Stiles suggests that what these events effectively communicate to poachers and illegal traders is the
2529:"Does Legalization Reduce Black Market Activity? Evidence from a Global Ivory Experiment and Elephant Poaching Data"
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310:. The pile consisted of 105 tonnes of elephant ivory from about 8,000 elephants and 1.35 tonnes of horns from 343
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2094:. Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China. Archived from
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November 2016, Vietnam destroyed nearly 2.2 tons of seized elephant ivory and 70 kg of rhinoceros horns.
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117:
58:
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A pallet of seized raw ivory prior to being crushed by the US Fish & Wildlife Service in November 2013
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211:, was named head of Kenya's Wildlife Conservation and Management Department, the forerunner to today's
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of scarcity, if not actual scarcity, which he argues could also lead to an increase in poaching.
707:
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101:
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901:
650:
566:
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34:
2164:"United Arab Emirates crushes tons of contraband ivory in message against elephant poaching"
1562:
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630:
496:
340:
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8:
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1383:
938:
800:
554:
228:
93:
38:
21:
1616:
829:
Chaiklin, Martha (June 2010). "Ivory in World History – Early Modern Trade in Context".
294:
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805:
718:
246:
233:
104:. At its peak, at the end of the 19th century and early 20th century, with the rise of
216:
2088:"Speech by SEN at Destruction of Confiscated Ivory Launching Ceremony (English only)"
1762:
1640:
1628:
1285:
1134:
905:
844:
783:
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487:, where the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority's 6.1-ton stockpile was burned.
405:
387:
320:
200:
70:, and that evidence for the technique's effectiveness is insufficient to justify the
2536:
2171:
1754:
1620:
1603:
840:
638:
Destroying ivory is a tactic endorsed by several governments, activists, and NGOs.
581:
231:
had become widespread due to the increasing price of ivory. In a May 1989 article,
97:
92:
to date back more than 35,000 years. It has been exported to Europe since at least
71:
2278:
2391:
2309:
2071:
1720:
1495:
1322:
1273:
1115:
895:
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505:: 2.4 tons of ivory as well as 440 lbs of rhinoceros horn destroyed in 2015.
409:
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254:
105:
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771:
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held the country's third event in 2011, destroying another five tons of ivory.
261:
196:
1656:"Historic ivory burn covers the sky in smoke and ash at Nairobi National Park"
1350:
1053:"Ivory stockpile to be publicly destroyed as Obama seeks to end illegal trade"
2625:
1190:
1155:"'Kenya's wildlife – Predictions for the next decade' with Dr Richard Leakey"
634:
Journalists and other on-lookers at the 2013 ivory crush in the United States
549:
452:
396:
354:
298:
Kenyan President Uhuru Kenyatta watching 105 tons of ivory burn in April 2016
208:
152:
declared its intent to halt ivory-related commerce by the end of March 2017.
144:
2505:"Legal ivory sale drove dramatic increase in elephant poaching, study shows"
1186:"Africa's Elephant Explosion: The "ivory trail" is getting easier to follow"
2561:
2509:
2450:
2424:
2337:
2122:
1994:
1968:
1947:
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of an elephant statue, made entirely of ivory tusks, at the country's main
422:
400:
315:
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67:
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led them to instead crush all five tons by first running over them with a
245:
tourism, and wanted to persuade CITES to include the animal on its global
610:
580:, elephant tusks are resistant to burning. Simple burning typically just
577:
484:
432:
380:
372:
360:
283:
224:
83:
46:
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182:
170:
1689:"Kenya burns largest ever ivory stockpile to highlight elephants' fate"
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442:
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109:
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The remains of ivory sent through a rock crusher in New York in 2015
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2333:"The burning questions on ivory destruction and jumbo conservation"
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An example several commentators point to is a 2014 study funded by
703:
678:
480:
269:
63:
2582:"Zimbabwe lobbies neighbours on ivory trade, will not burn stocks"
1943:"Illegal wildlife trade 'threatening national security', says WWF"
1496:"Kenya's ivory inferno: Does burning elephant tusks destroy them?"
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it had been confiscating since 1985, adding up to about 4.8 tons.
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set alight the largest ever pile of ivory for destruction in the
1531:"Up in smoke: Kenya to torch millions of dollars worth of ivory"
552:, who described their discussions and experiments in her memoir
2557:"Ivory price drop in China signals fall in demand, report says"
1001:"DENR to crush seized elephant tusks, drops ceremonial burning"
596:
A rock crusher during the 2013 ivory crush in the United States
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344:
242:
136:
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Ivory burning in Brazzaville, Republic of Congo, in April 2015
326:
2446:"US ivory crush sends the wrong message to elephant poachers"
1654:
Duggan, Briana; Kriel, Robyn; Cuevas, Mayra (30 April 2016).
1027:"Crush and Burn: A History of the Global Crackdown on Ivoary"
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428:
399:: In November 2013, the United States employed an industrial
350:
332:
128:
89:
50:
2305:"Kenya Is About to Stage the Largest Ivory Burn in History"
2187:"One Country Will Destroy Its Ivory—and Pray for Elephants"
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2058:
2056:
2054:
1596:"Elephant poaching: Track the impact of Kenya's ivory burn"
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killed elephants. As of 2014, according to a report by the
42:
1721:"Elephant summit: Kenya sets fire to huge ivory stockpile"
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2435:
2413:
2411:
2409:
2147:
2015:
1936:
1934:
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1535:
1379:"In Global First, Philippines to Destroy Its Ivory Stock"
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1120:
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twice if the market is so consistently disrupted. French
2051:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1817:"Massive Pile of Elephant Ivory Burned in Gabon—A First"
1046:
1044:
1042:
958:"A System of Extinction – the African Elephant Disaster"
620:
49:. As of 2016, more than 263 tonnes (580,000 lb) of
25:
A stack of elephant tusks burning in Kenya in April 2016
2360:"Elephant ivory sculpture unveiled at Botswana airport"
1915:"Opinion: U.S. Ivory Crush Should Be Just a First Step"
1908:
1906:
1880:
1878:
1876:
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Dickson, Barnabas (1 January 2000). Hutton, Jon (ed.).
1111:"Up In Flames: Kenya Burns More Than 100 Tons Of Ivory"
1020:
1018:
1016:
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2406:
2378:
2324:
2212:"Vietnam destroys mass rhino horns and elephant ivory"
2028:
2026:
1931:
1859:"Destroying Elephant Ivory Stockpiles: No Easy Matter"
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331:
As of 2016, more than 263 tonnes (580,000 lb) of
2607:"Zimbabwe Wants to Trade Elephant Ivory, Not Burn It"
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2203:
1976:
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2035:"Hong Kong 'Open-Minded' to Banning its Ivory Trade"
1955:
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2023:
1887:"Historic U.S. Ivory Crush a Call to Global Action"
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1808:
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1372:
1370:
1368:
1366:
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1215:
1213:
1135:"China announces ban on ivory trade by end of 2017"
2491:
2474:"America's ongoing debate over the trade in ivory"
1550:
1305:
918:
379:, and finally taking the bits that remained to an
120:, about 96 African elephants are killed for their
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2155:
2143:"Hong Kong to burn stockpile of contraband ivory"
2110:
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1323:"Ivory inferno: Does burning tusks destroy them?"
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2134:
1805:
1361:
1210:
934:"Hong Kong Announces World's Biggest Ivory Burn"
1791:"Ethiopia Burns Entire 6.1-Ton Ivory Stockpile"
1267:
1265:
365:Department of Environment and Natural Resources
1814:
1708:
1647:
1529:Duggan, Briana; Kriel, Robyn (29 April 2016).
1515:
1482:
1395:
1065:
931:
893:
858:
856:
854:
2296:
1077:Brown, Sophie; Wang, Susan (6 January 2014).
2011:"Hong Kong holds world's largest ivory burn"
2002:
1262:
1177:
160:
2527:Hsiang, Solomon; Sekar, Nitin (June 2016).
2526:
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1528:
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1344:
1342:
1340:
1338:
851:
327:More frequent events across four continents
2502:
2245:
1940:
1563:"Kenya Burns Largest Ever Ivory Stockpile"
1460:"Crush and Burn: Destroying Illegal Ivory"
1050:
994:
992:
824:
822:
820:
758:
375:, then pounding them with the bucket of a
88:Archaeological findings show human use of
2540:
2417:
2276:
2067:"Hong Kong to destroy 28 tonnes of ivory"
1076:
1025:Narula, Svati Kirsten (27 January 2014).
932:Dell'Amore, Christine (25 January 2014).
2579:
2471:
2270:
1987:
1941:Goldenberg, Suzanne (12 December 2012).
1751:Endangered Species Threatened Convention
1335:
1271:
1051:Goldenberg, Suzanne (11 November 2013).
889:
887:
885:
883:
828:
683:
629:
591:
560:
458:
386:
293:
20:
2522:
2520:
2420:"Does destroying ivory save elephants?"
2387:"Why Botswana won't burn illegal ivory"
2161:
2008:
1961:
1912:
1748:
1376:
998:
989:
817:
574:United States Fish and Wildlife Service
96:, but exporting accelerated during the
74:for countries struggling with poverty.
57:The conservationists, governments, and
33:is a technique used by governments and
16:Used to deter the poaching of elephants
2624:
2604:
2443:
2366:. Government of Botswana. 17 July 2015
2330:
2302:
2209:
1990:"France destroys illegal ivory stocks"
1815:Dell'Amore, Christine (29 June 2012).
1453:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1250:"Kenya, in gesture, burns ivory tusks"
1247:
1219:
1183:
1108:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1024:
999:Andrade, Jeannette I. (16 June 2013).
894:Thornton, Allan; Currey, Dave (1991).
493:: 4.7 tons of ivory destroyed in 2015.
477:: 1.5 tons of ivory destroyed in 2014.
471:: 1.1 tons destroyed of ivory in 2014.
353:: In 2012, Gabon burned the tusks and
2384:
2064:
1744:
1742:
1686:
1593:
1222:"Kenya to Seek Ban on Trade of Ivory"
1079:"China crushes tons of illegal ivory"
950:
880:
621:Justification, objections, and impact
499:: 11 tons of ivory destroyed in 2015.
264:professional to devise an innovative
155:
2517:
2184:
2140:
2079:
2032:
1856:
1788:
1493:
1320:
737:
66:that increases ivory's value on the
2580:Dzirutwe, MacDonald (1 June 2016).
2503:Carrington, Damian (13 June 2016).
2472:Schwartz, Michael (8 August 2014).
2444:Stiles, Daniel (13 November 2013).
2418:Mathiesen, Karl (6 February 2014).
2224:
1913:Christy, Bryan (12 November 2013).
1884:
1434:
1147:
1091:
302:On 30 April 2016, Kenyan President
13:
1739:
1321:Zane, Damian (23 September 2015).
965:Environmental Investigation Agency
770:For Paula Kahumbu, CEO of Kenya's
249:list at its October 1989 meeting.
133:Environmental Investigation Agency
14:
2668:
2385:Khama, Tshekedi (25 April 2016).
2210:Hudson, Dale (13 November 2016).
2118:"Hong Kong burns ivory stockpile"
1988:Willsher, Kim (6 February 2014).
1964:"China crushes six tons of ivory"
1457:
1109:Warner, Gregory (30 April 2016).
2331:Kiruga, Morris (30 April 2016).
2239:U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
2185:Neme, Laurel (25 January 2016).
2085:
2065:Doshi, Vidhi (23 January 2014).
2033:Neme, Laurel (28 October 2015).
2009:Khullar, Arshiya (16 May 2014).
1962:Vaughan, Adam (6 January 2014).
1687:Smith, Dominic (30 April 2016).
1349:Simon Adler (7 September 2015).
845:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2010.00680.x
181:
169:
2277:Scigliano, Eric (5 June 2005).
2162:Schreck, Adam (29 April 2015).
2141:Hunt, Katie (24 January 2014).
1377:Christy, Bryan (19 June 2013).
1357:. Event occurs at 40:52-43:27.
872:. November 2006. Archived from
726:leads to a decline in demand".
289:
1857:Neme, Laurel (2 August 2013).
1789:Neme, Laurel (20 March 2015).
1494:Zane, Damian (29 April 2016).
565:Ivory burning site in Kenya's
418:non-governmental organizations
227:remained legal. By the 1980s,
59:non-governmental organizations
1:
2605:Gaffey, Conor (1 June 2016).
2303:Bryant, Ben (29 April 2016).
2092:Government Information Centre
1248:Perlez, Jane (19 July 1989).
811:
531:
118:Wildlife Conservation Society
77:
2533:NBER Working Paper No. 22314
2168:U.S. News & World Report
1410:"Tanzania's Ivory Stockpile"
1220:Perlez, Jane (12 May 1989).
692:
625:
45:and to suppress the illegal
7:
789:
697:
604:
10:
2673:
2478:Africa Geographic Magazine
572:Research performed by the
543:
314:. Estimates for the total
81:
1006:Philippine Daily Inquirer
786:, not just conservation.
161:Kenya and the first fires
1863:Voices: Saving Elephants
1795:Voices: Saving Elephants
323:was also in attendance.
2257:Encyclopædia Britannica
1272:Gallmann, Kuki (2012).
759:Corruption and security
176:Daniel arap Moi in 1979
967:. 1989. Archived from
689:
635:
597:
569:
464:
408:through terrorism and
392:
299:
213:Kenya Wildlife Service
188:Richard Leakey in 1986
102:colonisation of Africa
26:
2642:Elephant conservation
2637:Conservation projects
1759:10.4324/9781315071503
1159:Royal African Society
687:
675:international airport
633:
595:
567:Nairobi National Park
564:
491:Republic of the Congo
462:
390:
308:Nairobi National Park
297:
39:poaching of elephants
24:
2567:Agence France-Presse
2128:Agence France-Presse
1927:on 12 November 2013.
1899:on 17 November 2013.
1594:Biggs, Duan (2016).
1284:. pp. 311–312.
497:United Arab Emirates
341:United Arab Emirates
275:It was a successful
272:and flammable glue.
31:destruction of ivory
2647:Environmental crime
2199:on 27 January 2016.
2192:National Geographic
2098:on 1 September 2019
2047:on 1 November 2015.
2040:National Geographic
1920:National Geographic
1892:National Geographic
1822:National Geographic
1617:2016Natur.534Q.179B
1415:National Geographic
1384:National Geographic
1278:I Dreamed of Africa
1184:Boddington, Craig.
1165:on 11 November 2019
1143:. 30 December 2016.
946:on 26 January 2014.
939:National Geographic
897:To Save An Elephant
801:Wildlife management
660:Minister of Ecology
555:I Dreamed of Africa
239:Tsavo National Park
207:from the prominent
201:paleoanthropologist
94:Classical antiquity
35:conservation groups
2657:Wildlife smuggling
2594:on 17 August 2016.
2569:. 8 December 2015.
2232:"U.S. Ivory Crush"
1470:on 14 January 2020
1351:"The Rhino Hunter"
1255:The New York Times
1227:The New York Times
876:on 13 August 2011.
806:Wildlife smuggling
734:of the elephant".
719:Save the Elephants
690:
636:
598:
570:
465:
393:
300:
247:endangered species
234:The New York Times
156:History and events
98:Age of Exploration
27:
2364:Africa Geographic
2283:Discover Magazine
911:978-0-385-40111-1
784:national security
738:Opportunity costs
406:national security
321:Ali Bongo Ondimba
229:elephant poaching
2664:
2617:
2616:
2602:
2596:
2595:
2590:. Archived from
2577:
2571:
2570:
2553:
2547:
2546:
2544:
2524:
2515:
2514:
2500:
2489:
2488:
2486:
2484:
2469:
2460:
2459:
2458:on 5 March 2016.
2454:. Archived from
2441:
2430:
2429:
2415:
2404:
2403:
2401:
2399:
2382:
2376:
2375:
2373:
2371:
2356:
2350:
2349:
2347:
2345:
2328:
2322:
2321:
2319:
2317:
2300:
2294:
2293:
2291:
2289:
2274:
2268:
2267:
2265:
2263:
2249:
2243:
2242:
2241:. November 2013.
2236:
2228:
2222:
2221:
2207:
2201:
2200:
2195:. Archived from
2182:
2176:
2175:
2172:Associated Press
2159:
2153:
2152:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2103:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2062:
2049:
2048:
2043:. Archived from
2030:
2021:
2020:
2006:
2000:
1999:
1985:
1974:
1973:
1959:
1953:
1952:
1938:
1929:
1928:
1923:. Archived from
1910:
1901:
1900:
1895:. Archived from
1885:Christy, Bryan.
1882:
1871:
1870:
1869:on 5 March 2015.
1865:. Archived from
1854:
1831:
1830:
1829:on 29 June 2012.
1825:. Archived from
1812:
1803:
1802:
1797:. Archived from
1786:
1773:
1772:
1746:
1737:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1717:
1706:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1684:
1673:
1672:
1670:
1668:
1651:
1645:
1644:
1600:
1591:
1585:
1584:
1582:
1580:
1559:
1548:
1547:
1545:
1543:
1526:
1513:
1512:
1510:
1508:
1491:
1480:
1479:
1477:
1475:
1466:. Archived from
1455:
1432:
1431:
1429:
1427:
1422:on 21 April 2016
1418:. Archived from
1406:
1393:
1392:
1391:on 20 June 2013.
1387:. Archived from
1374:
1359:
1358:
1346:
1333:
1332:
1318:
1303:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1274:"The Ivory Fire"
1269:
1260:
1259:
1245:
1239:
1238:
1236:
1234:
1217:
1208:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1194:. Archived from
1181:
1175:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1161:. Archived from
1151:
1145:
1144:
1131:
1125:
1124:
1106:
1089:
1088:
1074:
1063:
1062:
1048:
1037:
1036:
1022:
1011:
1010:
996:
987:
986:
981:
979:
973:
962:
954:
948:
947:
942:. Archived from
929:
916:
915:
891:
878:
877:
860:
849:
848:
826:
526:
268:technique using
217:Elephant hunting
185:
173:
72:opportunity cost
2672:
2671:
2667:
2666:
2665:
2663:
2662:
2661:
2622:
2621:
2620:
2603:
2599:
2578:
2574:
2555:
2554:
2550:
2525:
2518:
2501:
2492:
2482:
2480:
2470:
2463:
2442:
2433:
2416:
2407:
2397:
2395:
2392:The Independent
2383:
2379:
2369:
2367:
2358:
2357:
2353:
2343:
2341:
2329:
2325:
2315:
2313:
2301:
2297:
2287:
2285:
2275:
2271:
2261:
2259:
2251:
2250:
2246:
2234:
2230:
2229:
2225:
2208:
2204:
2183:
2179:
2160:
2156:
2139:
2135:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2101:
2099:
2084:
2080:
2072:The Independent
2063:
2052:
2031:
2024:
2007:
2003:
1986:
1977:
1960:
1956:
1939:
1932:
1911:
1904:
1883:
1874:
1855:
1834:
1813:
1806:
1787:
1776:
1769:
1747:
1740:
1730:
1728:
1727:. 30 April 2016
1719:
1718:
1709:
1699:
1697:
1685:
1676:
1666:
1664:
1652:
1648:
1625:10.1038/534179a
1598:
1592:
1588:
1578:
1576:
1575:. 30 April 2016
1561:
1560:
1551:
1541:
1539:
1527:
1516:
1506:
1504:
1492:
1483:
1473:
1471:
1456:
1435:
1425:
1423:
1408:
1407:
1396:
1375:
1362:
1347:
1336:
1319:
1306:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1270:
1263:
1246:
1242:
1232:
1230:
1218:
1211:
1201:
1199:
1182:
1178:
1168:
1166:
1153:
1152:
1148:
1133:
1132:
1128:
1116:Weekend Edition
1107:
1092:
1075:
1066:
1049:
1040:
1023:
1014:
997:
990:
977:
975:
971:
960:
956:
955:
951:
930:
919:
912:
892:
881:
862:
861:
852:
832:History Compass
827:
818:
814:
792:
761:
740:
700:
695:
663:Philippe Martin
628:
623:
607:
546:
534:
524:
410:organized crime
329:
292:
277:publicity stunt
262:special effects
255:Daniel arap Moi
205:conservationist
193:
192:
191:
190:
189:
186:
178:
177:
174:
163:
158:
106:mass production
86:
80:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2670:
2660:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2619:
2618:
2597:
2572:
2548:
2542:10.3386/w22314
2516:
2490:
2461:
2431:
2405:
2377:
2351:
2323:
2295:
2269:
2244:
2223:
2202:
2177:
2154:
2133:
2130:. 15 May 2014.
2109:
2078:
2050:
2022:
2001:
1975:
1954:
1930:
1902:
1872:
1832:
1804:
1801:on 9 May 2015.
1774:
1767:
1738:
1707:
1674:
1646:
1586:
1549:
1514:
1481:
1458:Welch, Megan.
1433:
1394:
1360:
1334:
1304:
1290:
1261:
1240:
1209:
1198:on 10 May 2016
1176:
1146:
1126:
1090:
1064:
1038:
1012:
988:
974:on 2 June 2016
949:
917:
910:
879:
850:
839:(6): 530–542.
815:
813:
810:
809:
808:
803:
798:
796:Coral poaching
791:
788:
772:WildlifeDirect
760:
757:
739:
736:
699:
696:
694:
691:
642:Richard Leakey
627:
624:
622:
619:
606:
603:
545:
542:
533:
530:
529:
528:
518:
512:
506:
500:
494:
488:
478:
472:
457:
456:
446:
436:
426:
385:
384:
358:
348:
328:
325:
304:Uhuru Kenyatta
291:
288:
221:banned in 1973
197:Richard Leakey
187:
180:
179:
175:
168:
167:
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165:
164:
162:
159:
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154:
82:Main article:
79:
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1768:9781315071503
1764:
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1611:(7606): 179.
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864:"Ivory Trade"
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