Public key certificate

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Version : v1 (0x0) Log ID : 87:75:BF:E7:59:7C:F8:8C:43:99 ... Timestamp : Apr 18 22:25:08.574 2019 GMT Extensions: none Signature : ecdsa-with-SHA256 30:44:02:20:40:51:53:90:C6:A2 ... Signed Certificate Timestamp: Version : v1 (0x0) Log ID : A4:B9:09:90:B4:18:58:14:87:BB ... Timestamp : Apr 18 22:25:08.461 2019 GMT Extensions: none Signature : ecdsa-with-SHA256 30:45:02:20:43:80:9E:19:90:FD ... Signed Certificate Timestamp: Version : v1 (0x0) Log ID : 55:81:D4:C2:16:90:36:01:4A:EA ... Timestamp : Apr 18 22:25:08.769 2019 GMT Extensions: none Signature : ecdsa-with-SHA256 30:45:02:21:00:C1:3E:9F:F0:40 ... Signature Algorithm: sha256WithRSAEncryption 36:07:e7:3b:b7:45:97:ca:4d:6c ...

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Not Before: Apr 18 22:15:06 2019 GMT Not After : Apr 17 22:15:06 2021 GMT Subject: C=US, ST=Texas, L=Houston, O=SSL Corp/serialNumber=NV20081614243, CN=www.ssl.com/postalCode=77098/businessCategory=Private Organization/street=3100 Richmond Ave/jurisdictionST=Nevada/jurisdictionC=US Subject Public Key Info: Public Key Algorithm: rsaEncryption RSA Public-Key: (2048 bit) Modulus: 00:ad:0f:ef:c1:97:5a:9b:d8:1e ... Exponent: 65537 (0x10001) X509v3 extensions: X509v3 Authority Key Identifier: keyid:BF:C1:5A:87:FF:28:FA:41:3D:FD:B7:4F:E4:1D:AF:A0:61:58:29:BD Authority Information Access: CA Issuers - URI:

1312:, many of which are controlled by organizations that may be unfamiliar to the user. Each of these organizations is free to issue any certificate for any web site and have the guarantee that web browsers that include its root certificates will accept it as genuine. In this instance, end users must rely on the developer of the browser software to manage its built-in list of certificates and on the certificate providers to behave correctly and to inform the browser developer of problematic certificates. While uncommon, there have been incidents in which fraudulent certificates have been issued: in some cases, the browsers have detected the fraud; in others, some time passed before browser developers removed these certificates from their software. 442: 333: 1038:

verifies the information, and potentially signs an end-entity certificate based on that information. To perform this role effectively, a CA needs to have one or more broadly trusted root certificates or intermediate certificates and the corresponding private keys. CAs may achieve this broad trust by having their root certificates included in popular software, or by obtaining a cross-signature from another CA delegating trust. Other CAs are trusted within a relatively small community, like a business, and are distributed by other mechanisms like Windows

1026: 138: 1213:. The certificate request is an electronic document that contains the web site name, company information and the public key. The certificate provider signs the request, thus producing a public certificate. During web browsing, this public certificate is served to any web browser that connects to the web site and proves to the web browser that the provider believes it has issued a certificate to the owner of the web site. 1292:

feature providing no visual difference to the user on the type of certificate used. This change followed security concerns raised by forensic experts and successful attempts to purchase EV certificates to impersonate famous organizations, proving the inefficiency of these visual indicators and highlighting potential abuses.

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the certificate, the operator of the web site, and the generator of the web site content may be tenuous and is not guaranteed. At best, the certificate guarantees uniqueness of the web site, provided that the web site itself has not been compromised (hacked) or the certificate issuing process subverted.

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X509v3 Subject Key Identifier: E7:37:48:DE:7D:C2:E1:9D:D0:11:25:21:B8:00:33:63:06:27:C1:5B X509v3 Key Usage: critical Digital Signature, Key Encipherment CT Precertificate SCTs: Signed Certificate Timestamp:

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X509v3 Subject Alternative Name: DNS:www.ssl.com, DNS:answers.ssl.com, DNS:faq.ssl.com, DNS:info.ssl.com, DNS:links.ssl.com, DNS:reseller.ssl.com, DNS:secure.ssl.com, DNS:ssl.com, DNS:support.ssl.com, DNS:sws.ssl.com, DNS:tools.ssl.com X509v3 Certificate Policies:

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Certificate: Data: Version: 3 (0x2) Serial Number: 72:14:11:d3:d7:e0:fd:02:aa:b0:4e:90:09:d4:db:31 Signature Algorithm: sha256WithRSAEncryption Issuer: C=US, ST=Texas, L=Houston, O=SSL Corp, CN=SSL.com EV SSL Intermediate CA RSA R3 Validity

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Until 2019, major browsers such as Chrome and Firefox generally offered users a visual indication of the legal identity when a site presented an EV certificate. This was done by showing the legal name before the domain, and a bright green color to highlight the change. Most browsers deprecated this

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is equivalent to interacting with the entity in contact with the email address listed in the public registrar under "example.com", even though that email address may not be displayed anywhere on the web site. No other surety of any kind is implied. Further, the relationship between the purchaser of

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Some major software contain a list of certificate authorities that are trusted by default. This makes it easier for end-users to validate certificates, and easier for people or organizations that request certificates to know which certificate authorities can issue a certificate that will be broadly

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Self-signed certificates have their own limited uses. They have full trust value when the issuer and the sole user are the same entity. For example, the Encrypting File System on Microsoft Windows issues a self-signed certificate on behalf of the encrypting user and uses it to transparently decrypt

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of an entity that has verified the certificate's contents (called the issuer). If the device examining the certificate trusts the issuer and finds the signature to be a valid signature of that issuer, then it can use the included public key to communicate securely with the certificate's subject. In

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will give no warning to the user if a web site suddenly presents a different certificate, even if that certificate has a lower number of key bits, even if it has a different provider, and even if the previous certificate had an expiry date far into the future. Where certificate providers are under

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For distributing revocation information to clients, timeliness of the discovery of revocation (and hence the window for an attacker to exploit a compromised certificate) trades off against resource usage in querying revocation statuses and privacy concerns. If revocation information is unavailable

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support for partial-wildcard certificates; they will result in a "SSL_ERROR_BAD_CERT_DOMAIN" error. Similarly, it is typical for standard libraries in programming languages to not support "partial-wildcard" certificates. For example, any "partial-wildcard" certificate will not work with the latest

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A certificate provider will issue an organization validation (OV) class certificate to a purchaser if the purchaser can meet two criteria: the right to administratively manage the domain name in question, and perhaps, the organization's actual existence as a legal entity. A certificate provider

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A certificate provider can opt to issue three types of certificates, each requiring its own degree of vetting rigor. In order of increasing rigor (and naturally, cost) they are: Domain Validation, Organization Validation and Extended Validation. These rigors are loosely agreed upon by voluntary

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Root programs generally provide a set of valid purposes with the certificates they include. For instance, some CAs may be considered trusted for issuing TLS server certificates, but not for code signing certificates. This is indicated with a set of trust bits in a root certificate storage system.

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trust model, a certificate authority (CA) is responsible for signing certificates. These certificates act as an introduction between two parties, which means that a CA acts as a trusted third party. A CA processes requests from people or organizations requesting certificates (called subscribers),

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The list of built-in certificates is also not limited to those provided by the browser developer: users (and to a degree applications) are free to extend the list for special purposes such as for company intranets. This means that if someone gains access to a machine and can install a new root

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Client certificates authenticate the client connecting to a TLS service, for instance to provide access control. Because most services provide access to individuals, rather than devices, most client certificates contain an email address or personal name rather than a hostname. In addition, the

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protocol, email certificates can both establish the message integrity and encrypt messages. To establish encrypted email communication, the communicating parties must have their digital certificates in advance. Each must send the other one digitally signed email and opt to import the sender's

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Browsers other than Firefox generally use the operating system's facilities to decide which certificate authorities are trusted. So, for instance, Chrome on Windows trusts the certificate authorities included in the Microsoft Root Program, while on macOS or iOS, Chrome trusts the certificate

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These are some of the most common fields in certificates. Most certificates contain a number of fields not listed here. Note that in terms of a certificate's X.509 representation, a certificate is not "flat" but contains these fields nested in various structures within the certificate.

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This document states that the wildcard character '*' SHOULD NOT be included in presented identifiers but MAY be checked by application clients (mainly for the sake of backward compatibility with deployed infrastructure). Several security considerations justify tightening the rules:

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Firefox web browser, so it is broadly used outside Firefox. For instance, while there is no common Linux Root Program, many Linux distributions, like Debian, include a package that periodically copies the contents of the Firefox trust list, which is then used by applications.

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the jurisdiction of governments, those governments may have the freedom to order the provider to generate any certificate, such as for the purposes of law enforcement. Subsidiary wholesale certificate providers also have the freedom to generate any certificate.

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certificate authority that issues the client certificate is usually the service provider to which client connects because it is the provider that needs to perform authentication. Some service providers even offer free SSL certificates as part of their packages.

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In spite of the limitations described above, certificate-authenticated TLS is considered mandatory by all security guidelines whenever a web site hosts confidential information or performs material transactions. This is because, in practice, in spite of the

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However, use of "partial-wildcard" certs is not recommended. As of 2011, partial wildcard support is optional, and is explicitly disallowed in SubjectAltName headers that are required for multi-name certificates. All major browsers have deliberately

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An end-entity or leaf certificate is any certificate that cannot sign other certificates. For instance, TLS/SSL server and client certificates, email certificates, code signing certificates, and qualified certificates are all end-entity certificates.

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An intermediate certificate has a similar purpose to the root certificate – its only use is to sign other certificates. However, an intermediate certificate is not self-signed. A root certificate or another intermediate certificate needs to sign it.

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A certificate may be revoked before it expires, which signals that it is no longer valid. Without revocation, an attacker would be able to exploit such a compromised or misissued certificate until expiry. Hence, revocation is an important part of a

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Some publicly trusted certificate authorities provide email certificates, but more commonly S/MIME is used when communicating within a given organization, and that organization runs its own CA, which is trusted by participants in that email system.

1284:(EV) certificate, the purchaser must persuade the certificate provider of its legal identity, including manual verification checks by a human. As with OV certificates, a certificate provider publishes its EV vetting criteria through its 75:(TLS) a certificate's subject is typically a computer or other device, though TLS certificates may identify organizations or individuals in addition to their core role in identifying devices. TLS, sometimes called by its older name 1111:

authorities in the Apple Root Program. Edge and Safari use their respective operating system trust stores as well, but each is only available on a single OS. Firefox uses the Mozilla Root Program trust store on all platforms.

934:: The body of the certificate is hashed (hashing algorithm in "Signature Algorithm" field is used) and then the hash is signed (signature algorithm in the "Signature Algorithm" field is used) with the issuer's private key. 1045:

Certificate authorities are also responsible for maintaining up-to-date revocation information about certificates they have issued, indicating whether certificates are still valid. They provide this information through

843:, role-based certificates "identify a specific role on behalf of which the subscriber is authorized to act rather than the subscriber’s name and are issued in the interest of supporting accepted business practices." 1645: 1922:"RFC 6125 - Representation and Verification of Domain-Based Application Service Identity within Internet Public Key Infrastructure Using X.509 (PKIX) Certificates in the Context of Transport Layer Security (TLS)" 1252:

A certificate provider will issue a domain-validated (DV) certificate to a purchaser if the purchaser can demonstrate one vetting criterion: the right to administratively manage the affected DNS domain(s).

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RFC 6125 - Representation and Verification of Domain-Based Application Service Identity within Internet Public Key Infrastructure Using X.509 (PKIX) Certificates in the Context of Transport Layer Security

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X509v3 Extended Key Usage: TLS Web Client Authentication, TLS Web Server Authentication X509v3 CRL Distribution Points: Full Name: URI:

805:(ATM). EMV payment cards are preloaded with a card issuer certificate, signed by the EMV certificate authority to validate authenticity of the payment card during the payment transaction. 1323:, this reliance on something external to the system has the consequence that any public key certification scheme has to rely on some special setup assumption, such as the existence of a 106:

scheme, individuals sign each other's keys directly, in a format that performs a similar function to a public key certificate. In case of key compromise, a certificate may need to be

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trusted. This is particularly important in HTTPS, where a web site operator generally wants to get a certificate that is trusted by nearly all potential visitors to their web site.

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While most web browsers support client certificates, the most common form of authentication on the Internet is a username and password pair. Client certificates are more common in

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Larisch, James; Choffnes, David; Levin, Dave; Maggs, Bruce M.; Mislove, Alan; Wilson, Christo (2017). "CRLite: A Scalable System for Pushing All TLS Revocations to All Browsers".

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The policies and processes a provider uses to decide which certificate authorities their software should trust are called root programs. The most influential root programs are:

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As shown in the picture of Wikimedia's section on the right, the SAN field can contain wildcards. Not all vendors support or endorse mixing wildcards into SAN certificates.

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Chung, Taejoong; Lok, Jay; Chandrasekaran, Balakrishnan; Choffnes, David; Levin, Dave; Maggs, Bruce M.; Mislove, Alan; Rula, John; Sullivan, Nick; Wilson, Christo (2018).

2333: 1533: 418:(May 2000) specifies Subject Alternative Names as the preferred method of adding DNS names to certificates, deprecating the previous method of putting DNS names in the 928:: This contain a hashing algorithm and a digital signature algorithm. For example "sha256RSA" where sha256 is the hashing algorithm and RSA is the signature algorithm. 2413: 2304: 1624: 2362: 910:: The valid cryptographic uses of the certificate's public key. Common values include digital signature validation, key encipherment, and certificate signing. 2439: 894:: The earliest time and date on which the certificate is valid. Usually set to a few hours or days prior to the moment the certificate was issued, to avoid 1407: 1181:

presents connection latency and privacy issues. Other schemes have been proposed but have not yet been successfully deployed to enable fail-hard checking.

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is secure. The protocol requires the server to present a digital certificate, proving that it is the intended destination. The connecting client conducts

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Because the wildcard only covers one level of subdomains (the asterisk doesn't match full stops), these domains would not be valid for the certificates:

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Policy: 2.23.140.1.1 Policy: 1.2.616.1.113527.2.5.1.1 Policy: 1.3.6.1.4.1.38064.1.1.1.5 CPS:

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with their browser, if the browser does not give any certificate warning message, then the user can be theoretically sure that interacting with

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Instead of getting separate certificates for subdomains, you can use a single certificate for all main domains and subdomains and reduce cost.

1353: 54:. The certificate includes the public key and information about it, information about the identity of its owner (called the subject), and the 3027: 916:: The applications in which the certificate may be used. Common values include TLS server authentication, email protection, and code signing. 2171: 1806: 2903: 1402: 579: 1011:(which require using a qualified trust service provider and signature creation device) are given the same power as a physical signature. 2848: 2142: 542:

Note possible exceptions by CAs, for example wildcard-plus cert by DigiCert contains an automatic "Plus" property for the naked domain

2854: 2103: 2072: 853:, for "cases where there are several entities acting in one capacity, and where non-repudiation for transactions is not desired." 171: 943:

This is an example of a decoded SSL/TLS certificate retrieved from SSL.com's website. The issuer's common name (CN) is shown as

577:(SAN) extension, the major problem being that the certificate needs to be reissued whenever a new virtual server is added. (See 2998: 2842: 2325: 209:. A certificate may be valid for multiple hostnames (e.g., a domain and its subdomains). Such certificates are commonly called 876:: Used to uniquely identify the certificate within a CA's systems. In particular this is used to track revocation information. 2762: 2697: 2549: 1462: 17: 2495: 2409: 1580: 3299: 3120: 2296: 1103: 232:

Once the certification path validation is successful, the client can establish an encrypted connection with the server.

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field for backward compatibility. If some of the hostnames contain an asterisk (*), a certificate may also be called a

1093: 117:. Because X.509 is very general, the format is further constrained by profiles defined for certain use cases, such as 3042: 2830: 2801: 2660: 441: 298:

is a certificate with a subject that matches its issuer, and a signature that can be verified by its own public key.

2354: 1050:(OCSP) and/or Certificate Revocation Lists (CRLs). Some of the larger certificate authorities in the market include 344: 3324: 3263: 2200: 2435: 1316:

certificate in the browser, that browser will recognize websites that use the inserted certificate as legitimate.

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Smith, Trevor; Dickinson, Luke; Seamons, Kent (2020). "Let's Revoke: Scalable Global Certificate Revocation".

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Due to the cost of revocation checks and the availability impact from potentially-unreliable remote services,

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Recommendations for Secure Use of Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS)

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For example, *.example.com would match a.example.com, foo.example.com, etc. but would not match example.com.

3080: 3050: 2949: 2007:"Disallow support for a*.example.net, *a.example.net, and a*b.example.net in certificate wildcard handling" 1963:"Disallow support for a*.example.net, *a.example.net, and a*b.example.net in certificate wildcard handling" 1247: 1174: 389: 382: 646:

The wildcard may appear anywhere inside a label as a "partial wildcard" according to early specifications

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data on the fly. The digital certificate chain of trust starts with a self-signed certificate, called a

3241: 3004: 1680: 1209:. In practice, a web site operator obtains a certificate by applying to a certificate authority with a 102:(CA), usually a company that charges customers a fee to issue certificates for them. By contrast, in a 1484: 3100: 3032: 2971: 1769: 1373: 1139: 95: 2527: 2297:"Firefox-dev Google group - Intent to Ship: Move Extended Validation Information out of the URL bar" 973: 3221: 3184: 3151: 2824: 2810: 2637: 2231: 2229: 1659: 1340:

described above, web sites secured by public key certificates are still more secure than unsecured

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has no eavesdroppers and that the web site is who it claims to be. This security is important for

3329: 2982: 2966: 2871: 2602:"SP 800-25 Federal Agency Use of Public Key Technology for Digital Signatures and Authentication" 2163: 295: 289: 256: 252: 84: 2226: 1406:

Cite error: The named reference ":0" was defined multiple times with different content (see the

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Do not allow a label that consists entirely of just a wildcard unless it is the left-most label

2925: 2836: 1817: 1770:"Guidelines For The Issuance And Management Of Extended Validation Certificates, Version 1.5.2" 1363:

SP 800-25 Federal Agency Use of Public Key Technology for Digital Signatures and Authentication

1132: 1099: 951:(EV) certificate. Validated information about the website's owner (SSL Corp) is located in the 316:. A certificate authority self-signs a root certificate to be able to sign other certificates. 107: 3288: 3189: 2909: 2794: 2514: 2460:

Ran Canetti: Universally Composable Signature, Certification, and Authentication. CSFW 2004,

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argues against wildcard certificates on security grounds, in particular "partial wildcards".

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The roles of root certificate, intermediate certificate and end-entity certificate as in the

99: 2134: 1078: 2732: 1939: 1897: 1851: 1743: 1115: 826: 337: 226: 159: 76: 68: 1830: 986: 8: 2135:"Usage Statistics and Market Share of SSL Certificate Authorities for Websites, May 2020" 1985:"Limit wildcard DNS ID support to names of the form *.example.com (not foo*.example.com)" 1378: 1206: 485: 47: 863: 3205: 2920: 2768: 2703: 2666: 1984: 1454: 1285: 1263: 1114:

The Mozilla Root Program is operated publicly, and its certificate list is part of the

167: 163: 51: 1500: 1356:) Computer Security Division provides guidance documents for public key certificates: 3156: 2882: 2772: 2758: 2693: 2656: 1504: 1446: 1320: 1004: 404: 55: 2670: 2571:"SP 800-32 Introduction to Public Key Technology and the Federal PKI Infrastructure" 2326:"Chrome Security-dev Google group - Upcoming Change to Chrome's Identity Indicators" 1723: 1458: 895: 882:: The entity a certificate belongs to: a machine, an individual, or an organization. 239:, must obtain their certificates from a trusted, public certificate authority (CA). 71:

systems, a certificate's subject is typically a person or organization. However, in

3161: 2977: 2915: 2787: 2748: 2722: 2707: 2683: 2648: 1929: 1887: 1841: 1733: 1603: 1496: 1438: 1309: 1230: 812: 798: 613: 559: 411: 304: 285: 206: 122: 60: 1360:

SP 800-32 Introduction to Public Key Technology and the Federal PKI Infrastructure

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is authentic, so that the user can feel secure that his/her interaction with the

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limit the revocation checks they will perform, and will fail-soft where they do.

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field of the certificate must identify the primary hostname of the server as the

2735: 2716: 2104:"X.509 Certificate Policy For The Federal Bridge Certification Authority (FBCA)" 2073:"X.509 Certificate Policy For The Federal Bridge Certification Authority (FBCA)" 1942: 1900: 1854: 1746: 1607: 617: 563: 415: 351:

that allows various values to be associated with a security certificate using a

126: 2489:"Replacing passwords on the Internet AKA post-Snowden Opportunistic Encryption" 2488: 1426: 336:

An example of a Subject Alternative Name section for domain names owned by the

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extensions, including other wildcards. For example, the wildcard certificate

423: 2652: 1962: 1694: 1551: 3236: 3010: 2484: 2241: 1921: 1879: 1427:"SecureGuard: A Certificate Validation System in Public Key Infrastructure" 1170: 1159: 1039: 808: 794: 103: 64: 31: 749:

International domain names encoded in ASCII (A-label) are labels that are

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and treat it as unrevoked (and allow attackers to sidestep revocation).

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Certificate Policy for the Federal Bridge Certification Authority (FBCA)

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Certificate Policy for the Federal Bridge Certification Authority (FBCA)

3283: 2688: 2542:"NIST Computer Security Publications – NIST Special Publications (SPs)" 2480: 1818:

SSLTools Certificate Lookup of Knowledge.org's wildcard ssl certificate

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Sheffer, Yaron; Saint-Andre, Pierre; Fossati, Thomas (November 2022).

2046: 1154:(either due to accident or an attack), clients must decide whether to 959:

field contains a list of domain names covered by the certificate. The

888:: The entity that verified the information and signed the certificate. 3278: 3090: 3055: 2727: 2006: 1934: 1892: 1846: 1738: 1051: 555: 477: 2277: 1581:"x509v3_config - X509 V3 certificate extension configuration format" 137: 3095: 3085: 3070: 2253: 2032: 1807:

The SAN option is available for EV SSL Certificates on Symantec.com

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Proceedings 2020 Network and Distributed System Security Symposium

2461: 2214: 904:: The time and date past which the certificate is no longer valid. 586:

Wildcards can be added as domains in multi-domain certificates or

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All web browsers come with an extensive built-in list of trusted

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http://www.ssl.com/repository/SSLcom-SubCA-EV-SSL-RSA-4096-R3.crt

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Transport Layer Security § Support for name-based virtual servers

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The most common format for public key certificates is defined by

3293: 3246: 3226: 3125: 3110: 3075: 1666: 573:. A workaround could be to add every virtual host name in the 445:

An example of a wildcard certificate on comifuro.net (note the

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Electronic document used to prove the ownership of a public key

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fragment is called a Wildcard certificate. Through the use of

3273: 3231: 3065: 2860: 1190: 1034: 848: 838: 830: 348: 114: 80: 2355:"Extended Validation Certificates are (Really, Really) Dead" 1660:"Wildcard and SAN: Understanding Multi-Use SSL Certificates" 1158:

and treat a certificate as if it is revoked (and so degrade

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regulation standardizes them and requires their recognition.

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purposes. These are most commonly used in Europe, where the

757:. URLs with international labels cannot contain wildcards. 628:

The wildcard applies only to one level of the domain name.

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A trusted certificate authority has signed the certificate.

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Wildcard certificates are not allowed for EV Certificates.

1485:"Evaluating Trust in a Public Key Certification Authority" 162:(SSL) protocol – ensures that the communication between a 158:(TLS) protocol – as well as its outdated predecessor, the 2714: 2677: 2271: 2235: 1420: 1403:

Wildcard SSL certificate limitation on QuovadisGlobal.com

825:: A certificate identifying an individual, typically for 790: 715:

A cert with multiple wildcards in a name is not allowed.

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version 58 (March 2017) removed support for checking the

373: 2479: 2049:. EMV Certificate Authority Worldwide. 2 December 2010. 1330: 819:) to ensure they were not tampered with during delivery. 2645:

Proceedings of the Internet Measurement Conference 2018

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with accompanying identity certificates. However, only

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http://crls.ssl.com/SSLcom-SubCA-EV-SSL-RSA-4096-R3.crl

977: 327: 2029:"Restrictions on data entries for public certificates" 793:

is a payment method based on a technical standard for

201:. The hostname must be publicly accessible, not using 2742: 2283: 2259: 2220: 1965:. The Chromium Projects, Google Inc. 3 December 2014 1352:

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (

922:: A public key belonging to the certificate subject. 279: 1029:

The procedure of obtaining a Public key certificate

381:: this is usually also provided as the Common Name 343:Subject Alternative Name (SAN) certificates are an 2607:. National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2576:. National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2009:. The Python Software Foundation. 26 November 2017 1177:are too bandwidth-costly for routine use, and the 590:(UCC). In addition, wildcards themselves can have 2164:"Root Certificate Policy – The Chromium Projects" 1919: 1828: 1681:"Wildcard Certificate Explained in Simpler Terms" 606:as well as the completely different website name 385:within the Subject field of the main certificate. 3316: 2680:2017 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP) 1710:*.a.com matches foo.a.com but not bar.foo.a.com. 1483:Chadwick, David W; Basden, Andrew (2001-10-31). 1003:on legal documents are commonly performed using 476:, a single certificate may be used for multiple 430:field at all, instead only looking at the SANs. 2825:Transport Layer Security / Secure Sockets Layer 602:as a Subject Alternative Name. Thus it secures 491:For example, a single wildcard certificate for 1482: 1262:publishes its OV vetting criteria through its 994: 221:field, though many CAs also put them into the 3028:Export of cryptography from the United States 2795: 1725:RFC 2595 - Using TLS with IMAP, POP3 and ACAP 1646:"Common Name (CN) for a wildcard certificate" 242: 149: 2904:Automated Certificate Management Environment 569:It is not possible to get a wildcard for an 2436:"Using certificates article at Mozilla.org" 1189:The most common use of certificates is for 211:Subject Alternative Name (SAN) certificates 186:) to which the client is trying to connect. 178:The subject of the certificate matches the 2849:DNS-based Authentication of Named Entities 2802: 2788: 1987:. The Mozilla Foundation. 10 December 2014 1920:Saint-Andre, P.; Hodges, J. (March 2011). 1829:Saint-Andre, P.; Hodges, J. (March 2011). 1775:. CA/Browser Forum. 2014-10-16. p. 10 1618: 1616: 1256: 1014: 98:(PKI) scheme, the certificate issuer is a 2855:DNS Certification Authority Authorization 2752: 2726: 2687: 1933: 1891: 1845: 1737: 1552:"Free SSL Certificate | IONOS by 1&1" 1431:IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology 1425:; Hu, Chunqiang; Yu, Jiguo (2018-06-01). 1421:Alrawais, Arwa; Alhothaily, Abdulrahman; 1142:. Revocation is performed by the issuing 1106:root programs (used for document signing) 558:matching is supported in accordance with 215:Unified Communications Certificates (UCC) 2638:"Is the Web Ready for OCSP Must-Staple?" 1877: 1625:"Deprecations and Removals in Chrome 58" 1024: 729:plus a top-level domain is not allowed. 495:will secure all these subdomains on the 440: 331: 235:Internet-facing servers, such as public 136: 2236:Sheffer, Saint-Andre & Fossati 2022 1613: 1216:As an example, when a user connects to 864:X.509 § Structure of a certificate 836:Role-based certificate: Defined in the 739:Too general and should not be allowed. 699:versions of both Python and Go. Thus, 457:A public key certificate which uses an 436: 132: 14: 3317: 2999:Domain Name System Security Extensions 2843:Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation 2416:from the original on 13 September 2011 1796:x509v3_config Subject Alternative Name 1721: 1622: 1269: 79:(SSL), is notable for being a part of 2783: 2039: 1331:Usefulness versus unsecured web sites 945:SSL.com EV SSL Intermediate CA RSA R3 783: 2501:from the original on 27 October 2014 1610:: 4.2.1.6. Subject Alternative Name 1398: 1396: 1394: 1241: 1236: 328:Subject Alternative Name certificate 262: 2284:Smith, Dickinson & Seamons 2020 2260:Smith, Dickinson & Seamons 2020 2221:Smith, Dickinson & Seamons 2020 1405: 1184: 623: 588:Unified Communications Certificates 259:, where they authenticate devices. 24: 2937:Online Certificate Status Protocol 1179:Online Certificate Status Protocol 1048:Online Certificate Status Protocol 967:fields show all appropriate uses. 846:Group certificate: Defined in the 25: 3346: 2831:Datagram Transport Layer Security 2442:from the original on 12 July 2012 2386:. Mozilla.org. 2 September 2011. 1391: 280:Self-signed and root certificates 217:. These certificates contain the 119:Public Key Infrastructure (X.509) 3264:Certificate authority compromise 2390:from the original on 3 June 2012 2053:from the original on 4 July 2020 1065: 1001:(advanced) electronic signatures 857: 50:used to prove the validity of a 3269:Random number generator attacks 2956:Extended Validation Certificate 2809: 2614:from the original on 2018-06-02 2594: 2583:from the original on 2018-06-05 2563: 2552:from the original on 2017-09-17 2534: 2473: 2462:http://eprint.iacr.org/2003/239 2454: 2428: 2402: 2376: 2365:from the original on 2020-07-16 2347: 2336:from the original on 2020-06-07 2318: 2307:from the original on 2020-08-12 2289: 2203:from the original on 2017-03-20 2185: 2174:from the original on 2017-03-20 2156: 2145:from the original on 2022-06-30 2127: 2116:from the original on 2021-03-18 2096: 2085:from the original on 2021-03-18 2065: 2021: 1999: 1977: 1955: 1913: 1871: 1838:Internet Engineering Task Force 1822: 1811: 1800: 1789: 1762: 1730:Internet Engineering Task Force 1715: 1699:Internet Engineering Task Force 1687: 1673: 1652: 1562:from the original on 2022-07-18 1515:from the original on 2022-02-26 1465:from the original on 2022-08-26 1337: 1276:Extended Validation Certificate 1148:cryptographically authenticated 1009:qualified electronic signatures 957:X509v3 Subject Alternative Name 571:Extended Validation Certificate 355:field. These values are called 2866:HTTP Strict Transport Security 2629: 2410:"DigitNotar removal by Google" 2384:"DigiNotar removal by Mozilla" 2238:, 7.5. Certificate Revocation. 2193:"ca-certificates in Launchpad" 1638: 1597: 1573: 1544: 1526: 1476: 1414: 1102:Adobe Approved Trust List and 983:https://www.ssl.com/repository 549: 13: 1: 1623:Medley, Joseph (March 2017). 1501:10.1016/S0167-4048(01)00710-6 1384: 1295: 1126: 392:to that given in the Subject. 388:Directory names: alternative 182:(not to be confused with the 172:certification path validation 2950:Domain-validated certificate 1347: 1248:Domain-validated certificate 1175:Certificate revocation lists 811:: Certificates can validate 7: 2931:Certificate revocation list 1367: 1211:certificate signing request 995:Usage in the European Union 10: 3351: 3005:Internet Protocol Security 2818:Protocols and technologies 1880:"RFC 2818 - HTTP Over TLS" 1695:"RFC 2818 - HTTP Over TLS" 1273: 1245: 1130: 1018: 938: 861: 480:. It is commonly used for 283: 243:TLS/SSL client certificate 150:TLS/SSL server certificate 87:for securely browsing the 3335:Public key infrastructure 3256: 3214: 3198: 3177: 3170: 3144: 3041: 3033:Server-Gated Cryptography 3020: 2991: 2972:Public key infrastructure 2897:Public-key infrastructure 2896: 2817: 1878:Rescorla, E. (May 2000). 1648:. DigiCert Documentation. 1374:Authorization certificate 1150:statement of revocation. 1140:public key infrastructure 961:X509v3 Extended Key Usage 947:, identifying this as an 803:automated teller machines 776: 770: 765: 761: 754: 743: 733: 726: 719: 707: 687: 683: 678: 674: 669: 665: 658: 654: 650: 641: 637: 633: 629: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 543: 536: 531: 518: 513: 508: 503: 496: 492: 473: 461: 450: 357:Subject Alternative Names 96:public-key infrastructure 3185:Man-in-the-middle attack 3152:Certificate Transparency 2754:10.14722/ndss.2020.24084 1722:Newman, C. (June 1999). 1489:Computers & Security 1443:10.1109/TVT.2018.2805700 1222:https://www.example.com/ 1218:https://www.example.com/ 1197:validates that an HTTPS 1094:Oracle Java root program 809:Code-signing certificate 575:Subject Alternative Name 514:login-secure.example.com 482:transport layer security 401:Universal Principal Name 395:Other names, given as a 253:virtual private networks 219:Subject Alternative Name 156:Transport Layer Security 73:Transport Layer Security 3325:Public-key cryptography 3296:(in regards to TLS 1.0) 3249:(in regards to SSL 3.0) 2983:Self-signed certificate 2967:Public-key cryptography 2888:Perfect forward secrecy 2872:HTTP Public Key Pinning 2653:10.1145/3278532.3278543 1257:Organization validation 1015:Certificate authorities 999:In the European Union, 583:for more information.) 554:Only a single level of 359:(SANs). Names include: 296:self-signed certificate 290:Self-signed certificate 267:In accordance with the 257:Remote Desktop Services 3300:Kazakhstan MITM attack 2962:Public key certificate 2926:Certificate revocation 2837:Server Name Indication 2522:Cite journal requires 1133:Certificate revocation 1079:Microsoft Root Program 1030: 532:test.login.example.com 454: 340: 146: 36:public key certificate 3289:Lucky Thirteen attack 3190:Padding oracle attack 2910:Certificate authority 1701:. May 2000. p. 5 1325:certificate authority 1144:certificate authority 1028: 1021:Certificate authority 823:Qualified certificate 659:frog.super.domain.com 653:is OK. It will match 497:https://*.example.com 493:https://*.example.com 444: 335: 140: 100:certificate authority 2682:. pp. 539–556. 2647:. pp. 105–118. 1229:participants in the 1193:-based web sites. A 1089:Mozilla Root Program 978:http://ocsps.ssl.com 827:electronic signature 642:sub2.sub1.domain.com 608:meta.m.wikimedia.org 437:Wildcard certificate 407:followed by a value. 338:Wikimedia Foundation 227:wildcard certificate 160:Secure Sockets Layer 133:Types of certificate 77:Secure Sockets Layer 44:identity certificate 18:Digital certificates 2487:(18 January 2014). 2272:Larisch et al. 2017 1627:. Google Developers 1379:Pretty Good Privacy 1282:Extended Validation 1270:Extended validation 1207:electronic commerce 1146:, which produces a 949:Extended Validation 926:Signature Algorithm 777:Lw*.xn--caf-dma.com 509:contact.example.com 504:payment.example.com 486:computer networking 390:Distinguished Names 223:Subject Common Name 48:electronic document 40:digital certificate 3206:Bar mitzvah attack 2921:Certificate policy 2689:10.1109/sp.2017.17 2467:2009-08-28 at the 2361:. 12 August 2019. 1286:certificate policy 1264:certificate policy 1084:Apple Root Program 1031: 1005:digital signatures 914:Extended Key Usage 784:Other certificates 686:is OK and matches 679:foobaz.example.net 677:is OK and matches 668:is OK and matches 455: 341: 147: 38:, also known as a 3312: 3311: 3308: 3307: 2883:Opportunistic TLS 2764:978-1-891562-61-7 2699:978-1-5090-5533-3 2330:groups.google.com 2301:groups.google.com 2248:Chung et al. 2018 2199:. 30 April 2010. 1321:provable security 1310:root certificates 1242:Domain validation 1237:Validation levels 799:payment terminals 789:EMV certificate: 708:sub1.*.domain.com 604:www.wikipedia.org 600:*.m.wikimedia.org 405:object identifier 263:Email certificate 203:private addresses 174:, ensuring that: 56:digital signature 16:(Redirected from 3342: 3175: 3174: 3162:HTTPS Everywhere 2978:Root certificate 2916:CA/Browser Forum 2804: 2797: 2790: 2781: 2780: 2776: 2756: 2739: 2730: 2728:10.17487/RFC9325 2711: 2691: 2674: 2642: 2623: 2622: 2620: 2619: 2613: 2606: 2598: 2592: 2591: 2589: 2588: 2582: 2575: 2567: 2561: 2560: 2558: 2557: 2538: 2532: 2531: 2525: 2520: 2518: 2510: 2508: 2506: 2500: 2493: 2477: 2471: 2458: 2452: 2451: 2449: 2447: 2432: 2426: 2425: 2423: 2421: 2406: 2400: 2399: 2397: 2395: 2380: 2374: 2373: 2371: 2370: 2351: 2345: 2344: 2342: 2341: 2322: 2316: 2315: 2313: 2312: 2293: 2287: 2281: 2275: 2269: 2263: 2257: 2251: 2245: 2239: 2233: 2224: 2218: 2212: 2211: 2209: 2208: 2189: 2183: 2182: 2180: 2179: 2168:www.chromium.org 2160: 2154: 2153: 2151: 2150: 2131: 2125: 2124: 2122: 2121: 2115: 2108: 2100: 2094: 2093: 2091: 2090: 2084: 2077: 2069: 2063: 2062: 2060: 2058: 2043: 2037: 2036: 2025: 2019: 2018: 2016: 2014: 2003: 1997: 1996: 1994: 1992: 1981: 1975: 1974: 1972: 1970: 1959: 1953: 1952: 1950: 1949: 1937: 1935:10.17487/RFC6125 1917: 1911: 1910: 1908: 1907: 1895: 1893:10.17487/RFC2818 1875: 1869: 1868: 1862: 1861: 1849: 1847:10.17487/RFC6125 1826: 1820: 1815: 1809: 1804: 1798: 1793: 1787: 1786: 1781: 1780: 1774: 1766: 1760: 1759: 1754: 1753: 1741: 1739:10.17487/RFC2595 1719: 1713: 1712: 1707: 1706: 1691: 1685: 1684: 1677: 1671: 1670: 1664: 1656: 1650: 1649: 1642: 1636: 1635: 1633: 1632: 1620: 1611: 1601: 1595: 1594: 1592: 1591: 1577: 1571: 1570: 1568: 1567: 1548: 1542: 1541: 1534:"Internal names" 1530: 1524: 1523: 1521: 1520: 1480: 1474: 1473: 1471: 1470: 1437:(6): 5399–5408. 1418: 1412: 1411: 1400: 1231:CA/Browser Forum 1223: 1219: 1185:Website security 966: 965:X509v3 Key Usage 962: 958: 954: 946: 778: 772: 771:xn--caf-dma*.com 767: 763: 756: 745: 735: 728: 721: 709: 689: 688:buzz.example.net 685: 680: 676: 675:*baz.example.net 671: 670:baz1.example.net 667: 666:baz*.example.net 660: 656: 652: 643: 639: 635: 634:sub1.example.com 631: 624:Further examples 609: 605: 601: 597: 593: 545: 538: 533: 520: 515: 510: 505: 498: 494: 475: 463: 452: 429: 421: 354: 305:root certificate 286:Root certificate 207:reserved domains 61:email encryption 21: 3350: 3349: 3345: 3344: 3343: 3341: 3340: 3339: 3315: 3314: 3313: 3304: 3252: 3210: 3194: 3171:Vulnerabilities 3166: 3140: 3043:Implementations 3037: 3016: 2987: 2892: 2813: 2808: 2765: 2700: 2663: 2640: 2632: 2627: 2626: 2617: 2615: 2611: 2604: 2600: 2599: 2595: 2586: 2584: 2580: 2573: 2569: 2568: 2564: 2555: 2553: 2540: 2539: 2535: 2523: 2521: 2512: 2511: 2504: 2502: 2498: 2491: 2478: 2474: 2469:Wayback Machine 2459: 2455: 2445: 2443: 2438:. Mozilla.org. 2434: 2433: 2429: 2419: 2417: 2408: 2407: 2403: 2393: 2391: 2382: 2381: 2377: 2368: 2366: 2353: 2352: 2348: 2339: 2337: 2324: 2323: 2319: 2310: 2308: 2295: 2294: 2290: 2282: 2278: 2270: 2266: 2258: 2254: 2246: 2242: 2234: 2227: 2219: 2215: 2206: 2204: 2191: 2190: 2186: 2177: 2175: 2162: 2161: 2157: 2148: 2146: 2133: 2132: 2128: 2119: 2117: 2113: 2106: 2102: 2101: 2097: 2088: 2086: 2082: 2075: 2071: 2070: 2066: 2056: 2054: 2045: 2044: 2040: 2027: 2026: 2022: 2012: 2010: 2005: 2004: 2000: 1990: 1988: 1983: 1982: 1978: 1968: 1966: 1961: 1960: 1956: 1947: 1945: 1918: 1914: 1905: 1903: 1876: 1872: 1859: 1857: 1827: 1823: 1816: 1812: 1805: 1801: 1794: 1790: 1778: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1767: 1763: 1751: 1749: 1720: 1716: 1704: 1702: 1693: 1692: 1688: 1679: 1678: 1674: 1662: 1658: 1657: 1653: 1644: 1643: 1639: 1630: 1628: 1621: 1614: 1602: 1598: 1589: 1587: 1579: 1578: 1574: 1565: 1563: 1556:www.ionos.co.uk 1550: 1549: 1545: 1532: 1531: 1527: 1518: 1516: 1481: 1477: 1468: 1466: 1419: 1415: 1401: 1392: 1387: 1370: 1350: 1333: 1298: 1278: 1272: 1259: 1250: 1244: 1239: 1221: 1217: 1187: 1135: 1129: 1068: 1023: 1017: 997: 992: 991: 964: 960: 956: 952: 944: 941: 866: 860: 786: 762:xn--caf-dma.com 753:and begin with 711:is not allowed. 684:b*z.example.net 655:frog.domain.com 626: 596:*.wikipedia.org 552: 519:www.example.com 439: 427: 419: 403:: a registered 364:Email addresses 352: 330: 292: 284:Main articles: 282: 265: 245: 164:client computer 152: 135: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3348: 3338: 3337: 3332: 3330:Key management 3327: 3310: 3309: 3306: 3305: 3303: 3302: 3297: 3291: 3286: 3281: 3276: 3271: 3266: 3260: 3258: 3257:Implementation 3254: 3253: 3251: 3250: 3244: 3239: 3234: 3229: 3224: 3218: 3216: 3212: 3211: 3209: 3208: 3202: 3200: 3196: 3195: 3193: 3192: 3187: 3181: 3179: 3172: 3168: 3167: 3165: 3164: 3159: 3154: 3148: 3146: 3142: 3141: 3139: 3138: 3133: 3128: 3123: 3118: 3113: 3108: 3103: 3098: 3093: 3088: 3083: 3078: 3073: 3068: 3063: 3058: 3053: 3047: 3045: 3039: 3038: 3036: 3035: 3030: 3024: 3022: 3018: 3017: 3015: 3014: 3008: 3002: 2995: 2993: 2989: 2988: 2986: 2985: 2980: 2975: 2969: 2964: 2959: 2953: 2947: 2946: 2945: 2940: 2934: 2923: 2918: 2913: 2907: 2900: 2898: 2894: 2893: 2891: 2890: 2885: 2880: 2875: 2869: 2863: 2858: 2852: 2846: 2840: 2834: 2828: 2821: 2819: 2815: 2814: 2807: 2806: 2799: 2792: 2784: 2778: 2777: 2763: 2740: 2712: 2698: 2675: 2661: 2631: 2628: 2625: 2624: 2593: 2562: 2533: 2524:|journal= 2472: 2453: 2427: 2401: 2375: 2346: 2317: 2288: 2286:, p. 1-2. 2276: 2274:, p. 542. 2264: 2252: 2240: 2225: 2213: 2184: 2155: 2126: 2095: 2064: 2038: 2035:Documentation. 2020: 1998: 1976: 1954: 1926:tools.ietf.org 1912: 1884:tools.ietf.org 1870: 1840:. p. 31. 1821: 1810: 1799: 1788: 1761: 1714: 1686: 1683:. 23 May 2016. 1672: 1651: 1637: 1612: 1596: 1572: 1543: 1540:Documentation. 1525: 1495:(7): 592–611. 1475: 1423:Cheng, Xiuzhen 1413: 1389: 1388: 1386: 1383: 1382: 1381: 1376: 1369: 1366: 1365: 1364: 1361: 1349: 1346: 1332: 1329: 1297: 1294: 1280:To acquire an 1274:Main article: 1271: 1268: 1258: 1255: 1246:Main article: 1243: 1240: 1238: 1235: 1186: 1183: 1131:Main article: 1128: 1125: 1108: 1107: 1096: 1091: 1086: 1081: 1067: 1064: 1019:Main article: 1016: 1013: 996: 993: 970: 969: 940: 937: 936: 935: 929: 923: 917: 911: 905: 899: 889: 883: 877: 859: 856: 855: 854: 844: 834: 820: 806: 785: 782: 781: 780: 774: 773:is not allowed 768: 747: 746: 737: 736: 723: 722: 720:*.*.domain.com 713: 712: 691: 690: 681: 672: 662: 661: 625: 622: 592:subjectAltName 551: 548: 540: 539: 534: 522: 521: 516: 511: 506: 467: 438: 435: 409: 408: 393: 386: 376: 371: 366: 353:subjectAltName 329: 326: 281: 278: 264: 261: 244: 241: 191: 190: 187: 151: 148: 143:chain of trust 134: 131: 121:as defined in 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3347: 3336: 3333: 3331: 3328: 3326: 3323: 3322: 3320: 3301: 3298: 3295: 3292: 3290: 3287: 3285: 3282: 3280: 3277: 3275: 3272: 3270: 3267: 3265: 3262: 3261: 3259: 3255: 3248: 3245: 3243: 3240: 3238: 3235: 3233: 3230: 3228: 3225: 3223: 3220: 3219: 3217: 3213: 3207: 3204: 3203: 3201: 3197: 3191: 3188: 3186: 3183: 3182: 3180: 3176: 3173: 3169: 3163: 3160: 3158: 3155: 3153: 3150: 3149: 3147: 3143: 3137: 3134: 3132: 3129: 3127: 3124: 3122: 3119: 3117: 3114: 3112: 3109: 3107: 3104: 3102: 3099: 3097: 3094: 3092: 3089: 3087: 3084: 3082: 3079: 3077: 3074: 3072: 3069: 3067: 3064: 3062: 3059: 3057: 3054: 3052: 3051:Bouncy Castle 3049: 3048: 3046: 3044: 3040: 3034: 3031: 3029: 3026: 3025: 3023: 3019: 3012: 3009: 3006: 3003: 3000: 2997: 2996: 2994: 2990: 2984: 2981: 2979: 2976: 2973: 2970: 2968: 2965: 2963: 2960: 2957: 2954: 2951: 2948: 2944: 2943:OCSP stapling 2941: 2938: 2935: 2932: 2929: 2928: 2927: 2924: 2922: 2919: 2917: 2914: 2911: 2908: 2905: 2902: 2901: 2899: 2895: 2889: 2886: 2884: 2881: 2879: 2878:OCSP stapling 2876: 2873: 2870: 2867: 2864: 2862: 2859: 2856: 2853: 2850: 2847: 2844: 2841: 2838: 2835: 2832: 2829: 2826: 2823: 2822: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2805: 2800: 2798: 2793: 2791: 2786: 2785: 2782: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2760: 2755: 2750: 2746: 2741: 2737: 2734: 2729: 2724: 2720: 2719: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2695: 2690: 2685: 2681: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2662:9781450356190 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2639: 2634: 2633: 2610: 2603: 2597: 2579: 2572: 2566: 2551: 2547: 2546:csrc.nist.gov 2543: 2537: 2529: 2516: 2497: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2476: 2470: 2466: 2463: 2457: 2441: 2437: 2431: 2415: 2411: 2405: 2389: 2385: 2379: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2350: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2321: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2292: 2285: 2280: 2273: 2268: 2262:, p. 10. 2261: 2256: 2249: 2244: 2237: 2232: 2230: 2222: 2217: 2202: 2198: 2197:launchpad.net 2194: 2188: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2159: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2130: 2112: 2105: 2099: 2081: 2074: 2068: 2052: 2048: 2042: 2034: 2030: 2024: 2008: 2002: 1986: 1980: 1964: 1958: 1944: 1941: 1936: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1916: 1902: 1899: 1894: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1874: 1867: 1856: 1853: 1848: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1834: 1825: 1819: 1814: 1808: 1803: 1797: 1792: 1785: 1771: 1765: 1758: 1748: 1745: 1740: 1735: 1732:. p. 3. 1731: 1727: 1726: 1718: 1711: 1700: 1696: 1690: 1682: 1676: 1668: 1661: 1655: 1647: 1641: 1626: 1619: 1617: 1609: 1605: 1600: 1586: 1582: 1576: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1547: 1539: 1535: 1529: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1479: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1417: 1409: 1404: 1399: 1397: 1395: 1390: 1380: 1377: 1375: 1372: 1371: 1362: 1359: 1358: 1357: 1355: 1345: 1343: 1339: 1328: 1326: 1322: 1317: 1313: 1311: 1306: 1303: 1293: 1289: 1287: 1283: 1277: 1267: 1265: 1254: 1249: 1234: 1232: 1226: 1214: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1182: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1167: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1151: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1134: 1124: 1120: 1117: 1112: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1095: 1092: 1090: 1087: 1085: 1082: 1080: 1077: 1076: 1075: 1072: 1066:Root programs 1063: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1043: 1041: 1036: 1027: 1022: 1012: 1010: 1006: 1002: 988: 984: 979: 975: 968: 950: 933: 930: 927: 924: 921: 918: 915: 912: 909: 906: 903: 900: 897: 893: 890: 887: 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