1486:
1864:
1809:
886:, siltstones, and sandstones that exhibit ball-and-pillow structures are also found in the uppermost sections. The presence of the shales in the lower Tierberg indicate a low energy marine environment that transitioned to pro-delta to distal delta depositional environments with the appearance of the upward coarsening sequences and other associated geological features. Various invertebrate fossils have been recovered, namely fish scales, sponge spiracles, and trace fossils of Planolites and Nereites.
320:
501:
6364:
811:
249:
6350:
6376:
293:
282:
260:
271:
6388:
603:, the geological formations of the Ecca Group can only be found in one of the three previously aforementioned facies successions. This is because each of these facies successions represents differing preserved environments that can be observed in their diagnostic geological features. The facies successions, along with their geological formations, are described below:
3249:
1590:
respectively. The rock sediments are predominantly arranged in upward-coarsening cycles, although some fining-upward cycles are found in this formation's easternmost deposits. The alternating rock types observed in the
Vryheid Formation indicate seasonal variations of storms and fairer weather in a
1489:
Example of a peat swamp environment, similar to the depositional environment preserved in the
Vryheid Formation rocks. Plant material would have sunk below surface to the bottom of the swamp, being preserved in the anoxic environment. Over time plant material would be compacted and buried by
3227:
Almond, J.E., 2010. PALAEONTOLOGICAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT: DESKTOP & FIELD SCOPING STUDY Waste Water
Treatment Works, Water Pipeline and Low Income Housing Development, Klaarstroom, Prince Albert Municipality, Western Cape Province. John E. Almond (Natura Viva cc, Cape Town). April
2749:
Jorge J.P. Figueiredo, David M.Hodgson, Stephen S.Flint, and John P.Kavanagh (2013-03-01). "Architecture of a channel complex formed and filled during long-term degradation and entrenchment on the upper submarine slope, Unit F, Fort Brown Fm., SW Karoo Basin, South Africa".
2676:
2040:
Jirah, Sifelani; McPhee, Blair W.; Viglietti, Pia A.; Bamford, Marion K.; Choiniere, Jonah N.; Hancox, P. John; Barbolini, Natasha; Day, Michael O.; Rubidge, Bruce S. (2016), "Advances in
Nonmarine Karoo Biostratigraphy: Significance for Understanding Basin Development",
2878:
Wickens, H.D.V., 1992. Submarine fans of the
Permian Ecca Group in the SW Karoo Basin: Their origin and reflection on the tectonic evolution of the basin and its source areas. Inversion Tectonics of the Cape Fold Belt, Karoo and Cretaceous Basins of Southern Africa,
3237:
Almond, J.E., 2013. PALAEONTOLOGICAL SPECIALIST STUDY: FIELD ASSESSMENT. Expansion of an existing Borrow Pit in the Prince Albert townlands, Prince Albert
District, Western Cape. John E. Almond (Natura Viva cc, Cape Town). March
3343:
Cole, D.I. and McLachlan, I.R., 1991. Oil potential of the
Permian Whitehill Shale Formation in the Main Karoo Basin, South Africa. Proceedings, Gondwana Seven: SĂŁo Paulo, Instituto de Geociencias, Universidade de SĂŁo Paulo,
3217:
Almond, J.E., 2005. PALAEONTOLOGICAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT: Exceptional fossil starfish bed, Prince Albert
District, Western Cape. John E. Almond (Natura Viva cc, Cape Town) and Derek Ohland (Iziko Museums, Cape Town). January
2154:
Van Vuuren, C.J. and Cole, D.I., 1979. The stratigraphy and depositional environments of the Ecca Group in the northern part of the Karoo Basin. Geological
Society of South Africa Special Publication, 6,
3380:
Anderson, J.M. and
Cruickshank, A.R.J., 1973. The biostratigraphy of the Permian and Triassic, Part 2. A preliminary review of the distribution of Permian and Triassic strata in time and space.
746:
rock in this formation weather out white on the surface, often referred to in literature as the “white band”. It is the main diagnostic feature of this formation in this facies succession. The
2889:
Tietjen, Kristen; Criswell, Katharine E.; Finarelli, John A.; Gess, Robert W.; Coates, Michael I. (2017-01-01). "A symmoriiform chondrichthyan braincase and the origin of chimaeroid fishes".
3400:"Trace fossils as sedimentological and palaeoenvironmental indices in the Ecca Group (Lower Permian) of the Transvaal. Transactions of the Geological Society of South Africa, 83, pp.333-344"
2583:
Johnson, M.R., Van Vuuren, C.J., Visser, J.N.J., Cole, D.I., Wickens, H.D.V., Christie, A.D.M., Roberts, D.L. and Brandl, G., 2006. Sedimentary rocks of the Karoo Supergroup.
3534:
3275:
B.R. Turner, G. Stanistreet, M.K.G. Whateley (1981-11-01). "Trace fossils and palaeoenvironments in the Ecca group of the Nongoma Graben, northern Zululand, South Africa".
2220:
O. Catuneanu, P.J Hancox, B. Cairncross, and B.S Rubidge (2002-11-01). "Foredeep submarine fans and forebulge deltas: orogenic off-loading in the underfilled Karoo Basin".
3710:
1482:
often overlies unconformably on much older basement rocks unlike the other facies of the Ecca Group. It comprises three geological formations (from oldest to youngest):
3332:
4968:
4295:
2371:
3999:
2277:
O. Catuneanu, H. Wopfner, P.G. Eriksson, B. Cairncross, and B.S.Rubidge, R.M.H. Smith, and P.J. Hancox (2005-10-01). "The Karoo basins of south-central Africa".
3989:
942:. Minor upward thickening cycles are observed here which grow more prominent in the upper sections. The rock type changes in the upper sections to alternating
1027:
burrow traces are found. Together with the underlying Tierberg, Skoorsteenberg, and Kookfontein Formation, the Waterford Formation forms an upward-coarsening
3675:
1980:
R.M.H. Smith, P.G.Eriksson, W.J.Botha (1993-01-01). "A review of the stratigraphy and sedimentary environments of the Karoo-aged basins of Southern Africa".
504:
A mountain in the Tanqua Karoo, South Africa, with multiple layers of turbidites formed in the south-western portion of the Karoo Sea about 300 million years
3959:
2461:
B. Cairncross (1989-06-01). "Paleodepositional environments and tectonosedimentary controls of the postglacial Permian coals, Karoo Basin, South Africa".
4678:
3685:
1108:: In the southern facies the Whitehill Formation loses its diagnostic white band marker horizon. The rock type changes here to light brown, fine-grained
2527:
M.R Johnson, C.J Van Vuuren, W.F Hegenberger, R. Key, and U. Show (1996-07-01). "Stratigraphy of the Karoo Supergroup in southern Africa: an overview".
3851:
2703:
4264:
3705:
3527:
324:
A simplified geological map of the outcrops of Karoo Supergroup rocks in Southern Africa. The Ecca Group is represented by the orange key on the map.
2704:"Depositional Environments and Sequence Stratigraphy of an Exhumed Permian Mudstone-Dominated Submarine Slope Succession, Karoo Basin, South Africa"
3831:
3423:
3318:
3144:
2785:
2570:
2320:
2263:
2023:
2832:"Petrographical and geophysical investigation of the Ecca Group between Fort Beaufort and Grahamstown, in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa"
2167:"Reciprocal flexural behaviour and contrasting stratigraphies: a new basin development model for the Karoo retroarc foreland system, South Africa"
3974:
2801:"A composite submarine fan-delta-fluvial model for the Ecca and Lower Beaufort Groups of Permian Age in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa"
6157:
4935:
3914:
580:. These individual formations have been grouped into three geographical areas, which are the southern, western/northwestern, and northeastern
4973:
3939:
3929:
3856:
3463:
Vogt, A., 2004. National monuments in Namibia: An inventory of proclaimed national monuments in the Republic of Namibia. Gamsberg Macmillan.
6431:
3520:
1812:
Biostratigraphic correlation of fossils in the greater Gondwana across present-day South America, southern Africa, Antarctica and Australia
2411:"Grain size statistics and depositional pattern of the Ecca Group sandstones, Karoo Supergroup in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa"
6441:
4940:
468:. The mountain-building and erosion caused by the growing Gondwanide mountain range was the initial subsidence mechanism acting on the
2276:
3068:
Modesto, S. P. (2010-09-15). "The postcranial skeleton of the aquatic parareptile Mesosaurus tenuidens from the Gondwanan Permian".
2372:"Interplay of static loads and subduction dynamics in foreland basins: Reciprocal stratigraphies and the "missing" peripheral bulge"
6436:
3333:
https://www.sahra.org.za/sahris/sites/default/files/heritagereports/PIA_Mbila%20Phase%20I_Prevec%20March%202014_revised%20Final.pdf
1305:
occur throughout this formation. All these are indicative of a deep-water depositional environment. Carbonised plant fragments and
838:
beds. The fine-grained nature of the sediments indicate that the depositional environment was a low energy suspension setting in a
3105:"Shale Gas Characteristics of Permian Black Shales in South Africa: Results from Recent Drilling in the Ecca Group (Eastern Cape)"
3029:"The cranial skeleton of the Early Permian aquatic reptile Mesosaurus tenuidens: implications for relationships and palaeobiology"
6421:
6446:
4257:
3866:
3158:
Richard G. Vos and David K. Hobday (1977-01-01). "Storm beach deposits in the late Palaeozoic Ecca Group of South Africa".
2830:
Baiyegunhi, Christopher; Nxantsiya, Zusakhe; Pharoe, Kinshasa; Baiyegunhi, Temitope L.; Mepaiyeda, Seyi (1 January 2019).
2600:
Petrology, geochronology and provenance of the Laingsburg and Tanqua Karoo submarine fan systems, Ecca Group, South Africa
992:. Alternating slump and slide and coarsening upward cycles are observed in the lower sections while in the upper sections
6456:
4779:
1361:
intercalations are found in its upper sections, displaying horizontal, wavy, ripple, and ripple-drift cross lamination.
6162:
2984:
R.M.H. Smith (1990-01-01). "A review of stratigraphy and sedimentary environments of the Karoo Basin of South Africa".
2498:"Deposition of the Early to Late Permian Whitehill Formation during a sea-level highstand in a juvenile foreland basin"
2112:
Richard G.Vos, David K.Hobday (1977-01-01). "Storm beach deposits in the late Palaeozoic Ecca Group of South Africa".
1779:
rock deposits. The rock sediments are fine-grained overall, indicating that the rock sediments were deposited in both
6451:
6426:
4714:
4087:
3259:
2686:
2058:
398:. The Ecca sea was vast but shallow, reaching only around 500 m at its deepest in its west/northwestern and southern
2950:"Mesosaurus tenuidens and Stereosternum tumidum from the Permian Gondwana of both Southern Africa and South America"
690:
are a character diagnostic of its western outcrops. These rock sediments were deposited in a deep marine and distal
6380:
6259:
4250:
2077:
1867:
Fossil tree from the Permian Ecca Group of the Karoo Sequence at the petrified forest, east of Doro !Nawas, Namibia
599:, Collingham, and the uppermost Waterford Formations which are found in both the southern and western/northwestern
346:
in some sections, but in some localities overlying unconformably over much older basement rocks. It underlies the
5544:
134:, Collingham Formation, Tierberg Formation, Skoorsteenberg Formation, Kookfontein Formation, Waterford Formation.
2395:
6214:
6152:
5549:
1860:
were brought into the area and are considered to have been sourced from the nearby deposits of the Huab Basin.
414:
systems in the lower deposits which grade steadily north-eastwards to shallow marine deposits including shelf (
142:, Collingham Formation, Vischkuil Formation, Laingsburg Formation, Fort Brown Formation, Waterford Formation.
1046:
succession is the largest of the three facies succession. Its lowermost formations are deep marine comprising
996:
and channel-fill deposits are observed. These features indicate that the depositional environment constituted
5534:
5529:
4930:
4787:
3102:
1127:
deposits also occur intermittently. It is regarded as a distal, southern equivalent of the Vryheid Formation.
2748:
2166:
1409:, which are generally light in colour and are frequently interbedded with dark-grey to light yellowish grey
5810:
5554:
6115:
4978:
648:: In the west/northwestern facies the Prince Albert Formation is characterized by either greyish or olive
5805:
5539:
517:
4833:
4823:
4797:
3680:
1853:
1775:. Deposits of this formation interfinger laterally with the underlying Vryheid Formation and overlying
993:
1425:
layers. Outcrops of this formation are extremely diagnostic as a result of the alternating “bands” of
892:: Only found in the southernmost area of the western facies. A lens-shaped formation composed of five
641:
systems known from the marine Ecca. Associated formations are listed below (from oldest to youngest):
6234:
4759:
4057:
1929:
1190:
509:
2970:
2356:
2098:
1193:. The depositional environment is considered to have been deep marine within a basin-plain or outer
5855:
4724:
4375:
4311:
1365:
are sometimes found due to the Cape Orogenic event taking place during the time of deposition. The
1065:
is found in this facies succession and include the following formations (from oldest to youngest):
513:
3473:
Marion K. Bamford (2004-01-01). "Diversity of the Woody Vegetation of Gondwanan Southern Africa".
6204:
5684:
4792:
4507:
4461:
4385:
4273:
2526:
1924:
6219:
6147:
6110:
4802:
4683:
4446:
4077:
4047:
3778:
3439:"Karoo supergroup palaeontology of Namibia and brief description of a Thecodont from Omingonde"
2702:
Kavanagh, John P.; Flint, Stephen S.; Hodgson, David M.; Figueiredo, Jorge J. P. (2010-01-01).
879:
16:
Second of the main subdivisions of the Karoo Supergroup of geological strata in southern Africa
2078:"Fluvial Deposits of the Ecca and Beaufort Groups in the Eastern Karoo Basin, Southern Africa"
4729:
4092:
4072:
3612:
3312:
3138:
2957:
2779:
2564:
2497:
2343:
2314:
2257:
2085:
2017:
1287:
861:
3103:
Claire Geel, Hans-Martin Schulz, Peter Booth, Maarten de Wit, Brian Horsfield (2013-01-01).
2800:
1950:
1808:
1485:
678:
are found in the northernmost section of the western/northwestern facies, and upward-fining
6291:
6249:
6199:
4905:
4896:
4593:
4336:
3743:
3700:
3482:
3284:
3204:
Taxonomy, palaeoecology and palaeobiogeography of some palaeozoic fish of Southern Gondwana
3167:
2993:
2898:
2843:
2715:
2678:
Permian-Triassic Pangean Basins and Foldbelts Along the Panthalassan Margin of Gondwanaland
2645:
2619:"A new vertebrate biozone at the base of the Beaufort Group, Karoo sequence (South Africa)"
2536:
2422:
2383:
2286:
2229:
2178:
2121:
1989:
1817:
851:
577:
391:
464:
Plate. This resulted in the rise of the Gondwanide mountain range in what is known as the
8:
6416:
6394:
6368:
6254:
6095:
4849:
4742:
4698:
4673:
4544:
4522:
4410:
4400:
4360:
4216:
4167:
4082:
3773:
3647:
3590:
1908:
1821:
1603:
1104:
779:
726:
596:
394:
of the Ecca Group, the depositional environment, with some exceptions, was predominantly
139:
131:
3486:
3288:
3171:
2997:
2902:
2847:
2719:
2540:
2426:
2387:
2290:
2233:
2219:
2182:
2125:
1993:
1951:"Water depth in the Main Karoo Basin, South Africa, during Ecca (Permian) sedimentation"
6229:
6194:
5478:
4918:
4913:
4752:
4747:
4658:
4556:
4527:
4456:
4405:
4316:
4231:
4201:
4152:
4147:
3964:
3753:
3690:
3632:
3085:
2930:
2440:
2202:
1418:
465:
31:
4037:
3512:
3494:
2548:
2335:
2241:
1133:: The southern facies deposits of this formation yield diagnostic pale yellowish-grey
931:: The lower section of this formation is composed of horizontally laminated dark-grey
6319:
6224:
5900:
5493:
4923:
4588:
4583:
4561:
4517:
4512:
4480:
4468:
4390:
4321:
4172:
4132:
4122:
4107:
4062:
4042:
3979:
3949:
3934:
3881:
3826:
3821:
3806:
3498:
3446:
3417:
3399:
3363:
3300:
3296:
3255:
3202:
3183:
3179:
3126:
3089:
3050:
3045:
3028:
3009:
3005:
2922:
2914:
2861:
2812:
2767:
2731:
2682:
2657:
2626:
2552:
2509:
2478:
2474:
2444:
2302:
2298:
2245:
2194:
2190:
2137:
2133:
2054:
2005:
2001:
1962:
1530:
and exposures. The majority of the data collected from this formation have been from
1465:
1374:
1058:
1001:
909:
629:, pro-delta and beach environment deposits. The deposits of the western/northwestern
626:
431:
415:
359:
2949:
2763:
2598:
2206:
1522:
layers. This formation is only found in the easternmost section of the northeastern
5448:
5328:
5313:
5137:
5040:
4578:
4566:
4497:
4331:
4127:
4102:
4097:
3768:
3748:
3695:
3670:
3604:
3585:
3575:
3490:
3292:
3175:
3116:
3077:
3040:
3001:
2934:
2906:
2851:
2759:
2723:
2544:
2470:
2430:
2391:
2294:
2237:
2186:
2129:
2046:
1997:
1863:
1626:
561:
489:
477:
469:
335:
4027:
3438:
3355:
2618:
1557:
have been found, and the depositional environment is thought to be shallow marine.
1354:
comprise the bulk of the lower deposits of the Fort Brown Formation. Minor impure
621:. The rocks contain a complete transition, grading laterally into one other, from
6324:
6079:
6011:
5976:
5940:
5744:
5719:
5644:
5498:
5483:
5398:
5212:
5152:
5132:
5050:
4688:
4668:
4663:
4551:
4490:
4441:
4370:
4196:
4032:
3899:
3871:
3758:
3652:
3637:
3627:
3622:
3549:
3397:
3121:
3104:
3081:
2050:
1579:
1434:
1298:
1201:
layers indicates that volcanic activity took place during the time of deposition.
199:
1872:
6354:
6244:
6074:
5996:
5950:
5925:
5870:
5789:
5714:
5699:
5679:
5669:
5619:
5574:
5513:
5428:
5358:
5318:
5112:
4999:
4828:
4818:
4653:
4648:
4502:
4485:
4451:
4211:
4162:
4137:
4117:
4019:
3994:
3816:
3763:
3738:
3733:
3728:
1857:
1829:
1776:
1772:
1715:
1657:
1653:
1622:
1460:
is shallow marine in its lowermost and uppermost sections, and then changes to
1306:
1186:
1117:
1093:
1008:
964:: The western/northwestern deposits of this formation are composed of a mix of
901:
787:
767:
755:
715:
706:
565:
449:
347:
154:
117:
1490:
sediment. Over millions of years the plant material mineralized, becoming coal
319:
6410:
6178:
6105:
6043:
5915:
5910:
5885:
5835:
5754:
5739:
5729:
5654:
5629:
5624:
5614:
5609:
5579:
5463:
5438:
5408:
5353:
5303:
5272:
5267:
5262:
5247:
5242:
5237:
5217:
5207:
5172:
5142:
5117:
5091:
5030:
4891:
4886:
4326:
4157:
4112:
4052:
4009:
4004:
3796:
3642:
3570:
3558:
3502:
3450:
3367:
3304:
3187:
3130:
3054:
3013:
2918:
2865:
2816:
2771:
2735:
2661:
2630:
2556:
2513:
2482:
2306:
2249:
2198:
2141:
2009:
1966:
1912:
1904:
1900:
1721:
1634:
1543:
1373:
are extremely fine-grained, finely laminated and are considered to represent
802:
710:
367:
74:
35:
27:
3274:
2370:
Waschbusch, Paula; Beaumont, Christopher; Catuneanu, Octavian (1997-12-01).
500:
6239:
6209:
6001:
5991:
5955:
5880:
5860:
5840:
5784:
5769:
5759:
5664:
5649:
5604:
5503:
5453:
5433:
5403:
5393:
5343:
5333:
5298:
5277:
5257:
5252:
5197:
5182:
5060:
5045:
5025:
4769:
3969:
3954:
3944:
3889:
3861:
3846:
3841:
3811:
3617:
3580:
3564:
2926:
1895:
1762:
1704:
1639:
1583:
1554:
1551:
1539:
1388:
1385:
1295:
1257:
1227:
1085:
1050:
989:
936:
921:
916:
695:
585:
549:
537:
407:
355:
254:
236:
232:
4242:
2856:
2831:
2435:
2410:
6069:
6006:
5981:
5960:
5945:
5875:
5850:
5779:
5774:
5724:
5709:
5694:
5659:
5599:
5589:
5488:
5473:
5468:
5423:
5418:
5383:
5378:
5373:
5323:
5192:
5177:
5162:
5127:
5055:
4764:
4719:
4643:
4611:
4534:
4395:
4355:
4067:
3984:
3924:
3909:
3836:
3801:
2727:
1736:
1696:
1684:
1666:
1652:
are known from the Vryheid Formation, including their fertile organs and
1592:
1469:
1438:
1433:
This is thought to represent a marginal marine setting either within the
1381:
1194:
1081:
1054:
1028:
1004:
997:
955:
912:
905:
839:
810:
691:
638:
541:
529:
525:
521:
435:
411:
371:
343:
164:
49:
2910:
954:
of the Skoorsteenberg Formation where sediments were deposited in a pro-
6100:
6064:
5935:
5920:
5905:
5895:
5845:
5764:
5749:
5734:
5674:
5634:
5594:
5584:
5388:
5363:
5338:
5227:
5222:
5187:
5167:
5147:
4994:
4881:
4420:
4206:
4191:
3904:
3662:
1889:
1727:
1700:
1692:
1629:
water accumulated. The Vryheid Formation reaches a maximum of 1030m in
1283:
1275:
1272:
1242:
layers. It grades laterally into the upper Ripon Formation in the east.
1223:
1220:
1179:
1120:
1076:
layers with yellowish grey weathering are only known from the southern
1062:
875:
872:
792:
634:
488:, and backbulge flexural provinces. This resulted in deposition of the
457:
403:
363:
94:
59:
6349:
6048:
6027:
5986:
5704:
5689:
5508:
5458:
5443:
5413:
5368:
5348:
5308:
5202:
5157:
5122:
5107:
5086:
5070:
5009:
5004:
4693:
4226:
4221:
4182:
1979:
1792:
1769:
1765:
1709:
1688:
1679:
1671:
1587:
1519:
1511:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1358:
1355:
1347:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1291:
1279:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1253:
1249:
1239:
1231:
1216:
1208:
1183:
1167:
1163:
1155:
1152:
1113:
1109:
1097:
1023:
1012:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
947:
943:
939:
893:
847:
827:
771:
719:
683:
679:
671:
667:
533:
485:
473:
213:
191:
187:
99:
43:
3331:
Prevec, R., 2014. PHASE 1 PALAEONTOLOGICAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT. Link:
778:
are considered to have been deposited in a suspension setting under
146:: Pietermaritzburg Formation, Vryheid Formation, Volksrust Formation
5890:
5865:
5830:
5282:
5232:
5065:
5035:
4737:
3919:
2829:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1796:
1740:
1568:
1531:
1515:
1414:
1398:
1346:, which are usually olive grey in color, are extremely common. The
1017:
904:. The depositional environment is thought to have been an unstable
883:
831:
797:
703:
589:
545:
481:
461:
446:
406:
are situated respectively. The marine environment ranged from deep
375:
298:
287:
265:
183:
89:
84:
69:
64:
54:
3157:
1080:. These rock sediments were deposited in a deep marine and distal
6329:
5639:
1884:
1849:
1833:
1825:
1674:
1630:
1535:
1527:
1366:
1351:
1343:
1332:
882:
are found in the upper sections. Upwards-coarsening sequences of
731:
675:
553:
453:
379:
351:
276:
104:
79:
1903:
has also proven the lower Ecca formations to correlate with the
1397::This formation is exposed along a series of east-west trending
1057:
systems that grade upwards into channelized submarine slopes to
5930:
3894:
3720:
3600:
1880:
1876:
1784:
1732:
1643:
1596:
1572:
1564:
1547:
1523:
1499:
1479:
1457:
1377:
1336:
1302:
1089:
1077:
1047:
1043:
951:
783:
759:
751:
739:
699:
687:
660:
630:
622:
614:
600:
581:
557:
419:
399:
339:
217:
2701:
2045:, Regional Geology Reviews, Springer, Cham, pp. 141–149,
1610:
formed from compacted plant matter deposited at the bottom of
2646:"Sedimentology of the Collingham Formation, Karoo Supergroup"
2596:
2409:
Baiyegunhi, Christopher; Liu, Kuiwu; Gwavava, Oswald (2017).
2111:
1788:
1758:
1649:
1618:
1614:
1599:
1575:
1507:
1475:
1442:
1370:
1339:
1235:
1212:
1175:
1159:
1148:
1138:
1134:
1073:
1000:
front deposits in the lower sections which transitioned to a
965:
932:
897:
871:
beds are found in the lower sections of this formation while
864:
775:
763:
747:
743:
735:
663:
656:
423:
395:
195:
179:
2888:
950:
beds. This formation is a continuation of the environmental
3788:
2396:
10.1130/0091-7613(1997)025<1087:IOSLAS>2.3.CO;2
2369:
2336:"A basin analysis of the northern facies of the Ecca group"
2165:
Rubidge, B. S.; Hancox, P. J.; Catuneanu, O. (1998-12-01).
2039:
1852:
there is a locally well-known national monument called the
1780:
1754:
1744:
1661:
1646:
1611:
1607:
1503:
1472:
1461:
1362:
1198:
1171:
1124:
868:
843:
835:
653:
649:
427:
203:
2603:(Thesis thesis). Stellenbosch: University of Stellenbosch.
2043:
Origin and Evolution of the Cape Mountains and Karoo Basin
1563:: This formation has been subdivided into three different
1546:
where deposits of this formation are only found. Sporadic
625:
marine deposits through to channelized submarine slope to
4969:
List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in South Africa
4296:
List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in South Africa
4142:
1248:: Consists mainly of tabular, poorly-sorted fine-grained
1137:, often referred to in literature as the “Maijiesfontein
618:
439:
1234:. Coalified plant fragments are frequently found in the
512:
in its westernmost deposits, and continues east through
3542:
3207:(Thesis thesis). Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University.
2986:
Journal of African Earth Sciences (and the Middle East)
1982:
Journal of African Earth Sciences (and the Middle East)
1824:, correlate in age with the Huab Basin of northwestern
3398:
Stanistreet, I.G., Le Blanc Smith, G. and Cadle, A.B.
2164:
1747:
seams themselves are classified as compaction fossils.
548:. In the extreme northeast deposits are found east of
456:) that had previously begun to take course due to the
452:. This foreland system was caused by crustal uplift (
2408:
4679:
Tectonic evolution of the Barberton greenstone belt
1949:Visser, J. C.; Loock, J. N. J. & (1978-05-01).
988:are horizontally laminated and often exhibit wave-
442:settings are also well known from the Ecca Group.
370:, the Ecca Group ranges between Early to earliest
3472:
3356:"THE BIOSTRATIGRAPHY OF THE PERMIAN AND TRIASSIC"
3277:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
1820:of the Ecca Group, particularly the rocks of the
1567:arrangements. They are dominated by fine-grained
1211:units that are interbedded with planar-laminated
588:there are deposits of as of yet undifferentiated
6408:
2675:Veevers, J. J.; Powell, Chris McA (1994-01-01).
2612:
2610:
2035:
2033:
818:(syn.Mesosaurus brasiliensis), Permian (270 myo)
6137:
1526:succession and is not well studied due to poor
1478:settings in its central deposits. The northern
532:. In the central north deposits are found near
6158:Geological Commission of the Cape of Good Hope
4936:Department of Mineral Resources (South Africa)
3247:
2071:
2069:
1871:Abroad, Ecca-aged deposits are known from the
1061:marine and beach environments. The Laingsburg
860:: Predominantly composed of blackish, planar,
508:The rocks of the Ecca Group first appear near
334:is the second of the main subdivisions of the
4974:Archean life in the Barberton Greenstone Belt
4258:
3528:
2674:
2607:
2460:
2030:
1384:setting. Fragmentary plant hash material and
1151:in its westernmost outcrops which grade into
3422:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3317:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3248:Collinson, J. D.; Lewin, John (2009-04-15).
3143:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2983:
2784:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2597:Mve Nguema and Oliver Patrice (2005-12-01).
2569:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2319:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2262:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2022:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1534:cores. In addition exposed outcrops quickly
576:The Ecca Group comprises sixteen recognized
4272:
3201:Evans, F. J. (Fiona Jocelyn) (2005-12-01).
2456:
2454:
2066:
1948:
1282:layers along with larger, brown-weathering
6387:
5798:
5522:
4941:Department of Mineral Resources and Energy
4265:
4251:
3535:
3521:
806:, have been recovered from this formation.
342:. It mainly follows conformably after the
318:
4633:
4285:
3120:
3044:
3033:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society
2855:
2434:
595:With the exception of the Prince Albert,
3436:
3353:
2798:
2451:
1862:
1807:
1484:
1100:have been recovered from this formation.
809:
722:have been recovered from this formation.
686:sequences that often contain ice rafted
592:sequences attributed to the Ecca Group.
499:
460:of the Palaeo-pacific plate beneath the
3067:
3026:
2643:
2616:
1799:has been recovered from this formation.
1602:were formed below the water surface in
850:took place during the time of sediment
445:The Ecca Group was deposited in a vast
6409:
2947:
2495:
2158:
2075:
1294:and slump structures, are found here.
896:-rich units that are interbedded with
571:
6308:
6281:
6280:
6136:
4957:
4870:
4632:
4284:
4246:
3516:
3200:
2463:International Journal of Coal Geology
1637:, within the Nongoma Graben. Diverse
1498:: Generally composed of dark colored
1015:layers, and in the other rock layers
4871:
3867:West and Central African Rift System
3027:Modesto, Sean Patrick (2006-03-01).
834:alternated with softer, yellow-grey
495:
6432:Geologic formations of South Africa
3543:Major African geological formations
2948:D.c, Araujo; B.w, Oelofsen (1987).
1899:have also been recovered. Finally,
13:
6163:Geological Society of South Africa
3251:Modern and Ancient Fluvial Systems
3070:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
2333:
1162:layers alternate with subordinate
774:remains are frequently found. The
738:dominant in the west/northwestern
14:
6468:
6442:Geologic formations of Madagascar
4715:List of volcanoes in South Africa
2681:. Geological Society of America.
2529:Journal of African Earth Sciences
2279:Journal of African Earth Sciences
2222:Journal of African Earth Sciences
1011:logs are frequently found in the
426:deposits in younger successions.
338:of geological strata in southern
6386:
6375:
6374:
6362:
6348:
6260:Eduard Meine van Zinderen-Bakker
4958:
3046:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00205.x
2805:South African Journal of Geology
2650:South African Journal of Geology
2644:Viljoen, J. H. A. (1994-01-01).
2502:South African Journal of Geology
2299:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.007
2191:10.1046/j.1365-2117.1998.00078.x
1955:South African Journal of Geology
608:Western/Northwestern Ecca facies
402:where the Tanqua and Laingsburg
291:
280:
269:
258:
247:
47:
6437:Geologic formations of Botswana
5545:Pristerognathus Assemblage Zone
3466:
3457:
3430:
3391:
3374:
3347:
3337:
3325:
3268:
3241:
3231:
3221:
3211:
3194:
3151:
3096:
3061:
3020:
2977:
2941:
2882:
2872:
2823:
2792:
2764:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2012.02.006
2742:
2708:Journal of Sedimentary Research
2695:
2668:
2637:
2590:
2577:
2520:
2496:Visser, J. N. J. (1992-01-01).
2489:
2402:
2363:
2327:
1230:are often found in the massive
6422:Carboniferous System of Africa
6153:Evolutionary Studies Institute
5550:Tapinocephalus Assemblage Zone
2799:Kingsley, C. S. (1981-01-01).
2270:
2213:
2148:
2105:
1973:
1942:
1879:and the Petolas Basin of both
1828:, and lower formations of the
1803:
826:: Is composed of thin beds of
528:, and up until the coast near
1:
5535:Daptocephalus Assemblage Zone
5530:Cistecephalus Assemblage Zone
4931:Minerals Council South Africa
4788:1620 Robben Island earthquake
3495:10.1016/S1342-937X(05)70314-2
2549:10.1016/S0899-5362(96)00048-6
2334:Cj, Van Vuuren (2016-09-22).
2242:10.1016/S0899-5362(02)00154-9
1935:
1667:Asterotheca hammanskraalensis
1417:. Well-preserved symmetrical
1380:that were deposited in a pro-
1147:: Dominated by dark coloured
976:, and fine to medium-grained
842:environment. The presence of
418:) marine and marginal marine
385:
366:analyses, and other means of
6447:Paleontology in South Africa
6138:Research and administration‎
5811:Lystrosaurus Assemblage Zone
5555:Tropidostoma Assemblage Zone
3297:10.1016/0031-0182(81)90053-5
3180:10.1016/0037-0738(77)90032-X
3122:10.1016/j.egypro.2013.08.030
3082:10.1080/02724634.2010.501443
3006:10.1016/0899-5362(90)90050-O
2752:Marine and Petroleum Geology
2475:10.1016/0166-5162(89)90058-X
2134:10.1016/0037-0738(77)90032-X
2051:10.1007/978-3-319-40859-0_14
2002:10.1016/0899-5362(93)90164-L
1207:: Composed of four, massive
584:successions. In the east of
7:
5806:Cynognathus Assemblage Zone
5540:Eodicynodon Assemblage Zone
2585:The geology of South Africa
1918:
1582:seams, and coarse-grained,
1578:with alternating layers of
1550:plant material and various
919:of worm feeding trails and
138:: Prince Albert Formation,
130:: Prince Albert Formation,
128:Western/Northwestern facies
10:
6473:
6457:Paleontology in Madagascar
4834:Vredefort impact structure
4824:Morokweng impact structure
4798:2006 Mozambique earthquake
3681:Central African Shear Zone
2617:Rubidge, Bruce S. (1990).
1703:. Abundant, low diversity
994:ball-and-pillow structures
935:that are interbedded with
6342:
6315:
6309:
6304:
6287:
6276:
6235:Daniel Rossouw Kannemeyer
6187:
6171:
6143:
6132:
6116:Waterloo Farm lagerstätte
6088:
6057:
6036:
6020:
5969:
5823:
5567:
5291:
5100:
5079:
5018:
4987:
4979:Waterloo Farm lagerstätte
4964:
4953:
4877:
4866:
4842:
4811:
4778:
4760:Barberton Greenstone Belt
4707:
4639:
4628:
4604:
4431:
4345:
4304:
4291:
4280:
4181:
4058:Central Pangean Mountains
4018:
3880:
3787:
3719:
3711:Western Meseta Shear Zone
3661:
3599:
3548:
3437:Pickford, Martin (1995).
3254:. John Wiley & Sons.
2076:Hobday, David K. (1977).
1930:Geography of South Africa
1844:. Near the small town of
1496:Pietermarizberg Formation
1256:alternate with dark-grey
902:bouma turbidite sequences
790:fossils, most notably of
711:Dwykaselachus oosthuizeni
317:
309:
304:
242:
228:
223:
209:
175:
170:
160:
150:
123:
113:
26:
21:
6452:Paleontology in Botswana
6427:Permian System of Africa
5856:Coelophysis rhodesiensis
4725:Pilanesberg Game Reserve
4376:Table Mountain Sandstone
4312:Bushveld Igneous Complex
3354:Anderson, J. M. (1973).
1451:Northeastern Ecca facies
1170:, and minor yellow-grey
890:Skoorsteenberg Formation
564:and all the way down to
354:and exposures. Based on
6369:South Africa portal
6205:Charles Kimberlin Brain
4793:1969 Tulbagh earthquake
4508:Abrahamskraal Formation
4462:Sundays River Formation
4386:Abrahamskraal Formation
4274:Geology of South Africa
3443:Palaeontologia Africana
3360:Palaeontologia Africana
2623:Palaeontologia Africana
1925:Geology of South Africa
1743:, and fish scales. The
1421:are often found in the
1070:Prince Albert Formation
766:. Fossil plant matter,
646:Prince Albert Formation
633:fall within the Tanqua
390:During the time of the
6220:Anusuya Chinsamy-Turan
6148:Council for Geoscience
6111:West Coast Fossil Park
4803:2014 Orkney earthquake
4684:Terra Australis Orogen
4634:‎Tectonics and orogeny
4447:Buffelskloof Formation
4078:Eastern Rift mountains
4000:Tanzania Coastal Basin
3779:Terra Australis Orogen
2965:Cite journal requires
2351:Cite journal requires
2093:Cite journal requires
1868:
1813:
1491:
1116:deposits that contain
900:layers. These contain
819:
782:, although shallower,
505:
4730:Prince Edward Islands
4286:Geological formations
4093:Great Karas Mountains
4073:Eastern Arc Mountains
3613:Arabian-Nubian Shield
2857:10.1515/geo-2019-0025
2436:10.1515/geo-2017-0042
1866:
1818:geological formations
1811:
1757:-rich, grey to black
1488:
1178:layers often contain
1072:: Black to dark grey
929:Kookfontein Formation
813:
803:Stereosternum tumidum
694:setting, and various
617:succession is purely
578:geological formations
503:
6292:Geology of Cape Town
6250:John Talbot Robinson
6200:Lieuwe Dirk Boonstra
4906:Coal in South Africa
4897:Banket (mining term)
4594:Normandien Formation
4337:Transvaal Supergroup
3990:Somali Coastal Basin
3701:Mwembeshi Shear Zone
3404:www.researchgate.net
2728:10.2110/jsr.2010.002
1621:formed on abandoned
1313:Fort Brown Formation
1286:structures. Various
1205:Laingsburg Formation
1131:Collingham Formation
1037:Southern Ecca facies
846:beds indicates that
824:Collingham Formation
816:Mesosaurus tenuidens
793:Mesosaurus tenuidens
536:, running along the
6255:George William Stow
6096:Cradle of Humankind
4850:Bellsbank meteorite
4743:Finsch diamond mine
4699:Witwatersrand Basin
4674:Makhonjwa Mountains
4545:Whitehill Formation
4523:Middleton Formation
4411:Whitehill Formation
4401:Ganigobis Formation
4361:Ganigobis Formation
4168:Teffedest Mountains
4083:Ethiopian Highlands
3774:Pan-African orogens
3744:East African Orogen
3676:Broodkop Shear Zone
3648:West African Craton
3591:Victoria Microplate
3487:2004GondR...7..153B
3289:1981PPP....36..113T
3172:1977SedG...19..217V
3160:Sedimentary Geology
2998:1990JAfES..10..117S
2911:10.1038/nature20806
2903:2017Natur.541..208C
2848:2019OGeo...11...25B
2720:2010JSedR..80...97F
2541:1996JAfES..23....3J
2427:2017OGeo....9...42B
2388:1997Geo....25.1087C
2291:2005JAfES..43..211C
2234:2002JAfES..35..489C
2183:1998BasR...10..417C
2126:1977SedG...19..217V
2114:Sedimentary Geology
1994:1993JAfES..16..143S
1909:Marcellus Formation
1822:Whitehill Formation
1753:: Mainly comprises
1751:Volksrust Formation
1606:conditions and the
1395:Waterford Formation
1290:structures, namely
1271:layers. Spherical,
1145:Vischkuil Formation
1105:Whitehill Formation
962:Waterford Formation
925:fossils are common.
727:Whitehill Formation
572:Stratigraphic units
144:Northeastern facies
140:Whitehill Formation
132:Whitehill Formation
28:Stratigraphic range
6355:Geology portal
6230:Alfred W. Crompton
6195:Andrew Geddes Bain
5479:Pristerognathoides
4919:Titanium in Africa
4914:Platinum in Africa
4910:Iron ore in Africa
4753:Koffiefontein mine
4748:Jagersfontein Mine
4659:Gondwanide orogeny
4557:Bushveld Sandstone
4528:Teekloof Formation
4457:Kirkwood Formation
4406:Teekloof Formation
4317:Fig Tree Formation
4232:List of inselbergs
4202:Jugurtha Tableland
4153:Sankwala Mountains
4148:Rwenzori Mountains
3965:Ouled Abdoun Basin
3960:Orange River Basin
3882:Sedimentary basins
3691:Foumban Shear Zone
3633:Saharan Metacraton
1869:
1814:
1791:settings. A large
1492:
1263:composed of thin,
1197:. The presence of
908:-front slope of a
858:Tierberg Formation
820:
707:cartilaginous fish
637:, one of the vast
568:in the southeast.
506:
466:Gondwanide orogeny
360:lithostratigraphic
32:Late Carboniferous
6404:
6403:
6338:
6337:
6320:Pothole (geology)
6300:
6299:
6282:Regional articles
6272:
6271:
6268:
6267:
6225:H. Basil S. Cooke
6128:
6127:
6124:
6123:
5901:Heterodontosaurus
5819:
5818:
5563:
5562:
5494:Promoschorhynchus
4949:
4948:
4924:Uranium in Africa
4872:‎Mineral deposits
4862:
4861:
4858:
4857:
4624:
4623:
4620:
4619:
4589:Molteno Formation
4584:Katberg Formation
4562:Clarens Formation
4518:Katberg Formation
4513:Balfour Formation
4481:Drakensberg Group
4469:Kalahari Deposits
4391:Balfour Formation
4322:Komatii Formation
4240:
4239:
4173:Tibesti Mountains
4133:Mitumba Mountains
4123:Mandara Mountains
4108:Imatong Mountains
4063:Chaillu Mountains
4043:Bambouk Mountains
3980:Rio del Rey Basin
3950:Niger Delta Basin
3935:Iullemmeden Basin
3827:Gulf of Suez Rift
3822:East African Rift
3807:Bahr el Arab rift
3754:Gondwanide Orogen
3686:Chuan Shear Zones
3475:Gondwana Research
2897:(7636): 208–211.
2382:(12): 1087–1090.
1901:geological dating
1887:where fossils of
1761:containing thin,
1561:Vryheid Formation
1518:with subordinate
1456:The northeastern
1278:are found in the
1158:in the east. The
1084:setting. Various
946:and fine-grained
848:volcanic activity
786:conditions. Rare
496:Geographic extent
422:, and finally to
368:geological dating
328:
327:
6464:
6390:
6389:
6378:
6377:
6367:
6366:
6365:
6353:
6352:
6306:
6305:
6278:
6277:
6169:
6168:
6134:
6133:
5796:
5795:
5520:
5519:
5449:Macroscelesaurus
5329:Cistecephaloides
5314:Blattoidealestes
5138:Cistecephaloides
5041:Deltacephalaspis
4985:
4984:
4955:
4954:
4868:
4867:
4705:
4704:
4630:
4629:
4579:Elliot Formation
4567:Elliot Formation
4498:Karoo Supergroup
4332:Onverwacht Group
4302:
4301:
4282:
4281:
4267:
4260:
4253:
4244:
4243:
4128:Marrah Mountains
4103:Hoggar Mountains
4098:Guinea Highlands
4088:Great Escarpment
3852:Sangha Aulacogen
3769:Mauritanide Belt
3696:Kandi Fault Zone
3671:Aswa Dislocation
3586:Seychelles Plate
3576:Madagascar Plate
3537:
3530:
3523:
3514:
3513:
3507:
3506:
3470:
3464:
3461:
3455:
3454:
3434:
3428:
3427:
3421:
3413:
3411:
3410:
3395:
3389:
3378:
3372:
3371:
3351:
3345:
3341:
3335:
3329:
3323:
3322:
3316:
3308:
3283:(1–2): 113–123.
3272:
3266:
3265:
3245:
3239:
3235:
3229:
3225:
3219:
3215:
3209:
3208:
3198:
3192:
3191:
3155:
3149:
3148:
3142:
3134:
3124:
3100:
3094:
3093:
3076:(5): 1378–1395.
3065:
3059:
3058:
3048:
3024:
3018:
3017:
2992:(1–2): 117–137.
2981:
2975:
2974:
2968:
2963:
2961:
2953:
2945:
2939:
2938:
2886:
2880:
2876:
2870:
2869:
2859:
2836:Open Geosciences
2827:
2821:
2820:
2796:
2790:
2789:
2783:
2775:
2746:
2740:
2739:
2699:
2693:
2692:
2672:
2666:
2665:
2641:
2635:
2634:
2614:
2605:
2604:
2594:
2588:
2581:
2575:
2574:
2568:
2560:
2524:
2518:
2517:
2508:(5–6): 181–193.
2493:
2487:
2486:
2469:(1–4): 365–380.
2458:
2449:
2448:
2438:
2415:Open Geosciences
2406:
2400:
2399:
2367:
2361:
2360:
2354:
2349:
2347:
2339:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2318:
2310:
2285:(1–3): 211–253.
2274:
2268:
2267:
2261:
2253:
2217:
2211:
2210:
2162:
2156:
2152:
2146:
2145:
2109:
2103:
2102:
2096:
2091:
2089:
2081:
2073:
2064:
2063:
2037:
2028:
2027:
2021:
2013:
1988:(1–2): 143–169.
1977:
1971:
1970:
1946:
1854:Petrified Forest
1405:. It is rich in
1299:fossil trackways
1226:and clay pebble
990:rippled surfaces
878:and clay pellet
562:Pietermaritzburg
476:partitioned the
336:Karoo Supergroup
322:
297:
295:
294:
286:
284:
283:
275:
273:
272:
264:
262:
261:
253:
251:
250:
109:
46:
19:
18:
6472:
6471:
6467:
6466:
6465:
6463:
6462:
6461:
6407:
6406:
6405:
6400:
6363:
6361:
6347:
6334:
6325:Steep structure
6311:
6296:
6283:
6264:
6188:Paleontologists
6183:
6167:
6139:
6120:
6084:
6080:Vulpes skinneri
6053:
6032:
6016:
6012:Ptychoceratodus
5977:Acanthohoplites
5965:
5941:Ptychoceratodus
5815:
5794:
5745:Ptychoceratodus
5720:Platycraniellus
5645:Ictidosuchoides
5559:
5518:
5499:Scalopocephalus
5484:Pristerognathus
5399:Homodontosaurus
5287:
5213:Ictidosuchoides
5153:Dicynodontoides
5133:Charassognathus
5096:
5075:
5051:Gondwanascorpio
5014:
4983:
4960:
4945:
4873:
4854:
4838:
4807:
4774:
4703:
4689:Transvaal Basin
4669:Kalahari Craton
4664:Kaapvaal Craton
4635:
4616:
4600:
4552:Stormberg Group
4491:Uitenhage Group
4442:Uitenhage Group
4427:
4371:Bokkeveld Group
4341:
4300:
4287:
4276:
4271:
4241:
4236:
4197:Mount Gorongosa
4177:
4038:Aurès Mountains
4033:Atlas Mountains
4020:Mountain ranges
4014:
3900:Blue Nile Basin
3876:
3872:White Nile rift
3783:
3749:Eburnean Orogen
3715:
3706:Todi Shear Zone
3657:
3653:Zimbabwe Craton
3638:Tanzania Craton
3628:Kalahari Craton
3623:Kaapvaal Craton
3595:
3544:
3541:
3511:
3510:
3471:
3467:
3462:
3458:
3435:
3431:
3415:
3414:
3408:
3406:
3396:
3392:
3382:Palaeontol. Aft
3379:
3375:
3352:
3348:
3342:
3338:
3330:
3326:
3310:
3309:
3273:
3269:
3262:
3246:
3242:
3236:
3232:
3226:
3222:
3216:
3212:
3199:
3195:
3156:
3152:
3136:
3135:
3109:Energy Procedia
3101:
3097:
3066:
3062:
3025:
3021:
2982:
2978:
2966:
2964:
2955:
2954:
2946:
2942:
2887:
2883:
2877:
2873:
2828:
2824:
2797:
2793:
2777:
2776:
2747:
2743:
2700:
2696:
2689:
2673:
2669:
2642:
2638:
2615:
2608:
2595:
2591:
2582:
2578:
2562:
2561:
2525:
2521:
2494:
2490:
2459:
2452:
2407:
2403:
2368:
2364:
2352:
2350:
2341:
2340:
2332:
2328:
2312:
2311:
2275:
2271:
2255:
2254:
2218:
2214:
2163:
2159:
2153:
2149:
2110:
2106:
2094:
2092:
2083:
2082:
2074:
2067:
2061:
2038:
2031:
2015:
2014:
1978:
1974:
1947:
1943:
1938:
1921:
1806:
1654:fruitifications
1623:alluvial plains
1580:bituminous coal
1538:out due to the
1435:intertidal zone
1391:are found here.
1319:of alternating
1309:are also found.
1246:Ripon Formation
1195:basin-floor fan
1191:liesegang rings
1009:Fossilized tree
574:
498:
388:
323:
292:
290:
281:
279:
270:
268:
259:
257:
248:
246:
136:Southern facies
108:
107:
102:
97:
92:
87:
82:
77:
72:
67:
62:
57:
52:
41:
40:
38:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6470:
6460:
6459:
6454:
6449:
6444:
6439:
6434:
6429:
6424:
6419:
6402:
6401:
6399:
6398:
6391:
6384:
6372:
6358:
6343:
6340:
6339:
6336:
6335:
6333:
6332:
6327:
6322:
6316:
6313:
6312:
6302:
6301:
6298:
6297:
6295:
6294:
6288:
6285:
6284:
6274:
6273:
6270:
6269:
6266:
6265:
6263:
6262:
6257:
6252:
6247:
6245:James Kitching
6242:
6237:
6232:
6227:
6222:
6217:
6212:
6207:
6202:
6197:
6191:
6189:
6185:
6184:
6182:
6181:
6175:
6173:
6166:
6165:
6160:
6155:
6150:
6144:
6141:
6140:
6130:
6129:
6126:
6125:
6122:
6121:
6119:
6118:
6113:
6108:
6103:
6098:
6092:
6090:
6086:
6085:
6083:
6082:
6077:
6075:Panthera shawi
6072:
6067:
6061:
6059:
6055:
6054:
6052:
6051:
6046:
6040:
6038:
6034:
6033:
6031:
6030:
6024:
6022:
6018:
6017:
6015:
6014:
6009:
6004:
5999:
5997:Macroscaphites
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5973:
5971:
5967:
5966:
5964:
5963:
5958:
5953:
5951:Sefapanosaurus
5948:
5943:
5938:
5933:
5928:
5926:Massospondylus
5923:
5918:
5913:
5908:
5903:
5898:
5893:
5888:
5883:
5878:
5873:
5871:Erythrotherium
5868:
5863:
5858:
5853:
5848:
5843:
5838:
5833:
5827:
5825:
5821:
5820:
5817:
5816:
5814:
5813:
5808:
5802:
5800:
5793:
5792:
5790:Zorillodontops
5787:
5782:
5777:
5772:
5767:
5762:
5757:
5752:
5747:
5742:
5737:
5732:
5727:
5722:
5717:
5715:Plateosauravus
5712:
5707:
5702:
5700:Olivierosuchus
5697:
5692:
5687:
5682:
5680:Microgomphodon
5677:
5672:
5670:Melanorosaurus
5667:
5662:
5657:
5652:
5647:
5642:
5637:
5632:
5627:
5622:
5620:Erythrotherium
5617:
5612:
5607:
5602:
5597:
5592:
5587:
5582:
5577:
5575:Batrachosuchus
5571:
5569:
5565:
5564:
5561:
5560:
5558:
5557:
5552:
5547:
5542:
5537:
5532:
5526:
5524:
5517:
5516:
5514:Uranocentrodon
5511:
5506:
5501:
5496:
5491:
5486:
5481:
5476:
5471:
5466:
5461:
5456:
5451:
5446:
5441:
5436:
5431:
5429:Lanthanostegus
5426:
5421:
5416:
5411:
5406:
5401:
5396:
5391:
5386:
5381:
5376:
5371:
5366:
5361:
5359:Cynariognathus
5356:
5351:
5346:
5341:
5336:
5331:
5326:
5321:
5319:Brachyprosopus
5316:
5311:
5306:
5301:
5295:
5293:
5292:Beaufort Group
5289:
5288:
5286:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5255:
5250:
5245:
5240:
5235:
5230:
5225:
5220:
5215:
5210:
5205:
5200:
5195:
5190:
5185:
5180:
5175:
5170:
5165:
5160:
5155:
5150:
5145:
5140:
5135:
5130:
5125:
5120:
5115:
5113:Alopecognathus
5110:
5104:
5102:
5098:
5097:
5095:
5094:
5089:
5083:
5081:
5077:
5076:
5074:
5073:
5068:
5063:
5058:
5053:
5048:
5043:
5038:
5033:
5028:
5022:
5020:
5016:
5015:
5013:
5012:
5007:
5002:
5000:Onychopterella
4997:
4991:
4989:
4982:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4965:
4962:
4961:
4951:
4950:
4947:
4946:
4944:
4943:
4938:
4933:
4927:
4926:
4921:
4916:
4911:
4908:
4902:
4901:
4900:
4899:
4889:
4884:
4878:
4875:
4874:
4864:
4863:
4860:
4859:
4856:
4855:
4853:
4852:
4846:
4844:
4840:
4839:
4837:
4836:
4831:
4829:Tswaing crater
4826:
4821:
4819:Kalkkop crater
4815:
4813:
4812:Impact craters
4809:
4808:
4806:
4805:
4800:
4795:
4790:
4784:
4782:
4776:
4775:
4773:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4756:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4732:
4727:
4722:
4717:
4711:
4709:
4702:
4701:
4696:
4691:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4654:Ellisras Basin
4651:
4649:Cape Fold Belt
4646:
4640:
4637:
4636:
4626:
4625:
4622:
4621:
4618:
4617:
4615:
4614:
4608:
4606:
4602:
4601:
4599:
4598:
4597:
4596:
4591:
4586:
4581:
4573:
4572:
4571:
4570:
4569:
4564:
4559:
4549:
4548:
4547:
4537:
4532:
4531:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4515:
4510:
4503:Beaufort Group
4495:
4494:
4493:
4488:
4486:Enon Formation
4483:
4474:
4473:
4472:
4471:
4466:
4465:
4464:
4459:
4454:
4452:Enon Formation
4449:
4435:
4433:
4429:
4428:
4426:
4425:
4424:
4423:
4415:
4414:
4413:
4408:
4403:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4380:
4379:
4378:
4373:
4365:
4364:
4363:
4358:
4352:Carboniferous
4349:
4347:
4343:
4342:
4340:
4339:
4334:
4329:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4308:
4306:
4305:Palaeoarchaean
4299:
4298:
4292:
4289:
4288:
4278:
4277:
4270:
4269:
4262:
4255:
4247:
4238:
4237:
4235:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4217:Mont Niénokoué
4214:
4212:Mulanje Massif
4209:
4204:
4199:
4194:
4188:
4186:
4179:
4178:
4176:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4163:Serra da Chela
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4138:Nuba Mountains
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4118:Loma Mountains
4115:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4048:Blue Mountains
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4024:
4022:
4016:
4015:
4013:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3995:Taoudeni Basin
3992:
3987:
3982:
3977:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3907:
3902:
3897:
3892:
3886:
3884:
3878:
3877:
3875:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3844:
3839:
3834:
3832:Lamu Embayment
3829:
3824:
3819:
3817:Blue Nile rift
3814:
3809:
3804:
3799:
3793:
3791:
3785:
3784:
3782:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3759:Kibaran Orogen
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3734:Cape Fold Belt
3731:
3725:
3723:
3717:
3716:
3714:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3667:
3665:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3609:
3607:
3597:
3596:
3594:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3567:
3563:Minor plates:
3561:
3557:Major plates:
3554:
3552:
3546:
3545:
3540:
3539:
3532:
3525:
3517:
3509:
3508:
3481:(1): 153–164.
3465:
3456:
3429:
3390:
3373:
3346:
3336:
3324:
3267:
3260:
3240:
3230:
3220:
3210:
3193:
3150:
3095:
3060:
3039:(3): 345–368.
3019:
2976:
2967:|journal=
2940:
2881:
2871:
2842:(1): 313–326.
2822:
2791:
2741:
2694:
2687:
2667:
2656:(2): 167–183.
2636:
2606:
2589:
2576:
2519:
2488:
2450:
2421:(1): 554–576.
2401:
2362:
2353:|journal=
2326:
2269:
2228:(4): 489–502.
2212:
2177:(4): 417–439.
2171:Basin Research
2157:
2147:
2104:
2095:|journal=
2065:
2059:
2029:
1972:
1961:(2): 185–191.
1940:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1933:
1932:
1927:
1920:
1917:
1858:Petrified logs
1830:Kalahari Basin
1805:
1802:
1801:
1800:
1777:Beaufort Group
1748:
1737:conchostracans
1716:Diplocraterion
1699:, and diverse
1558:
1447:
1446:
1413:and sometimes
1392:
1310:
1243:
1202:
1174:deposits. The
1142:
1128:
1101:
1053:sediments and
1033:
1032:
959:
926:
887:
855:
808:
807:
796:, and another
788:marine reptile
723:
573:
570:
566:Port St. Johns
497:
494:
450:foreland basin
387:
384:
372:Middle Permian
348:Beaufort Group
326:
325:
315:
314:
311:
307:
306:
302:
301:
244:
240:
239:
230:
226:
225:
221:
220:
211:
207:
206:
177:
173:
172:
168:
167:
162:
158:
157:
155:Beaufort Group
152:
148:
147:
125:
121:
120:
118:Geologic group
115:
111:
110:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
53:
48:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6469:
6458:
6455:
6453:
6450:
6448:
6445:
6443:
6440:
6438:
6435:
6433:
6430:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6418:
6415:
6414:
6412:
6397:
6396:
6392:
6385:
6383:
6382:
6373:
6371:
6370:
6359:
6357:
6356:
6351:
6345:
6344:
6341:
6331:
6328:
6326:
6323:
6321:
6318:
6317:
6314:
6307:
6303:
6293:
6290:
6289:
6286:
6279:
6275:
6261:
6258:
6256:
6253:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6236:
6233:
6231:
6228:
6226:
6223:
6221:
6218:
6216:
6213:
6211:
6208:
6206:
6203:
6201:
6198:
6196:
6193:
6192:
6190:
6186:
6180:
6179:Hans Merensky
6177:
6176:
6174:
6170:
6164:
6161:
6159:
6156:
6154:
6151:
6149:
6146:
6145:
6142:
6135:
6131:
6117:
6114:
6112:
6109:
6107:
6106:Scylacorhinus
6104:
6102:
6099:
6097:
6094:
6093:
6091:
6087:
6081:
6078:
6076:
6073:
6071:
6068:
6066:
6063:
6062:
6060:
6056:
6050:
6047:
6045:
6044:Africanacetus
6042:
6041:
6039:
6035:
6029:
6026:
6025:
6023:
6019:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5974:
5972:
5968:
5962:
5959:
5957:
5954:
5952:
5949:
5947:
5944:
5942:
5939:
5937:
5934:
5932:
5929:
5927:
5924:
5922:
5919:
5917:
5916:Litargosuchus
5914:
5912:
5911:Lesothosaurus
5909:
5907:
5904:
5902:
5899:
5897:
5894:
5892:
5889:
5887:
5886:Gigantoscelus
5884:
5882:
5879:
5877:
5874:
5872:
5869:
5867:
5864:
5862:
5859:
5857:
5854:
5852:
5849:
5847:
5844:
5842:
5839:
5837:
5836:Abrictosaurus
5834:
5832:
5829:
5828:
5826:
5822:
5812:
5809:
5807:
5804:
5803:
5801:
5797:
5791:
5788:
5786:
5783:
5781:
5778:
5776:
5773:
5771:
5768:
5766:
5763:
5761:
5758:
5756:
5755:Scaloposaurus
5753:
5751:
5748:
5746:
5743:
5741:
5740:Proterosuchus
5738:
5736:
5733:
5731:
5730:Progalesaurus
5728:
5726:
5723:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5713:
5711:
5708:
5706:
5703:
5701:
5698:
5696:
5693:
5691:
5688:
5686:
5683:
5681:
5678:
5676:
5673:
5671:
5668:
5666:
5663:
5661:
5658:
5656:
5655:Lepidodendron
5653:
5651:
5648:
5646:
5643:
5641:
5638:
5636:
5633:
5631:
5630:Euskelosaurus
5628:
5626:
5625:Eucnemesaurus
5623:
5621:
5618:
5616:
5615:Erythrosuchus
5613:
5611:
5610:Ericiolacerta
5608:
5606:
5603:
5601:
5598:
5596:
5593:
5591:
5588:
5586:
5583:
5581:
5580:Blikanasaurus
5578:
5576:
5573:
5572:
5570:
5566:
5556:
5553:
5551:
5548:
5546:
5543:
5541:
5538:
5536:
5533:
5531:
5528:
5527:
5525:
5521:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5502:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5482:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5472:
5470:
5467:
5465:
5464:Pelictosuchus
5462:
5460:
5457:
5455:
5452:
5450:
5447:
5445:
5442:
5440:
5439:Lepidodendron
5437:
5435:
5432:
5430:
5427:
5425:
5422:
5420:
5417:
5415:
5412:
5410:
5409:Ictidochampsa
5407:
5405:
5402:
5400:
5397:
5395:
5392:
5390:
5387:
5385:
5382:
5380:
5377:
5375:
5372:
5370:
5367:
5365:
5362:
5360:
5357:
5355:
5354:Cryptocynodon
5352:
5350:
5347:
5345:
5342:
5340:
5337:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5325:
5322:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5304:Anomocephalus
5302:
5300:
5297:
5296:
5294:
5290:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5273:Thliptosaurus
5271:
5269:
5268:Theriognathus
5266:
5264:
5263:Stereosternum
5261:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5248:Scylacosaurus
5246:
5244:
5243:Procynosuchus
5241:
5239:
5238:Odontocyclops
5236:
5234:
5231:
5229:
5226:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5218:Lepidodendron
5216:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5208:Ictidognathus
5206:
5204:
5201:
5199:
5196:
5194:
5191:
5189:
5186:
5184:
5181:
5179:
5176:
5174:
5173:Dwykaselachus
5171:
5169:
5166:
5164:
5161:
5159:
5156:
5154:
5151:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5143:Crapartinella
5141:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5129:
5126:
5124:
5121:
5119:
5118:Anomocephalus
5116:
5114:
5111:
5109:
5106:
5105:
5103:
5099:
5093:
5092:Lepidodendron
5090:
5088:
5085:
5084:
5082:
5080:Carboniferous
5078:
5072:
5069:
5067:
5064:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5052:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5042:
5039:
5037:
5034:
5032:
5031:Antarctilamna
5029:
5027:
5024:
5023:
5021:
5017:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4992:
4990:
4986:
4980:
4977:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4966:
4963:
4959:Paleontology‎
4956:
4952:
4942:
4939:
4937:
4934:
4932:
4929:
4928:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4915:
4912:
4909:
4907:
4904:
4903:
4898:
4895:
4894:
4893:
4892:Witwatersrand
4890:
4888:
4887:Merensky Reef
4885:
4883:
4880:
4879:
4876:
4869:
4865:
4851:
4848:
4847:
4845:
4841:
4835:
4832:
4830:
4827:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4817:
4816:
4814:
4810:
4804:
4801:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4785:
4783:
4781:
4777:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4735:
4733:
4731:
4728:
4726:
4723:
4721:
4718:
4716:
4713:
4712:
4710:
4706:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4641:
4638:
4631:
4627:
4613:
4610:
4609:
4607:
4603:
4595:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4576:
4574:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4554:
4553:
4550:
4546:
4543:
4542:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4505:
4504:
4501:
4500:
4499:
4496:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4478:
4476:
4475:
4470:
4467:
4463:
4460:
4458:
4455:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4444:
4443:
4440:
4439:
4437:
4436:
4434:
4430:
4422:
4419:
4418:
4416:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4399:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4384:
4383:
4381:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4368:
4366:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4353:
4351:
4350:
4348:
4344:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4327:Moodies Group
4325:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4309:
4307:
4303:
4297:
4294:
4293:
4290:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4268:
4263:
4261:
4256:
4254:
4249:
4248:
4245:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4180:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4158:Serra da Leba
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4143:Rif Mountains
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4113:Jebel Uweinat
4111:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4053:Cameroon line
4051:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4028:AĂŻr Mountains
4026:
4025:
4023:
4021:
4017:
4011:
4010:Turkana Basin
4008:
4006:
4005:Tindouf Basin
4003:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3975:Reggane Basin
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3887:
3885:
3883:
3879:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3845:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3797:Afar Triangle
3795:
3794:
3792:
3790:
3786:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3764:Kuunga Orogen
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3739:Damara Orogen
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3729:Alpine Orogen
3727:
3726:
3724:
3722:
3718:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3664:
3660:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3643:Tuareg Shield
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3610:
3608:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3571:Lwandle Plate
3569:Microplates:
3568:
3566:
3562:
3560:
3559:African Plate
3556:
3555:
3553:
3551:
3547:
3538:
3533:
3531:
3526:
3524:
3519:
3518:
3515:
3504:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3469:
3460:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3433:
3425:
3419:
3405:
3401:
3394:
3387:
3383:
3377:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3350:
3340:
3334:
3328:
3320:
3314:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3271:
3263:
3261:9781444303780
3257:
3253:
3252:
3244:
3234:
3224:
3214:
3206:
3205:
3197:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3154:
3146:
3140:
3132:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3099:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3064:
3056:
3052:
3047:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3023:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2980:
2972:
2959:
2951:
2944:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2885:
2875:
2867:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2826:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2795:
2787:
2781:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2745:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2714:(1): 97–118.
2713:
2709:
2705:
2698:
2690:
2688:9780813711843
2684:
2680:
2679:
2671:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2640:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2613:
2611:
2602:
2601:
2593:
2587:, pp.461-499.
2586:
2580:
2572:
2566:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2523:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2492:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2457:
2455:
2446:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2405:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2366:
2358:
2345:
2337:
2330:
2322:
2316:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2273:
2265:
2259:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2216:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2161:
2151:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2108:
2100:
2087:
2079:
2072:
2070:
2062:
2060:9783319408583
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2036:
2034:
2025:
2019:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1976:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1945:
1941:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1922:
1916:
1914:
1913:United States
1910:
1906:
1905:Barnett Shale
1902:
1898:
1897:
1892:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1865:
1861:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1810:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1771:
1767:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1749:
1746:
1742:
1739:, non-marine
1738:
1734:
1730:
1729:
1724:
1723:
1722:Helminthopsis
1718:
1717:
1712:
1711:
1706:
1705:trace fossils
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1681:
1676:
1673:
1669:
1668:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1648:
1645:
1642:
1641:
1636:
1635:KwaZulu-Natal
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1598:
1595:setting. The
1594:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1559:
1556:
1555:trace fossils
1553:
1549:
1545:
1544:KwaZulu-Natal
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1494:
1493:
1487:
1483:
1481:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1453:
1452:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1393:
1390:
1389:trace fossils
1387:
1383:
1379:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1311:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1244:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1129:
1126:
1122:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1106:
1102:
1099:
1095:
1094:palaeoniscoid
1091:
1087:
1083:
1082:submarine fan
1079:
1075:
1071:
1068:
1067:
1066:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1055:submarine fan
1052:
1049:
1045:
1040:
1039:
1038:
1030:
1026:
1025:
1020:
1019:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
960:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
938:
934:
930:
927:
924:
923:
918:
917:Trace fossils
914:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
888:
885:
881:
880:conglomerates
877:
874:
870:
866:
863:
859:
856:
853:
849:
845:
841:
840:submarine fan
837:
833:
829:
825:
822:
821:
817:
812:
805:
804:
799:
795:
794:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
768:palaeoniscoid
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
728:
724:
721:
717:
716:palaeoniscoid
713:
712:
708:
705:
701:
697:
693:
692:submarine fan
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
662:
658:
655:
651:
647:
644:
643:
642:
640:
639:submarine fan
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
611:
610:
609:
604:
602:
598:
593:
591:
587:
583:
579:
569:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
518:Prince Albert
515:
511:
502:
493:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
448:
443:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
412:submarine fan
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
383:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
364:palynological
362:correlation,
361:
357:
356:stratigraphic
353:
350:in all known
349:
345:
341:
337:
333:
321:
316:
312:
308:
303:
300:
289:
278:
267:
256:
245:
241:
238:
234:
231:
227:
222:
219:
215:
212:
208:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
178:
174:
169:
166:
163:
159:
156:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
126:
122:
119:
116:
112:
106:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
51:
45:
42:303–290
37:
36:Early Permian
33:
29:
25:
20:
6393:
6379:
6360:
6346:
6240:Andre Keyser
6215:Alfred Brown
6210:Robert Broom
6002:Nqwebasaurus
5992:Kangnasaurus
5956:Sphenosuchus
5881:Geranosaurus
5861:Dracovenator
5841:Antetonitrus
5785:Ufudocyclops
5770:Tetracynodon
5760:Scymnosaurus
5665:Lystrosaurus
5650:Kannemeyeria
5605:Elliotherium
5504:Silpholestes
5454:Moschorhinus
5434:Leontosaurus
5404:Icticephalus
5394:Euchambersia
5344:Colobodectes
5334:Choerosaurus
5299:Aelurosaurus
5278:Trochosaurus
5258:Simorhinella
5253:Scymnosaurus
5198:Glossopteris
5183:Eunotosaurus
5061:Serenichthys
5046:Diplacanthus
5026:Africanaspis
4770:Karoo-Ferrar
4539:
4185:(aka koppie)
3970:Owambo Basin
3955:Ogaden Basin
3945:Murzuq Basin
3915:Douala Basin
3890:Angola Basin
3862:Urema Valley
3847:Red Sea Rift
3842:Muglad Basin
3812:Benue Trough
3618:Congo Craton
3581:Rovuma Plate
3565:Somali Plate
3478:
3474:
3468:
3459:
3442:
3432:
3407:. Retrieved
3403:
3393:
3385:
3381:
3376:
3359:
3349:
3339:
3327:
3313:cite journal
3280:
3276:
3270:
3250:
3243:
3233:
3223:
3213:
3203:
3196:
3163:
3159:
3153:
3139:cite journal
3112:
3108:
3098:
3073:
3069:
3063:
3036:
3032:
3022:
2989:
2985:
2979:
2958:cite journal
2943:
2894:
2890:
2884:
2874:
2839:
2835:
2825:
2811:(1): 27–40.
2808:
2804:
2794:
2780:cite journal
2755:
2751:
2744:
2711:
2707:
2697:
2677:
2670:
2653:
2649:
2639:
2622:
2599:
2592:
2584:
2579:
2565:cite journal
2532:
2528:
2522:
2505:
2501:
2491:
2466:
2462:
2418:
2414:
2404:
2379:
2375:
2365:
2344:cite journal
2329:
2315:cite journal
2282:
2278:
2272:
2258:cite journal
2225:
2221:
2215:
2174:
2170:
2160:
2150:
2117:
2113:
2107:
2086:cite journal
2042:
2018:cite journal
1985:
1981:
1975:
1958:
1954:
1944:
1896:Glossopteris
1894:
1888:
1873:Paraná Basin
1870:
1815:
1787:and shallow
1750:
1726:
1720:
1714:
1708:
1707:, namely of
1701:palynomorphs
1678:
1665:
1640:Glossopteris
1638:
1597:carbonaceous
1573:carbonaceous
1560:
1552:invertebrate
1540:sub-tropical
1500:carbonaceous
1495:
1455:
1450:
1449:
1448:
1437:or within a
1419:wave ripples
1394:
1386:invertebrate
1375:shelf marine
1337:carbonaceous
1312:
1296:Invertebrate
1245:
1204:
1144:
1130:
1103:
1096:fishes, and
1086:invertebrate
1069:
1041:
1036:
1035:
1034:
1022:
1016:
961:
928:
922:Glossopteris
920:
889:
862:argillaceous
857:
830:, dark grey
823:
815:
801:
791:
754:and contain
752:carbonaceous
725:
718:fishes, and
709:
696:invertebrate
661:carbonaceous
645:
612:
607:
606:
605:
594:
586:South Africa
575:
550:Johannesburg
538:Orange River
507:
444:
389:
331:
329:
305:Type section
255:South Africa
237:Eastern Cape
143:
135:
127:
6070:Homo naledi
6058:Pleistocene
6007:Paranthodon
5982:Algoasaurus
5961:Tritheledon
5946:Pulanesaura
5876:Fabrosaurus
5851:Coelophysis
5799:Assemblages
5780:Trirachodon
5775:Thrinaxodon
5725:Procolophon
5710:Pentasaurus
5695:Noteosuchus
5685:Micropholis
5660:Lydekkerina
5600:Dinanomodon
5590:Cynognathus
5523:Assemblages
5489:Procolophon
5474:Pristerodon
5469:Polycynodon
5424:Ictidostoma
5419:Ictidodraco
5384:Eohyosaurus
5379:Eodicynodon
5374:Dinanomodon
5324:Broomistega
5193:Glanosuchus
5178:Endothiodon
5163:Dinanomodon
5128:Bulbasaurus
5056:Priscomyzon
4780:Earthquakes
4765:Drakensberg
4720:Pilanesberg
4644:Algoa Basin
4612:Algoa Group
4535:Dwyka Group
4438:Cretaceous
4417:Ordovician
4396:Dwyka Group
4356:Dwyka Group
4068:Drakensberg
3985:Sirte Basin
3940:Kufra Basin
3930:Gabon Basin
3925:Karoo Basin
3910:Congo Basin
3857:Atbara rift
3837:Melut Basin
3802:Anza trough
3663:Shear zones
3388:, pp.59-83.
3344:pp.379-390.
3166:: 217–232.
3115:: 256–265.
2879:pp.117-125.
2758:: 104–116.
2535:(1): 3–15.
2155:pp.103-111.
2120:: 217–232.
1804:Correlation
1763:bioturbated
1735:, possible
1697:fossil wood
1685:cordaitales
1584:bioturbated
1565:lithofacies
1542:climate of
1307:fossil logs
1288:deformation
1276:concretions
1224:concretions
1189:, and also
1121:concretions
1048:basin floor
1005:delta-plain
876:concretions
623:basin-floor
542:Petrusville
530:Port Alfred
526:Grahamstown
522:Jansenville
490:Karoo Basin
478:Karoo Basin
472:. Flexural
470:Karoo Basin
416:continental
404:Depocenters
344:Dwyka Group
165:Dwyka Group
6417:Ecca Group
6411:Categories
6172:Geologists
6101:Planolites
6065:Boskop Man
5970:Cretaceous
5936:Pegomastax
5921:Lycorhinus
5906:Ledumahadi
5896:Gyposaurus
5846:Arcusaurus
5765:Shansiodon
5750:Regisaurus
5735:Prolacerta
5675:Mesosuchus
5635:Galesaurus
5595:Diademodon
5585:Bolotridon
5389:Emyduranus
5364:Cynosaurus
5339:Clelandina
5228:Mesosaurus
5223:Lycosuchus
5188:Galechirus
5168:Dinogorgon
5148:Cynosaurus
4995:Notiodella
4988:Ordovician
4882:Kimberlite
4843:Meteorites
4734:Diatremes
4540:Ecca Group
4421:Soom Shale
4207:Mount Mabu
4192:Anti-Atlas
4183:Inselbergs
3905:Chad Basin
3409:2018-12-13
2080:: 413–429.
1936:References
1890:Mesosaurus
1816:The lower
1781:lacustrine
1728:planolites
1693:ginkgoales
1588:sandstones
1407:sandstones
1403:anticlines
1348:rhythmites
1317:Rhythmites
1292:load casts
1284:calcareous
1273:calcareous
1254:sandstones
1250:sandstones
1232:sandstones
1221:Calcareous
1217:siltstones
1184:phosphatic
1180:calcareous
1168:siltstones
1164:sandstones
1156:sandstones
1098:coprolites
1063:Depocenter
1031:megacycle.
986:siltstones
982:sandstones
978:sandstones
940:rhythmites
873:calcareous
852:deposition
798:mesosaurid
770:fish, and
720:coprolites
704:chimaeroid
668:rhythmites
635:Depocenter
514:Laingsburg
510:Sutherland
458:subduction
454:orogenesis
392:deposition
386:Background
382:) in age.
358:position,
332:Ecca Group
22:Ecca Group
6049:Nummulite
6028:Nummulite
6021:Paleogene
5987:Baculites
5705:Orosaurus
5690:Myosaurus
5509:Tamboeria
5459:Paliguana
5444:Lycideops
5414:Ictidodon
5369:Diictodon
5349:Compsodon
5309:Basilodon
5203:Hofmeyria
5158:Diictodon
5123:Basilodon
5108:Abdalodon
5087:Dadoxylon
5071:Umzantsia
5010:Soomaspis
5005:Promissum
4708:Volcanism
4694:Witteberg
4575:Triassic
4477:Jurassic
4367:Devonian
4346:Paleozoic
4227:Zuma Rock
4222:Wase Rock
3503:1342-937X
3451:0078-8554
3368:0078-8554
3305:0031-0182
3188:0037-0738
3131:1876-6102
3090:131561248
3055:0024-4082
3014:0899-5362
2919:1476-4687
2866:2391-5447
2817:1996-8590
2772:0264-8172
2736:1527-1404
2662:1996-8590
2631:0078-8554
2557:1464-343X
2514:1996-8590
2483:0166-5162
2445:135113186
2307:1464-343X
2250:1464-343X
2199:1365-2117
2142:0037-0738
2010:0899-5362
1967:1996-8590
1832:found in
1793:pelecypod
1770:sandstone
1766:siltstone
1710:Skolithos
1680:Annularia
1672:horsetail
1586:immature
1520:sandstone
1512:siltstone
1464:-bearing
1431:siltstone
1427:sandstone
1423:sandstone
1411:siltstone
1399:synclines
1356:sandstone
1333:claystone
1329:siltstone
1325:siltstone
1321:sandstone
1280:sandstone
1269:siltstone
1265:sandstone
1261:rhythmite
1240:siltstone
1209:sandstone
1153:greywacke
1118:carbonate
1114:siltstone
1110:sandstone
1024:Skolithos
1013:sandstone
974:rhythmite
970:siltstone
948:sandstone
944:siltstone
894:sandstone
884:mudstones
828:siliceous
814:A fossil
784:sea floor
772:arthropod
684:siltstone
680:sandstone
650:micaceous
597:Whitehill
534:Britstown
486:forebulge
480:into the
474:tectonics
462:Gondwanan
430:-bearing
310:Named for
214:Quartzite
192:siltstone
188:claystone
171:Lithology
151:Underlies
124:Sub-units
6395:Glossary
6381:Category
5891:Gryponyx
5866:Eocursor
5831:Aardonyx
5824:Jurassic
5568:Triassic
5283:Youngina
5233:Moschops
5066:Tutusius
5036:Bainella
5019:Devonian
4738:Big Hole
4605:Cenozoic
4432:Mesozoic
4382:Permian
3920:El Djouf
3418:cite web
2927:28052054
2207:56420970
1919:See also
1846:Khorixas
1842:Zimbabwe
1838:Botswana
1785:lagoonal
1741:bivalves
1689:conifers
1677:such as
1664:such as
1658:lycopods
1627:stagnant
1617:. These
1569:mudstone
1532:borehole
1528:outcrops
1516:mudstone
1445:setting.
1415:mudstone
1367:mudrocks
1344:mudrocks
1335:layers,
1018:Cruziana
958:setting.
915:system.
832:mudstone
676:arenites
590:mudstone
546:Hopetown
540:between
482:foredeep
447:retroarc
376:Asselian
352:outcrops
299:Zimbabwe
288:Botswana
266:Eswatini
224:Location
200:dolomite
184:mudstone
161:Overlies
6330:Swazian
6037:Neogene
5640:Howesia
5101:Permian
3721:Orogens
3605:shields
3601:Cratons
3483:Bibcode
3285:Bibcode
3168:Bibcode
2994:Bibcode
2935:4455946
2899:Bibcode
2844:Bibcode
2716:Bibcode
2537:Bibcode
2423:Bibcode
2384:Bibcode
2376:Geology
2287:Bibcode
2230:Bibcode
2179:Bibcode
2122:Bibcode
1990:Bibcode
1911:of the
1885:Uruguay
1850:Namibia
1834:Namibia
1826:Namibia
1797:bivalve
1795:marine
1789:coastal
1733:insects
1731:, rare
1695:, rare
1675:species
1660:, rare
1631:Nongoma
1510:rocks,
1470:deltaic
1466:fluvial
1352:mudrock
1303:burrows
1258:clastic
1090:fossils
1088:marine
1051:pelagic
1029:deltaic
1002:fluvial
937:clastic
910:fluvial
732:Mudrock
700:fossils
698:marine
554:Vryheid
440:peatbog
436:deltaic
432:fluvial
408:pelagic
380:Roadian
277:Namibia
243:Country
233:Western
176:Primary
30:: Late
5931:Ngwevu
3895:Aoukar
3550:Plates
3501:
3449:
3366:
3303:
3258:
3186:
3129:
3088:
3053:
3012:
2933:
2925:
2917:
2891:Nature
2864:
2815:
2770:
2734:
2685:
2660:
2629:
2555:
2512:
2481:
2443:
2305:
2248:
2205:
2197:
2140:
2057:
2008:
1965:
1881:Brazil
1877:Brazil
1840:, and
1773:lenses
1650:floras
1644:fossil
1625:where
1619:swamps
1615:swamps
1604:anoxic
1600:shales
1548:fossil
1524:facies
1514:, and
1506:-rich
1480:facies
1458:facies
1378:facies
1371:shales
1342:, and
1340:shales
1252:. The
1228:clasts
1187:lenses
1078:facies
1044:facies
980:. The
952:facies
933:shales
865:shales
780:anoxic
776:shales
760:pyrite
756:lenses
748:shales
742:. The
740:facies
702:, the
688:debris
672:Wackes
666:, and
631:facies
619:marine
615:facies
601:facies
582:facies
558:Durban
438:, and
420:facies
400:facies
396:marine
340:Africa
296:
285:
274:
263:
252:
235:&
229:Region
218:pyrite
6310:Other
6089:Other
3789:Rifts
3238:2013.
3228:2010.
3218:2005.
3086:S2CID
2931:S2CID
2441:S2CID
2203:S2CID
1759:shale
1662:ferns
1593:delta
1576:shale
1536:erode
1508:shale
1476:swamp
1443:beach
1439:delta
1382:delta
1363:Tuffs
1359:wacke
1236:shale
1213:shale
1176:shale
1160:shale
1149:shale
1141:Bed”.
1139:Chert
1135:chert
1074:chert
1059:shelf
1042:This
998:delta
966:shale
956:delta
913:delta
906:delta
898:shale
764:chert
744:shale
736:shale
664:shale
657:shale
654:silty
627:shelf
613:This
552:past
424:beach
210:Other
196:chert
180:Shale
3603:and
3499:ISSN
3447:ISSN
3424:link
3364:ISSN
3319:link
3301:ISSN
3256:ISBN
3184:ISSN
3145:link
3127:ISSN
3051:ISSN
3010:ISSN
2971:help
2923:PMID
2915:ISSN
2862:ISSN
2813:ISSN
2786:link
2768:ISSN
2732:ISSN
2683:ISBN
2658:ISSN
2627:ISSN
2571:link
2553:ISSN
2510:ISSN
2479:ISSN
2357:help
2321:link
2303:ISSN
2264:link
2246:ISSN
2195:ISSN
2138:ISSN
2099:help
2055:ISBN
2024:link
2006:ISSN
1963:ISSN
1907:and
1893:and
1883:and
1755:silt
1745:coal
1725:and
1647:coal
1612:peat
1608:coal
1591:pro-
1504:silt
1502:and
1473:peat
1462:coal
1429:and
1401:and
1369:and
1350:and
1301:and
1238:and
1215:and
1199:tuff
1182:and
1172:tuff
1125:Tuff
1112:and
1021:and
984:and
869:Tuff
844:tuff
836:tuff
762:and
750:are
734:and
682:and
674:and
544:and
428:Coal
330:The
313:Ecca
204:coal
114:Type
50:Preęž’
3491:doi
3293:doi
3176:doi
3117:doi
3078:doi
3041:doi
3037:146
3002:doi
2907:doi
2895:541
2852:doi
2760:doi
2724:doi
2545:doi
2471:doi
2431:doi
2392:doi
2295:doi
2238:doi
2187:doi
2130:doi
2047:doi
1998:doi
1875:of
1848:in
1783:to
1768:or
1441:or
1327:or
758:of
652:or
6413::
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3489:.
3477:.
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3441:.
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