311:
This vacancy is unstable and must be filled by an electron from either a higher energy bound shell in the atom (producing another vacancy which is in turn filled by electrons from yet higher energy bound shells) or by unbound electrons of low energy. The difference in binding energy between the electron shell in which the vacancy was produced and the shell from which the electron comes to fill the vacancy is emitted as a photon. The energy of the photon is in the X-ray region of the
1859:
315:. As the electron structure of each element is unique, the series X-ray line energies produced by vacancies in the innermost shells is characteristic of that element, although lines from different elements may overlap. As the innermost shells are involved, the X-ray line energies are generally not affected by chemical effects produced by bonding between elements in compounds except in low atomic number (Z) elements ( B, C, N, O and F for K
442:
409:
1871:
1185:
22:
287:(keV). The anode plate has central aperture and electrons that pass through it are collimated and focused by a series of magnetic lenses and apertures. The resulting electron beam (approximately 5 nm to 10 ÎĽm diameter) may be rastered across the sample or used in spot mode to produce excitation of various effects in the sample. Among these effects are:
310:
When the beam electrons (and scattered electrons from the sample) interact with bound electrons in the innermost electron shells of the atoms of the various elements in the sample, they can scatter the bound electrons from the electron shell producing a vacancy in that shell (ionization of the atom).
457:
The technique is commonly used for analyzing the chemical composition of metals, alloys, ceramics, and glasses. It is particularly useful for assessing the composition of individual particles or grains and chemical changes on the scale of a few micrometres to millimeters. The electron microprobe is
156:
The 1950s was a decade of great interest in electron beam X-ray microanalysis, following
Castaing's presentations at the First European Microscopy Conference in Delft in 1949 and then at the National Bureau of Standards conference on Electron Physics in Washington, DC, in 1951, as well as at other
143:. This microprobe produced an electron beam diameter of 1-3 ÎĽm with a beam current of ~10 nanoamperes (nA) and used a Geiger counter to detect the X-rays produced from the sample. However, the Geiger counter could not distinguish X-rays produced from specific elements and in 1950, Castaing added a
205:
went out of business. In addition, many researchers build electron microprobes in their labs. Significant subsequent improvements and modifications to microprobes included scanning the electron beam to make X-ray maps (1960), the addition of solid state EDS detectors (1968) and the development of
493:
The change in elemental composition from the center (also known as core) to the edge (or rim) of a mineral can yield information about the history of the crystal's formation, including the temperature, pressure, and chemistry of the surrounding medium. Quartz crystals, for example, incorporate a
182:
on a train in Europe in 1952, where he learned of
Castaing's new instrument and the suggestion that Caltech build a similar instrument. David Wittry was hired to build such an instrument as his PhD thesis, which he completed in 1957. It became the prototype for the ARL EMX electron microprobe.
374:
Despite the improved spectral resolution of elemental peaks, some peaks exhibit significant overlap that causes analytical challenges (e.g., VKα and TiKβ). WDS analyses are unable to distinguish the valence states of elements (e.g. Fe vs. Fe) which must be obtained by other techniques such as
342:
to accumulate X-rays of all wavelengths produced from the sample. While EDS yields more information and typically requires a much shorter counting time, WDS is generally more precise with lower limits of detection due to its superior X-ray peak resolution and greater peak to background ratio.
152:
and David Wittry, in which he laid the foundations of the theory and application of quantitative analysis by electron microprobe, establishing the theoretical framework for the matrix corrections of absorption and fluorescence effects. Castaing (1921-1999) is considered the father of electron
519:, which were interpreted as either legs or extensions of the gut. Elemental mapping showed that their composition was similar to the gut, favoring that interpretation. Because of the thinness of carbon films, only low voltages (5-15 kV) can be used on them.
119:
is very good for light element analysis and they obtained spectra of C-Kα, N-Kα and O-Kα radiation. In 1947, Hiller patented the concept of using an electron beam to produce analytical X-rays, but never constructed a working model. His design proposed using
147:
crystal between the sample and the detector to permit wavelength discrimination. He also added an optical microscope to view the point of beam impact. The resulting microprobe was described in
Castaing's 1951 PhD Thesis, translated into English by
994:
Llovet, Xavier, Aurélien Moy, Philippe T. Pinard, and John H. Fournelle. "Electron probe microanalysis: a review of recent developments and applications in materials science and engineering." Progress in
Materials Science (2020): 100673.
494:
small, but measurable amount of titanium into their structure as a function of temperature, pressure, and the amount of titanium available in their environment. Changes in these parameters are recorded by titanium as the crystal grows.
470:. Most rocks are aggregates of small mineral grains. These grains may preserve chemical information acquired during their formation and subsequent alteration. This information may illuminate geologic processes such as crystallization,
359:) to yield quantitative chemical compositions. The resulting chemical data is gathered in textural context. Variations in chemical composition within a material (zoning), such as a mineral grain or metal, can be readily determined.
157:
conferences in the early to mid-1950s. Many researchers, mainly material scientists, developed their own experimental electron microprobes, sometimes starting from scratch, but many times using surplus electron microscopes.
258:
at a characteristic frequency; the X-rays can then be detected by the electron microprobe. The size and current density of the electron beam determines the trade-off between resolution and scan time and/or analysis time.
786:
Application des sondes électroniques à une méthode d'analyse ponctuelle chimique et cristallographique: publication ONERA (Office national d'études et de recherches aéronautiques/ Institute for
Aeronautical Research) N.
346:
Chemical composition is determined by comparing the intensities of characteristic X-rays from the sample with intensities from standards of known composition. Counts from the sample must be corrected for
513:, soft parts of organisms may be preserved. Since these fossils are often compressed into a planar film, it can be difficult to distinguish the features: a famous example is the triangular extensions in
186:
During the late 1950s and early 1960s there were over a dozen other laboratories in North
America, the United Kingdom, Europe, Japan and the USSR developing electron beam X-ray microanalyzers.
60:, emitting x-rays at wavelengths characteristic to the elements being analyzed. This enables the abundances of elements present within small sample volumes (typically 10-30 cubic
92:— identification of the photons scattered from the electron beam impact, with the energy/wavelength of the photons characteristic of the atoms excited by the incident electrons.
784:
140:
527:
The chemical composition of meteorites can be analyzed quite accurately using EPMA. This can reveal much about the conditions that existed in the early Solar System.
172:
combined all three technologies and developed a scanning electron X-ray microanalyzer for his PhD thesis (1957), which was commercialized as the
Cambridge MicroScan.
115:. In the early 1940s, they built an electron microprobe, combining an electron microscope and an energy loss spectrometer. A patent application was filed in 1944.
1503:
338:
from crystals to select X-ray wavelengths of interest and direct them to gas-flow or sealed proportional detectors. In contrast, EDS uses a solid state
178:, a Belgian material scientist who fled the Nazis and settled at the California Institute of Technology and collaborated with Jesse DuMond, encountered
52:(EMPA), is an analytical tool used to non-destructively determine the chemical composition of small volumes of solid materials. It works similarly to a
1486:
1481:
695:
Fukushima, S.; Kimura, T.; Ogiwara, T.; Tsukamoto, K.; Tazawa, T.; Tanuma, S. (2008). "New model ultra-soft X-ray spectrometer for microanalysis".
76:(ppm), material dependent, although with care, levels below 10 ppm are possible. The ability to quantify lithium by EPMA became a reality in 2008.
104:
was involved in the discovery of the direct relationship between the wavelength of X-rays and the identity of the atom from which it originated.
371:
WDS cannot determine elements below number 3 (lithium). This restricts WDS when analyzing geologically important elements such as H, Li, and Be.
1630:
1333:
323:) where line energies may be shifted as a result of the involvement of the electron shell from which vacancies are filled in chemical bonding.
164:
at the
Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge University, a center of research on electron microscopy, as well as scanning electron microscopy with
1620:
1223:
1523:
1496:
1087:
1431:
1052:
Orr, P. J.; Kearns, S. L.; Briggs, D. E. G. (2009). "Elemental mapping of exceptionally preserved 'carbonaceous compression' fossils".
1491:
1006:
326:
The characteristic X-rays are used for chemical analysis. Specific X-ray wavelengths or energies are selected and counted, either by
1635:
503:
327:
193:(France) in 1956.. It was soon followed in the early-mid 1960s by microprobes from other companies; however, all companies except
26:
1195:
1451:
352:
1575:
1441:
1388:
1189:
64:
or less) to be determined, when a conventional accelerating voltage of 15-20 kV is used. The concentrations of elements from
1875:
1830:
1558:
1543:
1469:
331:
870:
Eklund, Robert L. "Bausch & Lomb-ARL: Where We Come From, Who We are." Applied
Spectroscopy 35, no. 2 (1981): 226-235.
543:
589:
Cosslett, V. E., and P. Duncumb. "Micro-analysis by a flying-spot X-ray method." Nature 177, no. 4521 (1956): 1172-1173.
1580:
1413:
1266:
1216:
380:
116:
1568:
1563:
1461:
1436:
1403:
490:), and provides chemical data which is vital to understanding the evolution of the planets, asteroids, and comets.
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1625:
1605:
816:
907:
1912:
1835:
1408:
1343:
1251:
34:
1825:
362:
Volume from which chemical information is gathered (volume of X-rays generated) is 0.3 – 3 cubic micrometers.
1907:
1585:
1548:
1393:
1863:
1423:
1209:
53:
124:
from a flat crystal to select specific X-ray wavelengths and a photographic plate as a detector. However,
800:
537:
1610:
1528:
430:
970:
376:
1789:
1615:
446:
416:
312:
107:
There have been at several historical threads to electron beam microanalysis. One was developed by
1538:
1474:
1348:
1307:
1091:
1030:
1728:
1113:
339:
730:
1733:
1553:
566:
254:
A beam of electrons is fired at a sample. The beam causes each element in the sample to emit
161:
1902:
1738:
1297:
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757:
661:
549:
272:
202:
8:
1703:
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561:
292:
132:
85:
1065:
761:
665:
630:
613:
206:
synthetic multilayer diffracting crystals for analysis of light elements (1984). Later,
84:
The electron microprobe (electron probe microanalyzer) developed from two technologies:
1774:
1353:
1317:
955:
K.F.J. Heinrich, and D.E. Newbury eds., Electron probe quantitation, Plenum Press, 1991
712:
677:
599:
450:
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89:
845:
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423:
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335:
121:
73:
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681:
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1600:
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1022:
928:
Duncumb P. and Reed S.J.B., NBS Spec. Publ. 298, Heinrich K.F.J. ed., 1968, p. 133
765:
704:
669:
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881:
745:
646:
179:
136:
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1073:
483:
413:
211:
1138:
1678:
1292:
859:
304:
296:
284:
276:
165:
708:
139:, built the first electron “microsonde électronique” (electron microprobe) at
1891:
1754:
1698:
1358:
510:
471:
348:
239:
235:
169:
108:
101:
88:— using a focused high energy electron beam to impact a target material, and
57:
30:
937:
Bishop H.E., 4th Int. Congr. X-Ray Opt., Orsay, Hermann, Paris, 1966, p. 153
1815:
1779:
1673:
1663:
1338:
1287:
946:
S.J.B. Reed, Electron microprobe analysis, Cambridge
University Press, 1993
905:
571:
475:
356:
160:
One of the organizers of the Delft 1949 Electron Microscopy conference was
1759:
1693:
1683:
673:
614:"Uncertainty and capability of quantitative EPMA at low voltage–A review"
467:
427:
223:
93:
61:
1169:
Electron microprobe analysis and scanning electron microscopy in geology
1840:
1820:
1261:
1256:
502:
For more information about element abundance in the Burgess shale, see
487:
486:. This technique is also used for the study of extraterrestrial rocks (
231:
219:
1201:
801:
http://www.microbeamanalysis.org/history/Castaing-Thesis-clearscan.pdf
769:
1708:
1363:
243:
189:
The first commercial electron microprobe, the "MS85" was produced by
175:
149:
131:
A second thread developed in France in the late 1940s. In 1948–1950,
97:
69:
218:
instruments in recent decades expanded the range of applications on
1810:
1276:
647:"Improved electron probe microanalysis of trace elements in quartz"
515:
441:
420:
390:
cannot be determined by WDS, but are most commonly obtained with a
387:
268:
858:
Long, J. V. P. "Microanalysis." Micron 24, no. 2 (1993): 143-148.
408:
1764:
1446:
479:
458:
widely used for research, quality control, and failure analysis.
300:
227:
65:
1784:
1184:
846:"Circular of the Bureau of Standards no. 527: Electron physics"
694:
288:
255:
215:
207:
194:
190:
144:
100:
are associated with the prototype electron microscope in 1931.
445:
For comparison, a similar section of the same microcontroller
29:"Microscan" electron probe microanalyzer based on a design by
280:
906:
John Goodge, University of Minnesota-Duluth (23 July 2012).
1769:
210:
pioneered manufacturing a shielded electron microprobe for
198:
466:
This technique is most commonly used by mineralogists and
419:
by an electron microprobe. The small bright cylinders are
1196:
Electron Probe Laboratory, Hebrew University of Jerusalem
598:
Wittry, David B. (1958). "Electron Probe Microanalyzer",
509:
In exceptionally preserved fossils, such as those of the
295:(visible light fluorescence), continuum X-ray radiation (
125:
112:
618:
IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering
504:
Burgess Shale type preservation § Elemental mapping
299:), characteristic X-ray radiation, secondary electrons (
1004:
279:
electron source and accelerated by a positively biased
21:
882:"Elemental mapping of minerals by electron microprobe"
437:
can be used to determine the composition of the vias.
403:
303:
production), backscattered electron production, and
16:
Instrument for the micro-chemical analysis of solids
128:had no interest in commercializing this invention.
1007:"The nature and significance of the appendages of
602:, Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office
1054:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
805:https://the-mas.org/castaings-famous-1951-thesis/
644:
1889:
1198:- web page of a lab describing their modern EPMA
1051:
998:
879:
1631:Serial block-face scanning electron microscopy
1334:Detectors for transmission electron microscopy
848:. National Bureau of Standards. 17 March 1954.
1217:
168:as well as X-ray microscopy with Bill Nixon.
860:https://doi.org/10.1016/0968-4328(93)90065-9
743:
688:
611:
592:
461:
1224:
1210:
971:"Wavelength-dispersive spectroscopy (WDS)"
873:
645:Donovan, J.; Lowers, H.; Rusk, B. (2011).
638:
629:
605:
267:Low-energy electrons are produced from a
975:Geochemical Instrumentation and Analysis
899:
782:
440:
407:
328:wavelength dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
72:may be measured at levels as low as 100
20:
1231:
1045:
1011:from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale"
965:
963:
961:
262:
27:Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company
1890:
1205:
995:doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2020.100673
746:"Microanalysis by Means of Electrons"
744:Hillier, James; Baker, R. F. (1944).
522:
1870:
1166:
1139:"Lecture Notes and PowerPoint Files"
958:
542:John Fournelle's class notes at the
351:(depth of production of the X-rays,
332:energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
530:
13:
1159:
1005:Zhang, X.; Briggs, D.E.G. (2007).
880:Jansen, W.; Slaughter, M. (1982).
817:"Proceedings of the EM Conference"
790:(PhD Thesis). University of Paris.
548:John Donovan's class notes at the
214:applications. Several advances in
56:: the sample is bombarded with an
14:
1924:
1267:Timeline of microscope technology
1177:
404:Materials science and engineering
381:electron energy loss spectroscopy
117:Electron energy loss spectroscopy
1869:
1858:
1857:
1183:
1027:10.1111/j.1502-3931.2007.00013.x
482:events (mountain building), and
1626:Precession electron diffraction
1131:
1106:
1080:
988:
949:
940:
931:
922:
864:
852:
838:
809:
612:Merlet, C.; Llovet, X. (2012).
544:University of Wisconsin–Madison
497:
398:
1114:"Geoscience 777 Lecture Notes"
1088:"Electron Microprobe Homepage"
794:
776:
737:
723:
583:
365:
35:Cambridge Museum of Technology
33:. This model is housed at the
1:
1171:. Cambridge university press.
631:10.1088/1757-899X/32/1/012016
577:
50:electron micro probe analyzer
1074:10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.02.009
731:"ChemTeam: Moseley Articles"
536:Jim Wittke's class notes at
249:
54:scanning electron microscope
46:electron probe microanalyzer
7:
783:Castaing, Raimond (1952) .
555:
538:Northern Arizona University
10:
1929:
1611:Immune electron microscopy
1529:Annular dark-field imaging
1344:Everhart–Thornley detector
750:Journal of Applied Physics
501:
412:A section of the 1886VE10
283:plate to 3 to 30 thousand
79:
1853:
1798:
1765:Hitachi High-Technologies
1747:
1656:
1649:
1516:
1460:
1422:
1379:
1372:
1326:
1275:
1239:
709:10.1007/s00604-007-0889-6
1790:Thermo Fisher Scientific
1616:Geometric phase analysis
1504:Aberration-Corrected TEM
462:Mineralogy and petrology
313:electromagnetic spectrum
44:(EMP), also known as an
1539:Charge contrast imaging
1349:Field electron emission
1729:Thomas Eugene Everhart
1167:Reed, Stephen (2005).
454:
438:
377:Mössbauer spectroscopy
340:semiconductor detector
37:
1913:Scientific techniques
1734:Vernon Ellis Cosslett
1554:Dark-field microscopy
889:American Mineralogist
654:American Mineralogist
567:Electron spectroscopy
444:
411:
275:crystal cathode or a
162:Vernon Ellis Cosslett
153:microprobe analysis.
111:and Richard Baker at
24:
1908:Analytical chemistry
1739:Vladimir K. Zworykin
1389:Correlative light EM
1298:Electron diffraction
1192:at Wikimedia Commons
1190:Electron microprobes
1118:www.geology.wisc.edu
674:10.2138/am.2011.3631
600:US Patent No 2916621
550:University of Oregon
334:(EDS). WDS utilizes
273:lanthanum hexaboride
263:Detailed description
203:Shimadzu Corporation
1704:Manfred von Ardenne
1689:Gerasimos Danilatos
1596:Electron tomography
1591:Electron holography
1534:Cathodoluminescence
1313:Secondary electrons
1303:Electron scattering
1247:Electron microscopy
1233:Electron microscopy
1066:2009PPP...277....1O
910:. Serc.carleton.edu
762:1944JAP....15..663H
666:2011AmMin..96..274D
562:Electron microscope
293:cathodoluminescence
291:excitation (heat),
86:electron microscopy
42:electron microprobe
1826:Digital Micrograph
1432:Environmental SEM
1354:Field emission gun
1318:X-ray fluorescence
1033:on 8 December 2012
523:Meteorite analysis
455:
451:optical microscope
439:
435:X-ray spectroscopy
319:and Al to Cl for K
90:X-ray spectroscopy
38:
1885:
1884:
1849:
1848:
1719:Nestor J. Zaluzec
1714:Maximilian Haider
1512:
1511:
1188:Media related to
1143:pages.uoregon.edu
908:"Element mapping"
803:is equivalent to
770:10.1063/1.1707491
392:mass spectrometer
336:Bragg diffraction
122:Bragg diffraction
74:parts per million
1920:
1873:
1872:
1861:
1860:
1669:Bodo von Borries
1654:
1653:
1414:Photoemission EM
1377:
1376:
1226:
1219:
1212:
1203:
1202:
1187:
1172:
1154:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1126:
1124:
1110:
1104:
1103:
1101:
1099:
1094:on 22 March 2017
1090:. Archived from
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1078:
1077:
1049:
1043:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1029:. Archived from
1002:
996:
992:
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956:
953:
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831:
824:geology.wisc.edu
821:
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798:
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773:
741:
735:
734:
727:
721:
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703:(3–4): 399–404.
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660:(2–3): 274–282.
651:
642:
636:
635:
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609:
603:
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531:Online tutorials
135:, supervised by
133:Raimond Castaing
1928:
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1794:
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1724:Ondrej Krivanek
1645:
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1418:
1404:Liquid-Phase EM
1368:
1327:Instrumentation
1322:
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1162:
1160:Further reading
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904:
900:
895:(5–6): 521–533.
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484:plate tectonics
464:
426:left over from
414:microcontroller
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401:
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252:
82:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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1831:Direct methods
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1679:Ernst G. Bauer
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1305:
1300:
1295:
1293:Bremsstrahlung
1290:
1284:
1282:
1273:
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1270:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1243:
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1179:
1178:External links
1176:
1174:
1173:
1163:
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1156:
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1130:
1105:
1079:
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1021:(2): 161–173.
997:
987:
957:
948:
939:
930:
921:
898:
872:
863:
851:
837:
808:
793:
775:
756:(9): 663–675.
736:
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697:Microchim Acta
687:
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355:and secondary
349:matrix effects
320:
316:
305:Auger electron
297:bremsstrahlung
285:electron volts
277:field emission
264:
261:
251:
248:
240:trace elements
236:nuclear plants
166:Charles Oatley
81:
78:
15:
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1452:Ultrafast SEM
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1409:Low-energy EM
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1359:Magnetic lens
1357:
1355:
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1345:
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1337:
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1332:
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1314:
1311:
1309:
1308:Kikuchi lines
1306:
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1301:
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1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1048:
1032:
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1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1010:
1001:
991:
976:
972:
966:
964:
962:
952:
943:
934:
925:
909:
902:
894:
890:
883:
876:
867:
861:
855:
847:
841:
825:
818:
812:
806:
802:
797:
789:
788:
779:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
740:
732:
726:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
691:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
648:
641:
632:
627:
624:(2): 012016.
623:
619:
615:
608:
601:
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586:
582:
573:
570:
568:
565:
563:
560:
559:
551:
547:
545:
541:
539:
535:
534:
528:
520:
518:
517:
512:
511:Burgess shale
505:
495:
491:
489:
485:
481:
477:
474:, volcanism,
473:
472:lithification
469:
459:
452:
448:
443:
436:
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418:
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393:
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196:
192:
187:
184:
181:
180:André Guinier
177:
173:
171:
170:Peter Duncumb
167:
163:
158:
154:
151:
146:
142:
138:
137:André Guinier
134:
129:
127:
123:
118:
114:
110:
109:James Hillier
105:
103:
102:Henry Moseley
99:
95:
91:
87:
77:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
58:electron beam
55:
51:
47:
43:
36:
32:
31:Peter Duncumb
28:
23:
19:
1874:
1862:
1816:EM Data Bank
1780:Nion Company
1674:Dennis Gabor
1664:Albert Crewe
1442:Confocal SEM
1398:
1380:
1339:Electron gun
1288:Auger effect
1168:
1146:. Retrieved
1142:
1133:
1121:. Retrieved
1117:
1108:
1096:. Retrieved
1092:the original
1082:
1060:(1–2): 1–8.
1057:
1053:
1047:
1035:. Retrieved
1031:the original
1018:
1014:
1008:
1000:
990:
978:. Retrieved
974:
951:
942:
933:
924:
912:. Retrieved
901:
892:
888:
875:
866:
854:
840:
828:. Retrieved
823:
811:
796:
785:
778:
753:
749:
739:
725:
700:
696:
690:
657:
653:
640:
621:
617:
607:
594:
585:
572:Thin section
526:
514:
508:
498:Paleontology
492:
476:metamorphism
468:petrologists
465:
456:
428:metalization
399:Applications
361:
357:fluorescence
345:
325:
309:
307:production.
271:filament, a
266:
253:
188:
185:
174:
159:
155:
130:
106:
83:
49:
45:
41:
39:
18:
1903:Microscopes
1760:FEI Company
1694:Harald Rose
1684:Ernst Ruska
1373:Microscopes
1281:with matter
1279:interaction
914:23 December
826:. July 1949
366:Limitations
224:electronics
94:Ernst Ruska
62:micrometers
1892:Categories
1841:Multislice
1657:Developers
1517:Techniques
1262:Microscope
1257:Micrograph
578:References
488:meteorites
353:absorption
232:mineralogy
220:metallurgy
48:(EPMA) or
1709:Max Knoll
1364:Stigmator
1037:20 August
330:(WDS) or
250:Operation
244:dentistry
176:Pol Duwez
150:Pol Duwez
98:Max Knoll
70:plutonium
1864:Category
1811:CrysTBox
1799:Software
1470:Cryo-TEM
1277:Electron
1009:Opabinia
717:94191823
682:15082304
556:See also
516:Opabinia
480:orogenic
421:tungsten
388:isotopes
386:Element
269:tungsten
1876:Commons
1524:4D STEM
1497:4D STEM
1475:Cryo-ET
1447:SEM-XRF
1437:CryoSEM
1394:Cryo-EM
1252:History
1148:24 June
1123:24 June
1062:Bibcode
1015:Lethaia
830:24 June
758:Bibcode
662:Bibcode
431:etching
301:plasmon
228:geology
212:nuclear
80:History
66:lithium
1898:X-rays
1821:EMsoft
1806:CASINO
1785:TESCAN
1650:Others
1549:cryoEM
1240:Basics
1098:4 July
980:13 May
715:
680:
449:by an
289:phonon
256:X-rays
242:, and
216:CAMECA
208:CAMECA
195:CAMECA
191:CAMECA
145:quartz
1775:Leica
1621:PINEM
1487:HRTEM
1482:EFTEM
885:(PDF)
820:(PDF)
713:S2CID
678:S2CID
650:(PDF)
317:alpha
281:anode
141:ONERA
1836:IUCr
1770:JEOL
1641:WBDF
1636:WDXS
1586:EBIC
1581:EELS
1576:ECCI
1564:EBSD
1544:CBED
1492:STEM
1150:2023
1125:2023
1100:2020
1039:2008
982:2016
916:2015
832:2023
424:vias
321:beta
201:and
199:JEOL
96:and
1606:FEM
1601:FIB
1569:TKD
1559:EDS
1462:TEM
1424:SEM
1399:EMP
1070:doi
1058:277
1023:doi
766:doi
705:doi
701:161
670:doi
626:doi
447:die
417:die
379:or
126:RCA
113:RCA
68:to
40:An
1894::
1381:EM
1141:.
1116:.
1068:.
1056:.
1019:40
1017:.
1013:.
973:.
960:^
893:67
891:.
887:.
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787:55
764:.
754:15
752:.
748:.
711:.
699:.
676:.
668:.
658:96
656:.
652:.
622:32
620:.
616:.
478:,
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238:,
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226:,
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1072::
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768::
760::
733:.
719:.
707::
684:.
672::
664::
634:.
628::
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394:.
383:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
