Electron - Knowledge

4742: 481: 2230: 4449: 2853: 1824: 4339: 3348: 2683: 3260: 1526: 3018: 3806: 3339:. These are electrons with opposed spins, allowing them to occupy the same molecular orbital without violating the Pauli exclusion principle (much like in atoms). Different molecular orbitals have different spatial distribution of the electron density. For instance, in bonded pairs (i.e. in the pairs that actually bind atoms together) electrons can be found with the maximal probability in a relatively small volume between the nuclei. By contrast, in non-bonded pairs electrons are distributed in a large volume around nuclei. 3557: 16479: 15593: 15331: 14885: 45: 2040:(the first by Heisenberg in 1925), and solutions of Schrödinger's equation, like Heisenberg's, provided derivations of the energy states of an electron in a hydrogen atom that were equivalent to those that had been derived first by Bohr in 1913, and that were known to reproduce the hydrogen spectrum. Once spin and the interaction between multiple electrons were describable, quantum mechanics made it possible to predict the configuration of electrons in atoms with atomic numbers greater than hydrogen. 2967: 4756: 4092: 2013: 16469: 3312:. Because the electron is charged, it produces an orbital magnetic moment that is proportional to the angular momentum. The net magnetic moment of an atom is equal to the vector sum of orbital and spin magnetic moments of all electrons and the nucleus. The magnetic moment of the nucleus is negligible compared with that of the electrons. The magnetic moments of the electrons that occupy the same orbital, called paired electrons, cancel each other out. 14279: 4728: 2036:, successfully described how electron waves propagated. Rather than yielding a solution that determined the location of an electron over time, this wave equation also could be used to predict the probability of finding an electron near a position, especially a position near where the electron was bound in space, for which the electron wave equations did not change in time. This approach led to a second formulation of 1633: 1755: 3059:. Instead, virtual photons can transfer momentum between two charged particles. This exchange of virtual photons, for example, generates the Coulomb force. Energy emission can occur when a moving electron is deflected by a charged particle, such as a proton. The deceleration of the electron results in the emission of 4501:. This technique is limited by high costs, slow performance, the need to operate the beam in the vacuum and the tendency of the electrons to scatter in solids. The last problem limits the resolution to about 10 nm. For this reason, EBL is primarily used for the production of small numbers of specialized 3281:. Each orbital has its own set of quantum numbers such as energy, angular momentum and projection of angular momentum, and only a discrete set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus. According to the Pauli exclusion principle each orbital can be occupied by up to two electrons, which must differ in their 1800:, who independently obtained the same result as Millikan using charged microparticles of metals, then published his results in 1913. However, oil drops were more stable than water drops because of their slower evaporation rate, and thus more suited to precise experimentation over longer periods of time. 8284:

Prati, E.; De Michielis, M.; Belli, M.; Cocco, S.; Fanciulli, M.; Kotekar-Patil, D.; Ruoff, M.; Kern, D.P.; Wharam, D.A.; Verduijn, J.; Tettamanzi, G.C.; Rogge, S.; Roche, B.; Wacquez, R.; Jehl, X.; Vinet, M.; Sanquer, M. (2012). "Few electron limit of n-type metal oxide semiconductor single electron

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directs a focused beam of electrons at a specimen. Some electrons change their properties, such as movement direction, angle, and relative phase and energy as the beam interacts with the material. Microscopists can record these changes in the electron beam to produce atomically resolved images of the

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If a body has more or fewer electrons than are required to balance the positive charge of the nuclei, then that object has a net electric charge. When there is an excess of electrons, the object is said to be negatively charged. When there are fewer electrons than the number of protons in nuclei, the

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postulated that electrons resided in quantized energy states, with their energies determined by the angular momentum of the electron's orbit about the nucleus. The electrons could move between those states, or orbits, by the emission or absorption of photons of specific frequencies. By means of these

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results in the production of positrons from the fusion of atomic nuclei. These antimatter particles immediately annihilate with electrons, releasing gamma rays. The net result is a steady reduction in the number of electrons, and a matching increase in the number of neutrons. However, the process of

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of 1909, the results of which were published in 1911. This experiment used an electric field to prevent a charged droplet of oil from falling as a result of gravity. This device could measure the electric charge from as few as 1–150 ions with an error margin of less than 0.3%. Comparable experiments

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An equilibrium between electrons, positrons and photons was maintained during this phase of the evolution of the Universe. After 15 seconds had passed, however, the temperature of the universe dropped below the threshold where electron-positron formation could occur. Most of the surviving electrons

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inside. He then showed in 1874 that the cathode rays can turn a small paddle wheel when placed in their path. Therefore, he concluded that the rays carried momentum. Furthermore, by applying a magnetic field, he was able to deflect the rays, thereby demonstrating that the beam behaved as though it

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Metals make relatively good conductors of heat, primarily because the delocalized electrons are free to transport thermal energy between atoms. However, unlike electrical conductivity, the thermal conductivity of a metal is nearly independent of temperature. This is expressed mathematically by the

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The issue of the radius of the electron is a challenging problem of modern theoretical physics. The admission of the hypothesis of a finite radius of the electron is incompatible to the premises of the theory of relativity. On the other hand, a point-like electron (zero radius) generates serious

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observed that the shell-like structure of the atom could be explained by a set of four parameters that defined every quantum energy state, as long as each state was occupied by no more than a single electron. This prohibition against more than one electron occupying the same quantum energy state

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For reasons that remain uncertain, during the annihilation process there was an excess in the number of particles over antiparticles. Hence, about one electron for every billion electron–positron pairs survived. This excess matched the excess of protons over antiprotons, in a condition known as

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elaborated on the Lewis's static model of the atom and suggested that all electrons were distributed in successive "concentric (nearly) spherical shells, all of equal thickness". In turn, he divided the shells into a number of cells each of which contained one pair of electrons. With this model

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The classical electron radius is derived as follows. Assume that the electron's charge is spread uniformly throughout a spherical volume. Since one part of the sphere would repel the other parts, the sphere contains electrostatic potential energy. This energy is assumed to equal the electron's

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of the black hole can then supply the energy that transforms this virtual particle into a real particle, allowing it to radiate away into space. In exchange, the other member of the pair is given negative energy, which results in a net loss of mass–energy by the black hole. The rate of Hawking

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allows charged particles to be contained within a small region for long durations. This enables precise measurements of the particle properties. For example, in one instance a Penning trap was used to contain a single electron for a period of 10 months. The magnetic moment of the electron was

2537:(or chargon). The electron can always be theoretically considered as a bound state of the three, with the spinon carrying the spin of the electron, the orbiton carrying the orbital degree of freedom and the chargon carrying the charge, but in certain conditions they can behave as independent 2698:

because they cannot be distinguished from each other by their intrinsic physical properties. In quantum mechanics, this means that a pair of interacting electrons must be able to swap positions without an observable change to the state of the system. The wave function of fermions, including

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found that a solid body placed in between the cathode and the phosphorescence would cast a shadow upon the phosphorescent region of the tube. Hittorf inferred that there are straight rays emitted from the cathode and that the phosphorescence was caused by the rays striking the tube walls.

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is capable of sub-0.05 nm resolution, which is more than enough to resolve individual atoms. This capability makes the electron microscope a useful laboratory instrument for high resolution imaging. However, electron microscopes are expensive instruments that are costly to maintain.

2926:. The Compton Wavelength shows that near elementary particles such as the electron, the uncertainty of the energy allows for the creation of virtual particles near the electron. This wavelength explains the "static" of virtual particles around elementary particles at a close distance. 4490:

and usually require no filler material. This welding technique must be performed in a vacuum to prevent the electrons from interacting with the gas before reaching their target, and it can be used to join conductive materials that would otherwise be considered unsuitable for welding.

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medical and food products. Electron beams fluidise or quasi-melt glasses without significant increase of temperature on intensive irradiation: e.g. intensive electron radiation causes a many orders of magnitude decrease of viscosity and stepwise decrease of its activation energy.

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use electric fields to propel electrons and their antiparticles to high energies. These particles emit synchrotron radiation as they pass through magnetic fields. The dependency of the intensity of this radiation upon spin polarizes the electron beam—a process known as the

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The wave-like nature of the electron allows it to pass through two parallel slits simultaneously, rather than just one slit as would be the case for a classical particle. In quantum mechanics, the wave-like property of one particle can be described mathematically as a

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An electron generates an electric field that exerts an attractive force on a particle with a positive charge, such as the proton, and a repulsive force on a particle with a negative charge. The strength of this force in nonrelativistic approximation is determined by

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object is said to be positively charged. When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal, their charges cancel each other and the object is said to be electrically neutral. A macroscopic body can develop an electric charge through rubbing, by the

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In 1881, Stoney named this electromagnetic 'electrolion'. It came to be called 'electron' from 1891. In 1906, the suggestion to call cathode ray particles 'electrions' was brought up but through the opinion of Lorentz of Holland 'electrons' came to be widely

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of the ray components. However, this produced a value that was more than a thousand times greater than what was expected, so little credence was given to his calculations at the time. This is because it was assumed that the charge carriers were much heavier

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of a particle are demonstrated when it is shown to have a localized position in space along its trajectory at any given moment. The wave-like nature of light is displayed, for example, when a beam of light is passed through parallel slits thereby creating

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found that if a charged gold-leaf is repulsed by glass rubbed with silk, then the same charged gold-leaf is attracted by amber rubbed with wool. From this and other results of similar types of experiments, du Fay concluded that electricity consists of two

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because an electron beam only penetrates to a limited depth before being absorbed, typically up to 5 cm for electron energies in the range 5–20 MeV. An electron beam can be used to supplement the treatment of areas that have been irradiated by

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formulation of the quantum mechanics of the electro-magnetic field. In order to resolve some problems within his relativistic equation, Dirac developed in 1930 a model of the vacuum as an infinite sea of particles with negative energy, later dubbed the

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and be converted into the other member. Charge is conserved during this reaction because the W boson also carries a charge, canceling out any net change during the transmutation. Charged current interactions are responsible for the phenomenon of

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is proportional to its energy. As a bound electron transitions between different energy levels of an atom, it absorbs or emits photons at characteristic frequencies. For instance, when atoms are irradiated by a source with a broad spectrum, distinct

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Electrons can transfer between different orbitals by the emission or absorption of photons with an energy that matches the difference in potential. Other methods of orbital transfer include collisions with particles, such as electrons, and the

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observed the radiation emitted from the cathode caused phosphorescent light to appear on the tube wall near the cathode; and the region of the phosphorescent light could be moved by application of a magnetic field. In 1869, Plücker's student

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In a simplified picture, which often tends to give the wrong idea but may serve to illustrate some aspects, every photon spends some time as a combination of a virtual electron plus its antiparticle, the virtual positron, which rapidly

4585:(RHEED) technique uses the reflection of a beam of electrons fired at various low angles to characterize the surface of crystalline materials. The beam energy is typically in the range 8–20 keV and the angle of incidence is 1–4°. 3272:

to the nucleus of an atom by the attractive Coulomb force. A system of one or more electrons bound to a nucleus is called an atom. If the number of electrons is different from the nucleus's electrical charge, such an atom is called an

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Probability densities for the first few hydrogen atom orbitals, seen in cross-section. The energy level of a bound electron determines the orbital it occupies, and the color reflects the probability of finding the electron at a given

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nomenclature of positive and negative respectively. Franklin thought of the charge carrier as being positive, but he did not correctly identify which situation was a surplus of the charge carrier, and which situation was a deficit.

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of an electron and positron, caused by the close approach of a photon with an atomic nucleus. The lightning symbol represents an exchange of a virtual photon, thus an electric force acts. The angle between the particles is very

2880:. Thus the effective charge of an electron is actually smaller than its true value, and the charge decreases with increasing distance from the electron. This polarization was confirmed experimentally in 1997 using the Japanese 4961: 3115:. This value is a dimensionless quantity formed by the ratio of two energies: the electrostatic energy of attraction (or repulsion) at a separation of one Compton wavelength, and the rest energy of the charge. It is given by 3738: 4142:

When a pair of virtual particles (such as an electron and positron) is created in the vicinity of the event horizon, random spatial positioning might result in one of them to appear on the exterior; this process is called

2170:, which began operations in 1968. This device accelerated electrons and positrons in opposite directions, effectively doubling the energy of their collision when compared to striking a static target with an electron. The 5078: 10843: 4388:

appear in the spectrum of transmitted radiation in places where the corresponding frequency is absorbed by the atom's electrons. Each element or molecule displays a characteristic set of spectral lines, such as the

1693:, was independent of cathode material. He further showed that the negatively charged particles produced by radioactive materials, by heated materials and by illuminated materials were universal. Thomson measured 3829:. These photons were sufficiently energetic that they could react with each other to form pairs of electrons and positrons. Likewise, positron–electron pairs annihilated each other and emitted energetic photons: 3437:

of electrons in a conductor is on the order of millimeters per second. However, the speed at which a change of current at one point in the material causes changes in currents in other parts of the material, the

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to describe these elementary charges, writing in 1894: "... an estimate was made of the actual amount of this most remarkable fundamental unit of electricity, for which I have since ventured to suggest the name

3646: 2212:). The electron wavefunction spreads in a semiconductor lattice and negligibly interacts with the valence band electrons, so it can be treated in the single particle formalism, by replacing its mass with the 3821:

theory is the most widely accepted scientific theory to explain the early stages in the evolution of the Universe. For the first millisecond of the Big Bang, the temperatures were over 10 billion

3485:, thereby avoiding the collisions with atoms that normally create electrical resistance. (Cooper pairs have a radius of roughly 100 nm, so they can overlap each other.) However, the mechanism by which 2767:, which precludes any two electrons from occupying the same quantum state. This principle explains many of the properties of electrons. For example, it causes groups of bound electrons to occupy different 5301:

The polarization of an electron beam means that the spins of all electrons point into one direction. In other words, the projections of the spins of all electrons onto their momentum vector have the same

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increases, thereby making it more and more difficult to accelerate it from within the observer's frame of reference. The speed of an electron can approach, but never reach, the speed of light in vacuum,

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can form before annihilation results in two or three gamma ray photons totalling 1.022 MeV. On the other hand, a high-energy photon can transform into an electron and a positron by a process called

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each other shortly thereafter. The combination of the energy variation needed to create these particles, and the time during which they exist, fall under the threshold of detectability expressed by the

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between the plates. The field deflected the rays toward the positively charged plate, providing further evidence that the rays carried negative charge. By measuring the amount of deflection for a given

4435:—a mathematical representation of periodic structures that is used to infer the original structure. ARPES can be used to determine the direction, speed and scattering of electrons within the material. 1562:'s eventual discovery of electrons. Goldstein also experimented with double cathodes and hypothesized that one ray may repulse another, although he didn't believe that any particles might be involved. 1554:

showed that the rays were emitted perpendicular to the cathode surface, which distinguished between the rays that were emitted from the cathode and the incandescent light. Goldstein dubbed the rays

5157: 1685:, performed experiments indicating that cathode rays really were unique particles, rather than waves, atoms or molecules as was believed earlier. By 1899 he showed that their charge-to-mass ratio, 3006:. The acceleration from this curving motion induces the electron to radiate energy in the form of synchrotron radiation. The energy emission in turn causes a recoil of the electron, known as the 4581:

of electrons and then observing the resulting diffraction patterns to determine the structure of the material. The required energy of the electrons is typically in the range 20–200 eV. The

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could be deflected by an electric field, and that their mass-to-charge ratio was the same as for cathode rays. This evidence strengthened the view that electrons existed as components of atoms.

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ratio but did not take the step of interpreting their results as showing a new particle, while J. J. Thomson would subsequently in 1899 give estimates for the electron charge and mass as well:

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can result in the synthesis of radioactive isotopes. Selected isotopes can subsequently undergo negative beta decay, emitting an electron and antineutrino from the nucleus. An example is the

2020:, which is a probability distribution rather than an orbit. In the figure, the shading indicates the relative probability to "find" the electron, having the energy corresponding to the given 1872:

of the hydrogen atom. However, Bohr's model failed to account for the relative intensities of the spectral lines and it was unsuccessful in explaining the spectra of more complex atoms.

3375:, which have the same electrical charge, spin, and magnetic moment as real electrons but might have a different mass. When free electrons—both in vacuum and metals—move, they produce a 4708:

use the flow of electrons to manipulate electrical signals, and they played a critical role in the development of electronics technology. However, they have been largely supplanted by

2612:. The electron, on the other hand, is thought to be stable on theoretical grounds: the electron is the least massive particle with non-zero electric charge, so its decay would violate 1585:

tried to prove that cathode rays are electrically neutral and got what he interpreted as a confident absence of deflection in electrostatic, as opposed to magnetic, field. However, as

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Beddar, A.S.; Domanovic, Mary Ann; Kubu, Mary Lou; Ellis, Rod J.; Sibata, Claudio H.; Kinsella, Timothy J. (2001). "Mobile linear accelerators for intraoperative radiation therapy".

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a finely focused electron beam, as in a TV set, across the studied sample to produce the image. Magnifications range from 100× to 1,000,000× or higher for both microscope types. The

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and Alexander Reid discovered the interference effect was produced when a beam of electrons was passed through thin celluloid foils and later metal films, and by American physicists

10113: 9436: 4043: 11798: 2378:. Within the limits of experimental accuracy, the electron charge is identical to the charge of a proton, but with the opposite sign. The electron is commonly symbolized by 496: 3371:

electrons. Electrons in metals also behave as if they were free. In reality the particles that are commonly termed electrons in metals and other solids are quasi-electrons—

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Uhlenbeck, G.E.; Goudsmith, S. (1925). "Ersetzung der Hypothese vom unmechanischen Zwang durch eine Forderung bezüglich des inneren Verhaltens jedes einzelnen Elektrons".

934: 2091:, found that certain quantum states of the hydrogen atom, which should have the same energy, were shifted in relation to each other; the difference came to be called the 10478: 2868:

surrounding an electron causes a created positron to be attracted to the original electron, while a created electron experiences a repulsion. This causes what is called

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the electron beams to reduce the momentum spread of the particles. Electron and positron beams are collided upon the particles' accelerating to the required energies;

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proposed that electricity was not from different types of electrical fluid, but a single electrical fluid showing an excess (+) or deficit (−). He gave them the modern

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in the electric field generated by the electron. These photons can heuristically be thought of as causing the electron to shift about in a jittery fashion (known as

3920:, resulting in a net charge of zero for the universe. The surviving protons and neutrons began to participate in reactions with each other—in the process known as 2891:

The interaction with virtual particles also explains the small (about 0.1%) deviation of the intrinsic magnetic moment of the electron from the Bohr magneton (the

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explained in 1897, Hertz placed the deflecting electrodes in a highly-conductive area of the tube, resulting in a strong screening effect close to their surface.

5206: 2009:. Alexander Reid, who was Thomson's graduate student, performed the first experiments but he died soon after in a motorcycle accident and is rarely mentioned. 4606: 2895:). The extraordinarily precise agreement of this predicted difference with the experimentally determined value is viewed as one of the great achievements of 2752:

correspond to the first and second electrons, respectively. Since the absolute value is not changed by a sign swap, this corresponds to equal probabilities.

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were negatively charged. In 1879, he proposed that these properties could be explained by regarding cathode rays as composed of negatively charged gaseous

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suggests the upper limit of the particle's radius to be 10 meters. The upper bound of the electron radius of 10 meters can be derived using the

13145: 7948: 7912: 6507: 4903: 3070:. This collision results in a transfer of momentum and energy between the particles, which modifies the wavelength of the photon by an amount called the 7242: 8644:

Zorn, J.C.; Chamberlain, G.E.; Hughes, V.W. (1963). "Experimental Limits for the Electron–Proton Charge Difference and for the Charge of the Neutron".

3383:, which generates a magnetic field. Likewise a current can be created by a changing magnetic field. These interactions are described mathematically by 3319:

between atoms occurs as a result of electromagnetic interactions, as described by the laws of quantum mechanics. The strongest bonds are formed by the

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Blumenthal, G.J.; Gould, R. (1970). "Bremsstrahlung, Synchrotron Radiation, and Compton Scattering of High-Energy Electrons Traversing Dilute Gases".

9323:"Are virtual particles really constantly popping in and out of existence? Or are they merely a mathematical bookkeeping device for quantum mechanics?" 7885: 6654: 3669: 15368: 14315: 8948: 927: 1803:

Around the beginning of the twentieth century, it was found that under certain conditions a fast-moving charged particle caused a condensation of

15668: 10696:"When electrons go with the flow: Remove the obstacles that create electrical resistance, and you get ballistic electrons and a quantum surprise" 12036: 9723:

Mahadevan, R.; Narayan, R.; Yi, I. (1996). "Harmony in Electrons: Cyclotron and Synchrotron Emission by Thermal Electrons in a Magnetic Field".

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uses quantum tunneling of electrons from a sharp metal tip into the studied material and can produce atomically resolved images of its surface.

2306: 14202: 11905: 9985: 8775: 8515: 8070: 5882: 5776: 5747: 5718: 5619: 5590: 5561: 5013: 574: 2690:, with each horizontal axis corresponding to the position of one particle. If the particles swap position, the wave function inverts its sign. 15630: 14738: 14548: 11257: 6113: 2103:, discovered the magnetic moment of the electron is slightly larger than predicted by Dirac's theory. This small difference was later called 10898: 10752: 10476:

Forward, K.M.; Lacks, D.J.; Sankaran, R.M. (2009). "Methodology for studying particle–particle triboelectrification in granular materials".

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discharge consists primarily of a flow of electrons. The electric potential needed for lightning can be generated by a triboelectric effect.

16515: 9034: 1928:. In 1925, they suggested that an electron, in addition to the angular momentum of its orbit, possesses an intrinsic angular momentum and 12770: 12594: 6913: 3111:

The relative strength of the electromagnetic interaction between two charged particles, such as an electron and a proton, is given by the

16360: 14630: 14589: 12640: 12400: 11952: 11305: 11252: 11064: 10673: 10563: 10345: 10307: 10269: 9702: 9597: 9426: 9212: 8813: 8227: 8061: 7855: 6476: 5477: 4582: 4368:, which is waves caused by synchronized variations in electron density, and these produce energy emissions that can be detected by using 3549:, the electrons temporarily travel faster than light in the medium. As they interact with the medium, they generate a faint light called 3458:

to the electrical conductivity is proportional to the temperature. The thermal disorder in the metallic lattice increases the electrical

3426:. These electrons are not associated with specific atoms, so when an electric field is applied, they are free to move like a gas (called 920: 12953: 12851: 12467: 11102: 10991: 10819: 10790: 10632: 9900: 9834: 9372: 9118: 9076: 8560: 8153: 8030: 7813: 7654: 7209: 6363: 6214: 5925: 5850: 5435: 3579: 3442:, is typically about 75% of light speed. This occurs because electrical signals propagate as a wave, with the velocity dependent on the 16261: 15922: 13062: 13020: 12809: 12707: 12358: 11821: 10418: 8698: 7474: 6061: 1920:. The physical mechanism to explain the fourth parameter, which had two distinct possible values, was provided by the Dutch physicists 12911: 11452: 11021: 6775: 3422:

containing partially filled electronic bands. The presence of such bands allows electrons in metals to behave as if they were free or

2918:. This motion produces both the spin and the magnetic moment of the electron. In atoms, this creation of virtual photons explains the 1464:

argued that both positive and negative charges were divided into elementary parts, each of which "behaves like atoms of electricity".

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Murphy, M.T.; et al. (2008). "Strong Limit on a Variable Proton-to-Electron Mass Ratio from Molecules in the Distant Universe".

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measurements of the strength and width of these lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined.

11788: 3335:; much as they can occupy atomic orbitals in isolated atoms. A fundamental factor in these molecular structures is the existence of 15823: 15060: 14368: 14190: 7390: 7273: 570: 4681:

to soft X-rays. These devices are used in manufacturing, communication, and in medical applications, such as soft tissue surgery.

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Remote observation of electrons requires detection of their radiated energy. For example, in high-energy environments such as the

2573:, greater than the radius of the proton. However, the terminology comes from a simplistic calculation that ignores the effects of 1932:. This is analogous to the rotation of the Earth on its axis as it orbits the Sun. The intrinsic angular momentum became known as 16148: 11752: 7298: 5780: 3459: 3391: 3007: 2506:. The orientation of the spin with respect to the momentum of the electron defines the property of elementary particles known as 497: 12118: 1984:. That is, under the appropriate conditions, electrons and other matter would show properties of either particles or waves. The 1460:. However, Stoney believed these charges were permanently attached to atoms and could not be removed. In 1881, German physicist 1389: 15025: 14393: 12311: 2178:, which was operational from 1989 to 2000, achieved collision energies of 209 GeV and made important measurements for the 1433:

theorized that electricity was composed of positively and negatively charged fluids, and their interaction was governed by the

5886: 5532: 2249:. Electrons have the lowest mass of any charged lepton (or electrically charged particle of any type) and belong to the first- 2032:

to postulate a wave equation for electrons moving under the influence of the nucleus in the atom. In 1926, this equation, the

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is 0.4–0.7 μm) the wavelength shift becomes negligible. Such interaction between the light and free electrons is called

2159:. This radiation was caused by the acceleration of electrons through a magnetic field as they moved near the speed of light. 9922:

Chen, S.-Y.; Maksimchuk, A.; Umstadter, D. (1998). "Experimental observation of relativistic nonlinear Thomson scattering".

8899: 2577:; in reality, the so-called classical electron radius has little to do with the true fundamental structure of the electron. 16697: 16472: 15658: 14620: 14308: 11017: 8263: 7713: 5953:

The Nature of the Chemical Bond and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals: an introduction to modern structural chemistry

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radiation increases with decreasing mass, eventually causing the black hole to evaporate away until, finally, it explodes.

3751: 2331: 2213: 2171: 1342:, to refer to those substances with property similar to that of amber which attract small objects after being rubbed. Both 12307: 4872:

The fractional version's denominator is the inverse of the decimal value (along with its relative standard uncertainty of

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had been done earlier by Thomson's team, using clouds of charged water droplets generated by electrolysis, and in 1911 by

500: 495: 16430: 14358: 13232: 4818: 3512:. The former carries spin and magnetic moment, the next carries its orbital location while the latter electrical charge. 3492:

Electrons inside conducting solids, which are quasi-particles themselves, when tightly confined at temperatures close to

3469:, materials can undergo a phase transition in which they lose all resistivity to electric current, in a process known as 1517:

which is now used to designate other subatomic particles, such as a proton or neutron, is in turn derived from electron.

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Odom, B.; et al. (2006). "New Measurement of the Electron Magnetic Moment Using a One-Electron Quantum Cyclotron".

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of a point particle electron having intrinsic angular momentum and magnetic moment can be explained by the formation of

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measured to a precision of eleven digits, which, in 1980, was a greater accuracy than for any other physical constant.

3149: 1271: 9499:. Proceedings of the XLIInd Rencontres de Moriond on Electroweak Interactions and Unified Theories. La Thuile, Italy. 8981:

Dehmelt, H. (1988). "A Single Atomic Particle Forever Floating at Rest in Free Space: New Value for Electron Radius".

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have a variable level of conductivity that lies between the extremes of conduction and insulation. On the other hand,

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of the electron. This wavelength, for example, is equal to 0.0037 nm for electrons accelerated across a 100,000-

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an electron to roughly 51 GeV. Since an electron behaves as a wave, at a given velocity it has a characteristic

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at different energy levels. The more opaque areas are where one is most likely to find an electron at any given time.

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Mobus, G.; et al. (2010). "Nano-scale quasi-melting of alkali-borosilicate glasses under electron irradiatio".

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in a fourth state of matter in which the mean free path of the particles is so long that collisions may be ignored.

508: 499: 17042: 16790: 16508: 16298: 15956: 15468: 15354: 15050: 14947: 14818: 14625: 14568: 14388: 14169: 13048: 12666: 9139:

Steinberg, R.I.; et al. (1999). "Experimental test of charge conservation and the stability of the electron".

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have a diffraction-limited resolution of about 200 nm. By comparison, electron microscopes are limited by the

3152:

each other, giving rise to two or more gamma ray photons. If the electron and positron have negligible momentum, a

2892: 2104: 506: 491: 12154:

Mauritsson, J.; et al. (2008). "Coherent Electron Scattering Captured by an Attosecond Quantum Stroboscope".

11909: 8457:

Mohr, P.J.; Taylor, B.N.; Newell, D.B. (2008). "CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants".

7676: 4741: 3309: 2277:. All members of the lepton group are fermions because they all have half-odd integer spin; the electron has spin 16842: 16293: 16021: 16001: 15391: 14778: 14681: 14661: 14421: 14301: 11476:

Rodberg, L.S.; Weisskopf, V. (1957). "Fall of Parity: Recent Discoveries Related to Symmetry of Laws of Nature".

11282:

Burles, S.; Nollett, K.M.; Turner, M.S. (1999). "Big-Bang Nucleosynthesis: Linking Inner Space and Outer Space".

7589: 7367: 6808: 4574: 3466: 2056: 1990: 1764:

The name "electron" was adopted for these particles by the scientific community, mainly due to the advocation by

1405:

fluid from amber rubbed with wool. These two fluids can neutralize each other when combined. American scientist

507: 9618:

Foldy, L.L.; Wouthuysen, S. (1950). "On the Dirac Theory of Spin 1/2 Particles and Its Non-Relativistic Limit".

9322: 3545:—are injected into a dielectric medium such as water, where the local speed of light is significantly less than 1425:

developed the idea that an atom is composed of a core of matter surrounded by subatomic particles that had unit

16580: 16288: 15240: 15108: 14584: 14343: 14338: 13137: 11697: 10138: 7937: 7877: 7407: 6263: 6017:

A history of electricity (The intellectual rise in electricity) from antiquity to the days of Benjamin Franklin

488: 15800: 7231: 485: 17037: 16837: 16321: 16143: 16046: 15707: 15123: 15035: 14997: 14912: 13174: 10372: 7146:

Das Gupta, N.N.; Ghosh, S.K. (1999). "A Report on the Wilson Cloud Chamber and Its Applications in Physics".

4638: 3486: 2856:

A schematic depiction of virtual electron–positron pairs appearing at random near an electron (at lower left)

2343: 2250: 1666:, on the basis of their ability to penetrate matter. In 1900, Becquerel showed that the beta rays emitted by 1204:

of an atomic system. The exchange or sharing of the electrons between two or more atoms is the main cause of

1016: 1000: 544: 93: 6646: 5382:

Farrar, W.V. (1969). "Richard Laming and the Coal-Gas Industry, with His Views on the Structure of Matter".

1118:. Electromagnetic fields produced from other sources will affect the motion of an electron according to the 896: 16967: 16721: 16326: 16194: 15785: 15616: 15128: 14857: 14733: 14383: 14185: 13006: 12939: 7841: 4828: 4618: 4512: 2676: 1953: 1780:

in 1891 as a tentative name for the basic unit of electrical charge (which had then yet to be discovered).

1682: 1329: 1166: 781: 489: 11847:

Gurnett, D.A.; Anderson, R. (1976). "Electron Plasma Oscillations Associated with Type III Radio Bursts".

9458:

Levine, I.; et al. (1997). "Measurement of the Electromagnetic Coupling at Large Momentum Transfer".

8519: 7001: 3051:. An isolated electron at a constant velocity cannot emit or absorb a real photon; doing so would violate 2944: 16952: 16752: 16501: 16350: 16106: 15966: 15740: 15695: 15639: 15518: 15401: 15206: 15007: 14852: 14646: 12728:

Heppell, T.A. (1967). "A combined low energy and reflection high energy electron diffraction apparatus".

9780: 7334: 6758: 4519: 4404:, which allow measurement of specific properties such as energy, spin and charge. The development of the 2507: 2327: 1985: 1808: 1714: 1596:

expanded upon Crookes's experiments by placing metal plates parallel to the cathode rays and applying an

1036: 486: 112: 2135:

during the first half of the twentieth century, physicists began to delve deeper into the properties of

1839:. An electron dropping to a lower orbit emits a photon equal to the energy difference between the orbits 1629:

suggested that the mass of these particles (electrons) could be a consequence of their electric charge.

1200:. Ionization or differences in the proportions of negative electrons versus positive nuclei changes the 16543: 16222: 16094: 15991: 15867: 15795: 15702: 15103: 14426: 11975: 9358: 8944: 8834:

Gabrielse, G.; et al. (2006). "New Determination of the Fine Structure Constant from the Electron

8139: 6144: 4654: 3533: 2522: 1709:, finding a value 1400 times less massive than the least massive ion known: hydrogen. In the same year 12028: 10006:

Beringer, R.; Montgomery, C.G. (1942). "The Angular Distribution of Positron Annihilation Radiation".

1936:, and explained the previously mysterious splitting of spectral lines observed with a high-resolution 1904:

of all elements in the periodic table, which were known to largely repeat themselves according to the

1305: 493: 16872: 16031: 15996: 15892: 15835: 15539: 15478: 15406: 15216: 15193: 15143: 15113: 14594: 14261: 12492: 11523: 11425: 9857: 9725: 8459: 8053: 7542: 7148: 7059: 7025: 6170: 5987: 4709: 4547: 4494: 4120: 3419: 2994:

that acts perpendicularly to the plane defined by the magnetic field and the electron velocity. This

2951:) with respect to an observer. This property of induction supplies the magnetic field that drives an 2764: 2637: 2562: 2140: 1917: 1765: 1547:

Furthermore, he also discovered that these rays are deflected by magnets just like lines of current.

1056: 1052: 31: 17: 11377: 8491: 8317: 7090:"The Isolation of an Ion, a Precision Measurement of its Charge, and the Correction of Stokes's Law" 3912:

and positrons annihilated each other, releasing gamma radiation that briefly reheated the universe.

2525:

can occur in some materials. In such cases, electrons 'split' into three independent particles, the

484: 17057: 17052: 16937: 16892: 16204: 16177: 16153: 16116: 15907: 15840: 15775: 15760: 15730: 15653: 15270: 15224: 14905: 14830: 13673: 11303:

Boesgaard, A.M.; Steigman, G. (1985). "Big bang nucleosynthesis – Theories and observations".

11244: 10984:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1958, for the discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov effect" 6099: 4625:, with a beam of electrons passing through a slice of material then being projected by lenses on a 4508: 4390: 2699:

electrons, is antisymmetric, meaning that it changes sign when two electrons are swapped; that is,

2593: 2518: 2484: 2462: 861: 791: 6878:"Die magnetische Ablenkbarkeit der Kathodenstrahlen und ihre Abhängigkeit vom Entladungspotential" 5951: 4178:. The particle called a muon is a lepton produced in the upper atmosphere by the decay of a pion. 3398:

is applied. Examples of good conductors include metals such as copper and gold, whereas glass and

2759:

In the case of antisymmetry, solutions of the wave equation for interacting electrons result in a

1176:

Interactions involving electrons with other subatomic particles are of interest in fields such as

502: 16355: 16089: 15981: 15951: 15750: 15432: 15377: 15260: 15070: 15002: 14962: 14702: 14558: 14527: 14502: 14441: 14229: 13864: 13491: 13225: 12878: 12276: 12156: 11578: 10920:

Jompol, Y.; et al. (2009). "Probing Spin-Charge Separation in a Tomonaga-Luttinger Liquid".

10888: 10732: 9460: 9058:

Optics, light and lasers: The Practical Approach to Modern Aspects of Photonics and Laser Physics

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Frampton, P.H.; Hung, P.Q.; Sher, Marc (2000). "Quarks and Leptons Beyond the Third Generation".

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A History of Physics in Its Elementary Branches: Including the Evolution of Physical Laboratories

5649: 5328: 4148: 4054: 3451: 3407: 3399: 3165: 3112: 3048: 2896: 2820: 2266: 2108: 2052: 1784: 1777: 1758: 1654:

materials became the subject of much interest by scientists, including the New Zealand physicist

1442: 1239: 1220: 1114:; if that electron is moving relative to an observer, the observer will observe it to generate a 562: 492: 401: 185: 103: 12766: 12587: 9297: 7430: 6934:

O'Hara, J. G. (March 1975). "George Johnstone Stoney, F.R.S., and the Concept of the Electron".

2033: 1650:

discovered that they emitted radiation without any exposure to an external energy source. These

1137:

can detect electron plasma in outer space. Electrons are involved in many applications, such as

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Eichten, E.J.; Peskin, M.E.; Peskin, M. (1983). "New Tests for Quark and Lepton Substructure".

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In laboratory conditions, the interactions of individual electrons can be observed by means of

4104: 3439: 3384: 3052: 2668: 2641: 1543: 811: 696: 636: 566: 505: 15554: 12620: 12380: 11932: 11044: 10983: 10811: 10657: 10585: 10535: 10329: 10291: 10249: 10044: 9892: 9816: 9686: 9577: 9350: 9177: 9056: 8797: 8022: 7835: 6456: 6424: 5980: 5909: 5457: 3936:

with a half-life of about a thousand seconds, releasing a proton and electron in the process,

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material, the electrons remain bound to their respective atoms and the material behaves as an

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Eichler, J. (2005). "Electron–positron pair production in relativistic ion–atom collisions".

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Trenn, T.J. (1976). "Rutherford on the Alpha-Beta-Gamma Classification of Radioactive Rays".

6343: 6198: 5834: 5419: 4813: 4630: 4479: 4448: 4288: 4046:, when neutral atoms were formed and the expanding universe became transparent to radiation. 3999: 3443: 2873: 2792: 2374:, which is used as a standard unit of charge for subatomic particles, and is also called the 2152: 2151:

reached energies of 2.3 MeV, while subsequent betatrons achieved 300 MeV. In 1947,

1461: 1146: 1072: 686: 503: 487: 13042: 13000: 12793: 12691: 12338: 11825: 11318: 11013: 10402: 7458: 7023:

Kikoin, I.K.; Sominskiĭ, I.S. (1961). "Abram Fedorovich Ioffe (on his eightieth birthday)".

6753: 6041: 4889:

Older sources list charge-to-mass rather than the modern convention of mass-to-charge ratio.

4665:

whose fields point in alternating directions. The electrons emit synchrotron radiation that

1883:

between two atoms is maintained by a pair of electrons shared between them. Later, in 1927,

1558:. Decades of experimental and theoretical research involving cathode rays were important in 1215:

first hypothesized the concept of an indivisible quantity of electric charge to explain the

17047: 16957: 16947: 16922: 16772: 16640: 16135: 15884: 15735: 15201: 14783: 14517: 14353: 14324: 12887: 12873: 12739: 12523: 12496: 12238: 12175: 12076: 11994: 11858: 11761: 11716: 11658: 11597: 11542: 11487: 11434: 11417: 11364: 11314: 11195: 10941: 10545: 10450: 10174: 10122: 10081: 10017: 9943: 9866: 9789: 9744: 9629: 9548: 9510: 9469: 9251: 9194: 9150: 8992: 8849: 8733: 8655: 8602: 8478: 8377: 8304: 8185: 8106: 7986: 7894: 7770: 7636: 7551: 7506: 7343: 7157: 7106: 7034: 6889: 6179: 5802: 5668: 5337: 4975: 4790: 4542: 4531: 4124: 4095:

An extended air shower generated by an energetic cosmic ray striking the Earth's atmosphere

3455: 3423: 3361: 3298: 2554: 2144: 2132: 1994: 1610: 1430: 1170: 1095: 1060: 596: 536: 504: 494: 15564: 13191: 12284: 11125: 7089: 6837: 5272:{\displaystyle \textstyle \Delta \lambda ={\frac {h}{m_{\mathrm {e} }c}}(1-\cos \theta ),} 2204:) CMOS transistors operated at cryogenic temperature over a range of −269 °C (4 2029: 1891:

gave the full explanation of the electron-pair formation and chemical bonding in terms of

1445:

suggested that there existed a "single definite quantity of electricity", the charge of a

8: 16977: 16962: 16832: 16691: 16585: 16566: 16454: 16407: 16237: 16011: 15765: 15745: 15680: 15675: 15508: 14847: 14813: 14748: 14666: 14656: 14451: 14266: 13249: 12344: 12067: 9327: 9004: 8326: 7497: 6283:"electron, n.2". OED Online. March 2013. Oxford University Press. Accessed 12 April 2013 5181: 5090: 4666: 4650: 4589: 4405: 4167: 3932:. This process peaked after about five minutes. Any leftover neutrons underwent negative 3550: 3282: 3169: 3066:

An inelastic collision between a photon (light) and a solitary (free) electron is called

2869: 2695: 2625: 2613: 2581: 2347: 2246: 2229: 2069: 1856: 1792: 1678: 1446: 1406: 1162: 1154: 1008: 831: 646: 631: 514: 455: 451: 436: 416: 71: 64: 12891: 12743: 12527: 12500: 12242: 12179: 12080: 11998: 11862: 11765: 11720: 11662: 11601: 11546: 11491: 11438: 11368: 11326: 11199: 10945: 10889:"Discovery about behavior of building block of nature could lead to computer revolution" 10549: 10454: 10178: 10126: 10085: 10021: 9947: 9870: 9793: 9748: 9633: 9552: 9514: 9473: 9255: 9198: 9154: 8996: 8853: 8737: 8659: 8606: 8482: 8381: 8308: 8189: 8110: 7990: 7898: 7774: 7640: 7555: 7510: 7347: 7161: 7110: 7038: 6893: 6572:

DeKosky, R.K. (1983). "William Crookes and the quest for absolute vacuum in the 1870s".

6183: 6015: 5672: 5341: 4127:. However, quantum mechanical effects are believed to potentially allow the emission of 3347: 3184:, electron neutrinos behave like electrons. Either member of this doublet can undergo a 2955:. The electromagnetic field of an arbitrary moving charged particle is expressed by the 871: 16882: 16767: 16571: 16561: 16170: 16016: 15818: 15755: 15574: 15549: 15473: 15255: 15183: 15138: 14481: 14209: 13218: 12422: 12254: 12228: 12217:

Damascelli, A. (2004). "Probing the Electronic Structure of Complex Systems by ARPES".

12199: 12165: 12088: 12010: 11984: 11882: 11732: 11706: 11674: 11629: 11587: 11558: 11532: 11398: 11354: 11283: 11211: 10965: 10931: 10870: 10852: 10164: 9959: 9933: 9760: 9734: 9659: 9500: 9290: 9008: 8873: 8626: 8592: 8468: 8393: 8367: 8338: 8294: 8201: 7761: 7741: 7567: 7522: 7359: 7290: 6959: 6951: 6702: 6694: 6627: 6554: 5692: 5658: 5361: 4979: 4833: 4795: 4733: 4622: 4594: 4502: 4432: 4420:

in Sweden, February 2008. The scientists used extremely short flashes of light, called

4416:

The first video images of an electron's energy distribution were captured by a team at

4365: 4342: 4174:. More than half of the cosmic radiation observed from the Earth's surface consists of 4144: 4067: 3560:

Lorentz factor as a function of velocity. It starts at value 1 and goes to infinity as

3525: 3395: 3242: 3105: 3089: 3071: 3067: 2960: 2881: 2274: 2269:, but are more massive. Leptons differ from the other basic constituent of matter, the 2253:

of fundamental particles. The second and third generation contain charged leptons, the

2136: 2112: 1815:

so he could photograph the tracks of charged particles, such as fast-moving electrons.

1597: 1434: 1099: 992: 806: 721: 12564: 12250: 10134: 9264: 9237: 8920:

Discovery About Behavior Of Building Block Of Nature Could Lead To Computer Revolution

8389: 5768: 3331:. Within a molecule, electrons move under the influence of several nuclei, and occupy 2346:

has held the same value, as is predicted by the Standard Model, for at least half the

17027: 16972: 16932: 16524: 16434: 16079: 15986: 15943: 15874: 15790: 15770: 15725: 15685: 15663: 15534: 15503: 15300: 15295: 15075: 15040: 14532: 14278: 14246: 14159: 13638: 13383: 13310: 13197: 13117: 13088: 13052: 13010: 12979: 12943: 12903: 12841: 12799: 12751: 12697: 12670: 12630: 12568: 12457: 12390: 12348: 12191: 12129: 12014: 11942: 11874: 11849: 11728: 11621: 11503: 11478: 11390: 11345: 11215: 11207: 11186: 11157: 11132: 11092: 11054: 10957: 10922: 10780: 10742: 10663: 10622: 10591: 10553: 10514: 10439:

Freeman, G.R.; March, N.H. (1999). "Triboelectricity and some associated phenomena".

10408: 10335: 10297: 10259: 10228: 10200: 10072: 10050: 9824: 9692: 9665: 9587: 9405: 9362: 9301: 9242: 9185: 9141: 9108: 9066: 9012: 8865: 8803: 8749: 8688: 8618: 8583: 8550: 8425: 8397: 8342: 8330: 8205: 8143: 8004: 7845: 7803: 7745: 7733: 7644: 7571: 7464: 7437: 7355: 7199: 6963: 6905: 6767: 6720:

Becquerel, H. (1900). "Déviation du Rayonnement du Radium dans un Champ Électrique".

6706: 6574: 6546: 6466: 6430: 6405: 6353: 6307: 6204: 6148: 6083: 6051: 6021: 5991: 5958: 5915: 5840: 5696: 5684: 5611: 5467: 5425: 5384: 5365: 5353: 4808: 4559: 4555: 4523: 4468: 4401: 4338: 4223: 4128: 4112: 4059: 3541:. However, when relativistic electrons—that is, electrons moving at a speed close to 3470: 3332: 3324: 3302: 3294: 3214: 2995: 2903: 2687: 2574: 2375: 2088: 2037: 1901: 1892: 1844: 1655: 1651: 1410: 1216: 1158: 1119: 1024: 996: 856: 786: 751: 681: 676: 641: 616: 592: 588: 301: 12258: 11886: 11736: 11562: 10874: 9963: 9764: 7526: 7363: 7294: 7046: 6979:"On the Cause of Double Lines and of Equidistant Satellites in the Spectra of Gases" 6631: 1538: 17032: 16635: 16616: 16101: 16051: 15828: 15569: 15452: 15118: 14803: 14256: 14027: 13802: 13663: 13648: 13330: 13241: 13141: 12899: 12895: 12747: 12626: 12560: 12531: 12246: 12203: 12187: 12183: 12084: 12032: 12002: 11866: 11769: 11724: 11678: 11666: 11649: 11633: 11613: 11605: 11550: 11495: 11442: 11402: 11382: 11322: 11203: 10987: 10949: 10862: 10815: 10618: 10541: 10487: 10458: 10381: 10130: 10093: 10089: 10025: 9951: 9924: 9896: 9874: 9797: 9752: 9637: 9583: 9556: 9477: 9259: 9202: 9158: 9026: 9000: 8857: 8741: 8663: 8630: 8610: 8496: 8385: 8322: 8193: 8114: 8026: 7994: 7944: 7902: 7778: 7725: 7683: 7596: 7559: 7514: 7399: 7351: 7282: 7238: 7165: 7114: 7073: 7068: 7054: 7042: 6943: 6897: 6804: 6686: 6617: 6583: 6538: 6397: 6255: 6109: 5874: 5680: 5676: 5524: 5510: 5393: 5345: 4997: 4956:{\displaystyle \textstyle \mu _{\mathrm {B} }={\frac {e\hbar }{2m_{\mathrm {e} }}}} 4689: 4685: 4578: 4563: 4527: 4357: 4158:

are particles traveling through space with high energies. Energy events as high as

3917: 3380: 3181: 2948: 2936: 2907: 2885: 2861: 2780: 2763:

that each pair will occupy the same location or state. This is responsible for the

2760: 2672: 2418: 2156: 2116: 2080:

as a generic term to describe both the positively and negatively charged variants.

1998: 1973: 1925: 1876: 1267: 1235: 1185: 1150: 1130: 1107: 1028: 841: 836: 736: 711: 671: 528: 472: 445: 108: 12535: 11870: 11695:; Hooper, D. (2002). "High-energy neutrino astronomy: the cosmic ray connection". 10969: 10293:

Fundamental World of Quantum Chemistry: A Tribute to the Memory of Per-Olov Löwdin

9977: 8891: 8877: 8861: 8745: 7714:"Electron diffraction chez Thomson: early responses to quantum physics in Britain" 7118: 5739: 3277:. The wave-like behavior of a bound electron is described by a function called an 1227:

and his team of British physicists identified it as a particle in 1897 during the

16942: 16847: 16227: 16165: 15855: 15850: 15513: 15498: 15396: 15305: 14928: 14825: 14563: 14512: 14224: 14149: 14133: 14073: 13483: 13408: 13398: 13388: 13300: 12219: 12125: 11499: 10491: 10008: 9620: 9539: 8983: 8968: 8926: 8767: 8646: 8358: 8249: 8097: 7097: 6502: 6290: 5582: 4785: 4697: 4688:, which have been extensively used as display devices in laboratory instruments, 4669:

interacts with the same electrons to strongly amplify the radiation field at the

4417: 4369: 3921: 3809: 3782: 3521: 3509: 3218: 3185: 3158: 2609: 2534: 2354: 2241:

of particle physics, electrons belong to the group of subatomic particles called

2120: 1929: 1921: 1896: 1863:

of positive charge surrounded by lower-mass electrons. In 1913, Danish physicist

1804: 1788: 1773: 1647: 1626: 1593: 1566: 1551: 1485: 1426: 1414: 1394: 1317: 1181: 886: 771: 761: 756: 746: 706: 701: 661: 548: 329: 294: 13085:

Television Picture Tubes and Other Cathode-Ray Tubes: Industry and Trade Summary

11902:"Atomic Spectroscopy: A compendium of basic ideas, notation, data, and formulas" 11609: 7460:

Pauli's Exclusion Principle, The Origin and Validation of a Scientific Principle

6978: 5553: 3733:{\displaystyle \displaystyle K_{\mathrm {e} }=(\gamma -1)m_{\mathrm {e} }c^{2},} 3100:. When the wavelength of the light is long (for instance, the wavelength of the 2016:

In quantum mechanics, the behavior of an electron in an atom is described by an

901: 265: 16827: 16650: 16597: 16336: 16313: 16280: 16084: 15961: 15544: 15275: 14768: 14743: 14522: 14283: 14197: 14154: 13890: 13678: 13451: 13373: 13368: 13290: 12315: 11692: 11343:

Barkana, R. (2006). "The First Stars in the Universe and Cosmic Reionization".

10462: 10163:. TASI 2000: Flavor Physics for the Millennium. Boulder, Colorado. p. 80. 9481: 9207: 6677: 6390:

The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science

5710: 5349: 4993: 4775: 4761: 4747: 4693: 4511:

is used to irradiate materials in order to change their physical properties or

4361: 4353: 4039: 3797:, small enough to explore structures well below the size of an atomic nucleus. 3573: 3529: 3434: 3278: 3060: 2952: 2940: 2911: 2865: 2768: 2657: 2649: 2585: 2538: 2342:

and that of an electron is about 1836. Astronomical measurements show that the

2302: 2262: 2258: 2238: 2233:

Standard Model of elementary particles. The electron (symbol e) is on the left.

2179: 2100: 2096: 2048: 2021: 2017: 1941: 1933: 1912: 1905: 1884: 1860: 1832: 1659: 1622:

atoms. Schuster's estimates would subsequently turn out to be largely correct.

1606: 1602: 1582: 1422: 1212: 1201: 1193: 1129:

Laboratory instruments are capable of trapping individual electrons as well as

1115: 1111: 1032: 1012: 826: 796: 741: 731: 716: 626: 532: 468: 380: 204: 180: 59: 50: 44: 15608: 11447: 10866: 9878: 9238:"Search for electron decay mode e → γ + ν with prototype of Borexino detector" 8500: 8197: 8095:

Elder, F.R.; et al. (1947). "Radiation from Electrons in a Synchrotron".

7729: 7169: 6877: 6587: 6401: 6259: 5528: 5397: 4704:

initiates an avalanche of electrons that produces a detectable current pulse.

4424:

pulses, which allowed an electron's motion to be observed for the first time.

3010:, which creates a friction that slows the electron. This force is caused by a 2852: 2675:, it gives the probability that a particle will be observed near a location—a 1525: 1196:

and the negative electrons without allows the composition of the two known as

1141:

or frictional charging, electrolysis, electrochemistry, battery technologies,

17021: 16927: 16684: 16666: 16158: 15976: 15902: 15250: 15160: 14864: 14798: 14773: 14373: 14241: 14093: 14060: 13852: 13822: 13754: 13613: 13393: 13320: 13305: 13170: 12491:. APS/AAPT Joint Meeting. Electron Beam Scanning in Industrial Applications. 11938: 11793: 10893: 10700: 9520: 9431: 9401: 9162: 8667: 8118: 8008: 7782: 7737: 6909: 6901: 6550: 6462: 6409: 6349: 6043:

The Story of Electrical and Magnetic Measurements: From 500 B.C. to the 1940s

5647:

Collaboration) (2015). "Test of electric charge conservation with Borexino".

4838: 4662: 4626: 4460: 4385: 4311: 4132: 4131:

at this distance. Electrons (and positrons) are thought to be created at the

3789:

is the momentum. For the 51 GeV electron above, the wavelength is about

3497: 3493: 3415: 3411: 3372: 3336: 3320: 3316: 3293:. To escape the atom, the energy of the electron must be increased above its 3011: 2991: 2923: 2653: 2488: 2322: 2002: 1880: 1869: 1848: 1812: 1783:

The electron's charge was more carefully measured by the American physicists

1769: 1710: 1674: 1663: 1636: 1586: 1559: 1363: 1243: 1224: 1205: 1103: 1048: 846: 801: 766: 621: 367: 276: 196: 11386: 10953: 8614: 7540:

Pauli, W. (1923). "Über die Gesetzmäßigkeiten des anomalen Zeemaneffektes".

6385: 4846:

or antielectron is a antiparticle or antimatter counter part of the electron

3161:, but only in the presence of a nearby charged particle, such as a nucleus. 2959:, which are valid even when the particle's speed is close to that of light ( 17003: 16917: 16887: 16762: 16756: 16576: 16378: 16303: 15178: 15085: 14992: 14987: 14982: 14957: 14808: 14718: 14436: 14378: 14363: 14219: 13769: 13759: 13749: 13510: 13461: 13403: 13325: 13280: 12907: 12572: 12551: 12195: 11878: 11625: 11507: 11394: 10961: 10029: 9561: 9534: 8869: 8753: 8622: 8334: 8254: 7999: 7974: 7907: 6947: 6833: 6622: 6605: 6542: 6104: 5688: 4701: 4409: 4394: 4136: 3826: 3755: 3376: 3290: 3173: 2812: 2787: 2550: 2549:

of the electron tending to infinity. Observation of a single electron in a

1937: 1888: 1852: 1643: 1438: 1275: 1259: 1251: 906: 876: 851: 821: 691: 666: 651: 540: 410: 165: 15346: 12427:. Proceedings of the 16th Conference on Design automation. San Diego, CA: 12059: 9641: 8799:

Particle Or Wave: The Evolution of the Concept of Matter in Modern Physics

5911:

Particle Or Wave: The Evolution of the Concept of Matter in Modern Physics

4497:(EBL) is a method of etching semiconductors at resolutions smaller than a 4427:

The distribution of the electrons in solid materials can be visualized by

3462:

of the material, producing a temperature dependence for electric current.

2990:

When an electron is moving through a magnetic field, it is subject to the

1823: 1316:, this phenomenon is one of humanity's earliest recorded experiences with 1067:

are easier to observe with experiments than those of other particles like

16807: 16705: 16701: 16590: 16388: 16242: 15780: 15493: 15483: 15447: 15422: 15245: 14466: 14293: 14234: 14002: 13905: 13900: 13817: 13812: 13742: 13696: 13653: 13618: 13577: 13469: 13433: 13295: 13113: 12837: 12233: 11711: 11537: 11359: 11288: 10857: 10220: 9739: 6771: 5073:{\displaystyle E_{\mathrm {p} }={\frac {e^{2}}{8\pi \varepsilon _{0}r}},} 4823: 4705: 4634: 4598: 4551: 4475: 4456: 4116: 3759: 3481:

have their motion coupled to nearby matter via lattice vibrations called

3478: 3259: 3153: 2660: 2546: 2084: 1977: 1797: 1736: 1555: 1228: 1142: 1083: 881: 866: 816: 776: 726: 116: 11989: 11901: 11773: 9938: 7403: 7286: 4431:(ARPES). This technique employs the photoelectric effect to measure the 3025:

deflected by the electric field of an atomic nucleus. The energy change

16877: 16747: 16741: 16737: 16709: 16679: 16449: 16383: 16247: 15559: 15488: 15310: 15095: 15030: 14952: 13976: 13870: 13860: 13842: 13732: 13633: 13568: 13285: 13210: 12428: 11592: 10169: 9100:

The Physics of Atoms and Quanta: Introduction to Experiments and Theory

8372: 8135:

The Rise of the Standard Model: Particle Physics in the 1960s and 1970s

7563: 7518: 6386:"XLVI. Observations on the electrical discharge through rarefied gases" 5421:

Representing Electrons: A Biographical Approach to Theoretical Entities

4713: 4498: 4421: 4346: 4155: 4108: 4100: 3933: 3572:

The effects of special relativity are based on a quantity known as the

3474: 3403: 3210: 3003: 2919: 2915: 2092: 2065: 2044: 1864: 1828: 1323: 1255: 1247: 891: 656: 12006: 11617: 9801: 6955: 6698: 6558: 6526: 5357: 4755: 4166:

have been recorded. When these particles collide with nucleons in the

4049:

Roughly one million years after the big bang, the first generation of

2771:

in an atom, rather than all overlapping each other in the same orbit.

2636:

As with all particles, electrons can act as waves. This is called the

2107:

of the electron. This difference was later explained by the theory of

1011:

because they have no known components or substructure. The electron's

16907: 16902: 16493: 16232: 15265: 15133: 15045: 15017: 14599: 14118: 14108: 14078: 13971: 13937: 13930: 13807: 13797: 13792: 13764: 13532: 13315: 12386: 11670: 11050: 10738: 10255: 10109:"Electron positron pair production by photons: A historical overview" 9519:– lists a 9% mass difference for an electron that is the size of the 9062: 8421: 5463: 4780: 4678: 4670: 4658: 4376: 4063: 3427: 3352: 2068:

counterpart of the electron. This particle was discovered in 1932 by

2061: 1701:

for cathode ray "corpuscles", and made good estimates of the charge

1658:

who discovered they emitted particles. He designated these particles

1409:

later also independently reached the same conclusion. A decade later

1333: 1313: 1279: 1266:; it is identical to the electron, except that it carries electrical 1177: 1138: 1134: 1091: 1087: 12385:. Manufacturing engineering and materials processing. Vol. 19. 11576:

Parikh, M.K.; Wilczek, F. (2000). "Hawking Radiation As Tunneling".

10386: 10367: 10108: 9535:"On Quantum-Electrodynamics and the Magnetic Moment of the Electron" 8174:

Bernardini, C. (2004). "AdA: The First Electron–Positron Collider".

7385: 7268: 6241: 5769:"2018 CODATA Value: electron magnetic moment to Bohr magneton ratio" 5165:

is the speed of light in vacuum. Setting them equal and solving for

2439:. This property is usually stated by referring to the electron as a 2055:

theory, by applying relativistic and symmetry considerations to the

16912: 16417: 16393: 16252: 16217: 15442: 15173: 14972: 14697: 14214: 14042: 13997: 13981: 13942: 13915: 13628: 13623: 13603: 13573: 13563: 13558: 13378: 13353: 13275: 11554: 9756: 6838:"The discovery of the electron – 100 years of elementary particles" 6690: 5663: 5644: 4843: 4727: 4674: 3872: 3818: 3328: 3177: 3056: 2807:. In effect, the energy needed to create these virtual particles, Δ 2616:. The experimental lower bound for the electron's mean lifetime is 2605: 2440: 2163: 2162:

With a beam energy of 1.5 GeV, the first high-energy particle

2148: 1619: 1615: 1575: 1534: 1359: 1263: 1071:

and protons because electrons have a lower mass and hence a longer

170: 14897: 12170: 10936: 10659:

Electrons and Phonons: The Theory of Transport Phenomena in Solids

9955: 9505: 8597: 8473: 8299: 4550:. Polarized electron beams can be useful for various experiments. 3805: 3641:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \gamma =1/{\sqrt {1-{v^{2}}/{c^{2}}}}} 3047:

Photons mediate electromagnetic interactions between particles in

2682: 1511: 16867: 16444: 16061: 14123: 14113: 14083: 14037: 14032: 14007: 13925: 13910: 13837: 13832: 13737: 13722: 13668: 13643: 13608: 13537: 13519: 13258: 6527:"An Unfortunate Experiment: Hertz and the Nature of Cathode Rays" 4677:

electromagnetic radiation with a wide range of frequencies, from

3941: 3929: 3556: 3505: 3223: 3190: 3017: 2686:

Example of an antisymmetric wave function for a quantum state of

2530: 2371: 1079: 1068: 1055:. Like all elementary particles, electrons exhibit properties of 1044: 76: 12453:

Fundamentals of Microfabrication: the Science of Miniaturization

8511: 4345:

are mostly caused by energetic electrons precipitating into the

2966: 2947:

relates the magnetic field to the mass motion of electrons (the

2190:

Individual electrons can now be easily confined in ultra small (

16800: 16627: 16553: 16421: 15917: 15437: 14103: 14098: 13727: 13714: 13705: 13527: 13441: 13340: 8507:

Individual physical constants from the CODATA are available at:

4803: 4577:(LEED) is a method of bombarding a crystalline material with a 4522:

generate electron beams for treatment of superficial tumors in

4380: 3961: 3925: 3834: 3822: 3501: 3482: 2526: 2339: 2242: 2209: 2205: 2006: 1667: 1570: 1529:

A beam of electrons deflected by a magnetic field into a circle

1282: 1189: 1123: 1020: 1004: 86: 12976:

Scanning and Transmission Electron Microscopy: An Introduction

9778:

Rohrlich, F. (1999). "The Self-Force and Radiation Reaction".

8418:

Constituents of Matter: Atoms, Molecules, Nuclei and Particles

7759:

Schrödinger, E. (1926). "Quantisierung als Eigenwertproblem".

5180:

Radiation from non-relativistic electrons is sometimes termed

2986:

is negative, so it follows a curved trajectory toward the top.

1632: 1452:. He was able to estimate the value of this elementary charge 15690: 14128: 14068: 13920: 13779: 13658: 13598: 13553: 13446: 13424: 13267: 13002:

Electron Microscopy: Principles and Techniques for Biologists

12978:(Reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 43–45. 12935:

Electron Microscopy: Principles and Techniques for Biologists

7628:

Particle Metaphysics: A Critical Account of Subatomic Reality

4770: 4536: 4463:

is targeted by a beam of electrons, simulating the effect of

3101: 2999: 2860:

While an electron–positron virtual pair is in existence, the

2756:, such as the photon, have symmetric wave functions instead. 2753: 2514: 2270: 2167: 2139:. The first successful attempt to accelerate electrons using 2012: 1981: 1520: 1374: 1367: 1309: 11750:

Ziegler, J.F. (1998). "Terrestrial cosmic ray intensities".

11521:

Fryer, C.L. (1999). "Mass Limits For Black Hole Formation".

10841:

Kadin, A.M. (2007). "Spatial Structure of the Cooper Pair".

8892:"UK | England | Physicists 'make electrons split'" 4247:

A muon, in turn, can decay to form an electron or positron.

4091: 3217:

atom. Both the electron and electron neutrino can undergo a

1859:

had largely established the structure of an atom as a dense

16439: 15912: 15845: 13895: 13827: 13787: 13363: 13358: 12974:

Flegler, S.L.; Heckman, J.W. Jr.; Klomparens, K.L. (1995).

12874:"Atomic-Resolution Imaging with a Sub-50-pm Electron Probe" 12280: 11822:"Scientists solve 30 year-old aurora borealis mystery" 11179:"The Development of Baryon Asymmetry in the Early Universe" 10289: 9178:"Review of Particle Physics: [electron properties]" 8283: 8223: 6047: 5612:"2022 CODATA Value: electron mass energy equivalent in MeV" 4602: 4453: 4203: 4183: 4175: 4171: 4099:

At the end of its lifetime, a star with more than about 20

4050: 4038:, the excess electrons remained too energetic to bind with 3254: 2884:

particle accelerator. Virtual particles cause a comparable

2589: 2254: 2175: 2064:. This led him to predict the existence of a positron, the 2028:

De Broglie's prediction of a wave nature for electrons led

1754: 1197: 2155:

was discovered with a 70 MeV electron synchrotron at

16056: 16041: 11824:(Press release). University of California. Archived from 5957:(3rd ed.). Cornell University Press. pp. 4–10. 4464: 3274: 1449: 1312:

attracted small objects when rubbed with fur. Along with

12973: 12548: 11154:

The Big Bang: The Creation and Evolution of the Universe

10290:

Löwdin, P.O.; Erkki Brändas, E.; Kryachko, E.S. (2003).

9176:

Beringer, J.; et al. (Particle Data Group) (2012).

8971:, Atomic physics (Atomnaia fizika), second edition, 1951 8549:(3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 14. 8512:"The NIST Reference on Constants, Units and Uncertainty" 8054:"The Evolution of Particle Accelerators & Colliders" 6341: 4863:

The positron is occasionally called the 'anti-electron'.

3241:

exchange, and this is responsible for neutrino–electron

1565:

During the 1870s, the English chemist and physicist Sir

1299: 13182: 9982: