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2012:
269:(powerful anti-browning chemicals) have been reconsidered due to the potential hazards that it causes along with its activity. Much research has been conducted regarding the exact types of control mechanisms that take place when confronted with the enzymatic process. Besides prevention, control over browning also includes measures intended to recover the food color after its browning. For instance,
708:
153:) on the surface of the food. The rate of enzymatic browning is reflected by the amount of active polyphenol oxidases present in the food. Hence, most research into methods of preventing enzymatic browning has been directed towards inhibiting polyphenol oxidase activity. However, not all browning of food produces negative effects.
43:
42:
39:
44:
877:, creates a great concern for food handlers and consumers. Melanosis mainly occurs during postmortem handling and refrigerated storage. Recent studies have found a plant extract that acts as an anti-melatonin polyphenol oxidase inhibitor serves the same function as sulfites but without the health risks.
805:, usually with the addition of heat. The sugar interacts with the amino acid, producing a variety of odors and flavors. The Maillard reaction is the basis for producing artificial flavors for processed foods in the flavoring industry since the type of amino acid involved determines the resulting flavor.
844:
Enzymatic browning affects the color, flavor, and nutritional value of foods, causing huge economic loss when not sold to consumers on time. It is estimated that more than 50% of produce is lost as a result of enzymatic browning. The increase in human population and consequential depletion in natural
375:, dipping into salt or sugar solutions, keeps the food away from direct contact with oxygen. Impermeable films made of plastic or other materials prevent food being exposed to oxygen in the air and avoid moisture loss. There is an increasing activity in developing packaging materials impregnated with
264:
The control of enzymatic browning has always been a challenge for the food industry. A variety of approaches are used to prevent or slow down enzymatic browning of foods, each method aimed at targeting specific steps of the chemical reaction. The different types of enzymatic browning control can be
811:
are brown, high molecular weight heterogeneous polymers that are formed when sugars and amino acids combine through the
Maillard reaction at high temperatures and low water activity. Melanoidins are commonly present in foods that have undergone some form of non-enzymatic browning, such as barley
853:
Apples are fruits commonly studied by researchers due to their high phenolic content, which make them highly susceptible to enzymatic browning. In accordance with other findings regarding apples and browning activity, a correlation has been found between higher phenolic quantities and increased
820:
Like most fruit, grapes vary in the number of phenolic compounds they have. This characteristic is used as a parameter in judging the quality of the wine. The general process of winemaking is initiated by the enzymatic oxidation of phenolic compounds by polyphenol oxidases. Contact between the
849:
alike to find new or improved techniques to preserve food and for longer by using methods to inhibit the browning reaction. This effectively increases the shelf life of foods, solving this part of the waste problem. A better understanding of the enzymatic browning mechanisms, specifically,
41:
666:, are known to inhibit or slow the browning of some products. Onion and its extract exhibit potent anti-browning properties by inhibiting the PPO activity. Pineapple juice have shown to possess anti-browning effect on apples and bananas. Lemon juice is used in making doughs to make the
104:
854:
enzymatic activity in apples. This provides a potential target and thus hope for food industries wishing to genetically modify foods to decrease polyphenol oxidase activity and thus decrease browning. An example of such accomplishments in food engineering is in the production of
90:
relating to nutrition, technology, and economic cost. Researchers are especially interested in studying the control (inhibition) of browning and the different methods that can be employed to maximize this inhibition and ultimately prolong the
112:
Enzymatic browning is one of the most important reactions that takes place in most fruits and vegetables as well as in seafood. These processes affect the taste, color, and value of such foods. Generally, it is a chemical reaction involving
789:. This reaction is responsible for the production of the flavor when foods are cooked. Examples of foods that undergo Maillard reaction include breads, steaks, and potatoes. It is a chemical reaction that takes place between the
149:, whose strong electrophilic state causes high susceptibility to a nucleophilic attack from other proteins. These quinones are then polymerized in a series of reactions, eventually resulting in the formation of brown pigments (
812:
malts (Vienna and Munich), bread crust, bakery products and coffee. They are also present in the wastewater of sugar refineries, necessitating treatment in order to avoid contamination around the outflow of these refineries.
850:
understanding the properties of the enzymes and substrates that are involved in the reaction may help food technologists to control certain stages in the mechanism and ultimately apply that knowledge to inhibit browning.
556:
are used in food industry as food additives. These compounds react with oxygen and suppress the initiation of the browning process. Also, they interfere with intermediate products of the following reactions and inhibit
107:
Example of a general reaction of polyphenols by polyphenol oxidase (PPO) that catalyzes enzymatic browning. The production of quinones undergoes more reactions which eventually form brown pigments on the surface of the
345:, drops in low temperatures. Thus, refrigeration helps to keep the initial look, color, and flavour of fresh vegetables and fruits. Refrigeration is also used during distribution and retailing of fruits and vegetables.
1672:
Yousuf, Basharat; Qadri, Ovais Shafiq; Srivastava, Abhaya Kumar (March 2018). "Recent developments in shelf-life extension of fresh-cut fruits and vegetables by application of different edible coatings: A review".
353:− Presence of oxygen is crucial for enzymatic browning, therefore eliminating oxygen from the environment helps to slow down the browning reaction. Withdrawing air or replacing it with other gases (e.g.,
719:
The second type of browning, non-enzymatic browning, is a process that also produces the brown pigmentation in foods but without the activity of enzymes. The two main forms of non-enzymatic browning are
1601:
Yildirim, Selçuk; Röcker, Bettina; Pettersen, Marit Kvalvåg; Nilsen-Nygaard, Julie; Ayhan, Zehra; Rutkaite, Ramune; Radusin, Tanja; Suminska, Patrycja; Marcos, Begonya; Coma, Véronique (January 2018).
40:
1249:
Taylor, Steve L.; Higley, Nancy A.; Bush, Robert K. (1986). "Sulfites in Foods: Uses, Analytical
Methods, Residues, Fate, Exposure Assessment, Metabolism, Toxicity, and Hypersensitivity".
633:, polycarboxylic acids, different proteins. Some of these compounds also have other anti-browning effects, such as acidifying or antioxidant. Hinokitiol is used in coating materials for
773:
molecule and adds to water. Notice the interaction between the amine group of the amino acid (asparagine here) and the carbonyl carbon of the sugar (glucose). The end product is
1337:
Macheix, Jean-Jacques; Sapis, Jean-Claude; Fleuriet, Annie; Lee, C. Y. (January 1991). "Phenolic compounds and polyphenoloxidase in relation to browning in grapes and wines".
836:) triggers the oxidation of the grape. Thus, the initial browning of grapes occurs as a result of "compartmentalization modification" in the cells of the grape.
1094:
Nicolas, J. J.; Richard-Forget, F. C.; Goupy, P. M.; Amiot, M. J.; Aubert, S. Y. (1994-01-01). "Enzymatic browning reactions in apple and apple products".
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inhibit the activity of this enzyme. Many agents possessing chelating activity have been studied and used in different fields of food industry, such as
732:(in food chemistry, the standard state of water activity is most often defined as the partial vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature).
1294:
Macheix, J. J.; Sapis, J. C.; Fleuriet, A. (1991-01-01). "Phenolic compounds and polyphenoloxidase in relation to browning in grapes and wines".
1051:
Macheix, J. J.; Sapis, J. C.; Fleuriet, A. (1991-01-01). "Phenolic compounds and polyphenoloxidase in relation to browning in grapes and wines".
368:
1759:
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Xiao, Hong-Wei; Pan, Zhongli; Deng, Li-Zhen; El-Mashad, Hamed M.; Yang, Xu-Hai; Mujumdar, Arun S.; Gao, Zhen-Jiang; Zhang, Qian (June 2017).
532:, are used as anti-browning agents. Many of these agents also show other anti-browning effects, such as chelating and antioxidant activities.
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under high heat before being incorporated into a larger preparation to be cooked at a lower temperature which produces less browning.
873:, in particular shrimp, is a staple consumed by people all over the world. The browning of shrimp, which is actually referred to as
79:. Though there are many different ways food chemically changes over time, browning in particular falls into two main categories:
1717:
1011:"Enzymatic Browning, Polyphenol Oxidase Activity, and Polyphenols in Four Apple Cultivars: Dynamics during Fruit Development"
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Corzo-Martínez, Marta; Corzo, Nieves; Villamiel, Mar; del
Castillo, M Dolores (2012-01-01). Ph.D, Benjamin K. Simpson (ed.).
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Nirmal, Nilesh
Prakash; Benjakul, Soottawat; Ahmad, Mehraj; Arfat, Yasir Ali; Panichayupakaranant, Pharkphoom (2015-01-01).
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Example caramelization of table sugar (sucrose) caramelizing to a brown nutty flavor substance (furan and maltol)
301:, de-naturates enzymes and destroys the reactants responsible for browning. Blanching is used, for example, in
246:
A non-desirable enzymatic browning reaction is involved in the formation of brown spots on the peel of bananas.
1512:
Martinez, M. Victoria; Whitaker, John R. (1 June 1995). "The biochemistry and control of enzymatic browning".
1196:"Undesirable Enzymatic Browning in Crustaceans: Causative Effects and Its Inhibition by Phenolic Compounds"
746:. It is used extensively in cooking for the desired nutty flavor and brown color. As the process occurs,
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classified into two large groups: physical and chemical. Usually, multiple methods are used. The use of
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322:
31:
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He, Qiang; Luo, Yaguang (1 December 2007). "Enzymatic browning and its control in fresh-cut produce".
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are the most common ways of storing food, preventing decay. The activity of browning enzymes, i.e.,
67:
that take place within. The process of browning is one of the chemical reactions that take place in
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388:
1195:
769:
Overview of the mechanism of non-enzymatic
Maillard reaction in foods. The Schiff base loses a CO
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234:
A desirable enzymatic browning reaction is involved in the process of grapes becoming raisins.
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products look brighter. This effect is possibly explained by the anti-browning properties of
1415:"A review of the impact of processing on nutrient bioaccessibility and digestion of almonds"
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are examples of antioxidants that have been studied for their anti-browning properties.
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Oxidation of polyphenols is the major cause of melanosis in crustaceans such as shrimp.
114:
1783:"Food Processing and Maillard Reaction Products: Effect on Human Health and Nutrition"
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1552:"Recent Trends in Controlling the Enzymatic Browning of Fruit and Vegetable Products"
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866:, a laboratory technique that has allowed for the reduction in polyphenol oxidase.
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1139:"Elucidation of the mechanism of enzymatic browning inhibition by sodium chlorite"
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1603:"Active Packaging Applications for Food: Active packaging applications for food…"
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Moon, Kyoung Mi; Kwon, Eun-Bin; Lee, Bonggi; Kim, Choon Young (15 June 2020).
1374:"Recent developments and trends in thermal blanching – A comprehensive review"
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Kaanane, A.; Labuza, T. P. (1989-01-01). "The
Maillard reaction in foods".
698:, thereby delaying the browning effect, and improving apple eating quality.
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372:
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137:. Enzymatic browning (also called oxidation of foods) requires exposure to
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Another type of issue that is closely studied is the browning of seafood.
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496:− Browning enzymes, as other enzymes, are active at a specific range of
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Grundy, Myriam Marie-Louise; Lapsley, Karen; Ellis, Peter Rory (2016).
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and represents an interesting research topic regarding health,
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shows optimal activity at pH 5-7 and is inhibited below pH 3.
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L. Brody, Aaron; Strupinsky, E. P.; Kline, Lauri R. (2001).
371:, wine or juice bottling, using impermeable films or edible
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bread, which is golden-brown due to the
Maillard reaction
650:− Different natural products and their extracts, such as
169:
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inhibits the vitality of microorganisms responsible for
1646:
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1736:. Okanagan Specialty Fruits, Inc. 2019. Archived from
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International
Journal of Food Science & Technology
367:) during preservation, such as in vacuum-packaging or
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Comprehensive
Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety
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chemicals are released, producing the characteristic
281:
to remove the brown color sediments in the solution.
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728:. Both vary in the reaction rate as a function of
601:as a cofactor for its functionality, thus copper-
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218:
86:Browning has many important implications on the
191:Examples of non-beneficial enzymatic browning:
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1480:
1478:
1339:Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
1296:Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
1200:Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
1096:Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
1053:Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
690:have been genetically modified to silence the
1843:
966:
156:Examples of beneficial enzymatic browning:
969:Progress in Clinical and Biological Research
845:resources has prompted many biochemists and
840:Implications in food industry and technology
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516:to maintain a desired pH in food products.
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83:versus non-enzymatic browning processes.
785:The other non-enzymatic reaction is the
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1514:Trends in Food Science & Technology
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1700:"Inhibition and Control of Browning".
1649:Active Packaging for Food Applications
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195:Fresh fruit and vegetables, including
1857:
1831:
1787:International Journal of Food Science
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1378:Information Processing in Agriculture
933:Food Biochemistry and Food Processing
467:is another method to extend the food
98:
1762:. Fresh Fruit Portal. 13 August 2019
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816:Browning of grapes during winemaking
483:of preserving vegetables and fruits.
935:. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 56–83.
487:
439:, plants or other natural products.
293:− Treating food with heat, such as
284:
24:
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141:. It begins with the oxidation of
52:- 32 minutes in 16 seconds (video)
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423:. Edible coatings can be made of
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860:Okanagan Specialty Fruits Inc,
858:. These apples, engineered by
777:. For more information, visit
597:− Polyphenol oxidase requires
479:and delays the maturation and
30:For the culinary process, see
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1:
1526:10.1016/S0924-2244(00)89054-8
1263:10.1016/s0065-2628(08)60347-x
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369:modified atmosphere packaging
219:Control of enzymatic browning
1212:10.1080/10408398.2012.755148
7:
2028:Category: Food preservation
1710:10.1007/978-0-387-30616-2_8
1009:Holderbaum, Daniel (2010).
880:
738:is a process involving the
145:by polyphenol oxidase into
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1704:. 2006. pp. 183–215.
1487:Stewart Postharvest Review
1399:10.1016/j.inpa.2017.02.001
1028:10.21273/HORTSCI.45.8.1150
887:Browning (partial cooking)
825:of the grape cell and the
821:phenolic compounds in the
32:Browning (partial cooking)
29:
2005:
1865:
1687:10.1016/j.lwt.2017.10.051
1651:(1 ed.). CRC Press.
1569:10.3390/molecules25122754
1351:10.1080/10408399109527552
1308:10.1080/10408399109527552
1251:Advances in Food Research
1108:10.1080/10408399409527653
1065:10.1080/10408399109527552
941:10.1002/9781118308035.ch4
862:are a result of applying
1149:(4). El Sevier: 847–51.
393:butylated hydroxyanisole
389:butylated hydroxytoluene
1781:Tamanna, Nahid (2015).
1620:10.1111/1541-4337.12322
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703:Non-enzymatic browning
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1800:10.1155/2015/526762
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678:in the lemon juice.
512:are widely used as
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510:acidity regulators
473:Ionizing radiation
351:Oxygen elimination
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115:polyphenol oxidase
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99:Enzymatic browning
65:chemical reactions
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18:Enzymatic browning
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1915:Hurdle technology
1875:Burying in ground
1859:Food preservation
1719:978-0-387-30614-8
1206:(14): 1992–2003.
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779:Maillard reaction
726:Maillard reaction
575:4-hexylresorcinol
506:Acidifying agents
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1657:
1636:
1613:(1): 165–199.
1593:
1531:
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1474:
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1364:
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1329:
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1286:
1271:
1241:
1179:
1143:Food Chemistry
1129:
1102:(2): 109–157.
1086:
1059:(4): 441–486.
1034:
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956:
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909:
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904:
902:Water activity
899:
894:
889:
882:
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847:food engineers
841:
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817:
814:
803:reducing sugar
799:carbonyl group
770:
736:Caramelization
730:water activity
722:caramelization
704:
701:
700:
699:
680:
679:
676:ascorbic acids
648:Natural agents
643:
640:
639:
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635:food packaging
615:polyphosphates
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590:
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533:
514:food additives
489:
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465:electron beams
441:
440:
363:
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347:
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331:Cold treatment
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307:tea processing
291:Heat treatment
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273:filtration or
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892:Decomposition
890:
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878:
876:
872:
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864:gene splicing
861:
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856:Arctic apples
851:
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642:Other methods
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563:Ascorbic acid
560:
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551:
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547:
543:
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527:
526:ascorbic acid
523:
519:
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511:
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495:
494:Acidification
492:
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477:food spoilage
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335:Refrigeration
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88:food industry
84:
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2054:Biochemistry
2049:Food science
1965:Potjevleesch
1900:Fermentation
1790:
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1776:
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1754:
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550:Antioxidants
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435:, vegetable
421:ε-polylysine
377:antioxidants
350:
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271:ion exchange
263:
190:
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131:benzoquinone
125:that create
121:, and other
111:
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1920:Irradiation
1766:14 November
1744:14 November
1681:: 198–209.
1015:HortScience
975:: 301–327.
809:Melanoidins
791:amine group
611:sorbic acid
607:citric acid
587:glutathione
561:formation.
530:glutathione
522:citric acid
445:Irradiation
397:tocopherols
257:Irradiated
177:dried fruit
166:cocoa beans
63:due to the
2043:Categories
1885:Cold chain
1793:: 526762.
1493:(6): 1–7.
1173:2016-11-06
908:References
795:amino acid
793:of a free
775:acrylamide
692:expression
664:white wine
631:porphyrins
623:kojic acid
619:hinokitiol
571:L-cysteine
542:white wine
520:, such as
518:Acidulants
469:shelf life
457:gamma rays
401:hinokitiol
391:(BHT) and
385:antifungal
309:, storing
303:winemaking
279:winemaking
93:shelf life
50:Fuji apple
1972:Rillettes
1556:Molecules
1316:1040-8398
1220:1549-7852
1116:1040-8398
1073:1040-8398
981:0361-7742
875:melanosis
834:cytoplasm
740:pyrolysis
656:pineapple
481:sprouting
413:natamycin
295:blanching
151:melanosis
95:of food.
81:enzymatic
73:nutrition
48:Browning
1987:Sugaring
1950:Pickling
1930:Jellying
1910:Freezing
1819:26904661
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1257:: 1–76.
1236:22348619
1228:25584522
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881:See also
797:and the
754:flavor.
748:volatile
724:and the
429:proteins
417:chitosan
405:lysozyme
373:coatings
339:freezing
299:roasting
267:sulfites
209:avocados
201:potatoes
179:such as
147:quinones
127:melanins
57:Browning
1982:Smoking
1977:Salting
1955:Potting
1935:Jugging
1925:Jamming
1880:Canning
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1442:5003169
1386:Bibcode
1359:1910524
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552:− Many
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108:food.
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