306:. This idea of flashbulb memory was proposed by R. Brown and Kulik (1977), in which they stated that this idea revolves around remembering an event or unexpected circumstance due to emotional arousal. They referred to this memory as "photographic vividness". However, whether the vividness of the flashbulb memory is due to a virtual "flash" that occurs because of the emotional experience has been hotly contested. Flashbulb memories may occur because of our propensity to rehearse and retell those highly emotional events, which strengthens the memory. R. Brown and Kulik represented that these memories contain information that falls under the categories: place, ongoing activity, informant, own affect, and aftermath. Flashbulb memory is usually perceived as highly accurate and consistent over time and are presented with great confidence, even if sometimes they are inaccurate. Authors Brown, Kulik, and Conway argued that these special memories involve the
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tractable by studying episodic memory's adaptive counterpart: the capacity to flexibly imagine future events. However, a recent experiment addressed one of
Suddendorf and Busby (2003)'s specific criticisms (the Bischof-Köhler hypothesis, which states that nonhuman animals can only take actions based on immediate needs, as opposed to future needs). Correia and colleagues demonstrated that western scrub-jays can selectively cache different types of foods depending on which type of food they will desire at a future time, offering strong evidence against the Bischof-Köhler hypothesis by demonstrating that scrub-jays can flexibly adjust their behavior based on past experience of desiring a particular food.
481:). They were able to demonstrate that these birds may possess an episodic-like memory system as they found that they remember where they cached different food types and discriminately recovered them depending on the perishability of the item and time that elapsed since caching. Thus, scrub-jays appear to remember the "what-where-and-when" of specific past caching events. The authors argued that such performance meets the behavioral criteria for episodic memory, but referred to the ability as "episodic-like" memory because the study did not address the phenomenological aspects of episodic memory.
255:, on the other hand, is a structured record of facts, concepts, and skills that we have acquired. Semantic information is derived from accumulated episodic memory. Episodic memory can be thought of as a "map" that ties together items in semantic memory. For example, all encounters with how a "dog" looks and sounds will make up the semantic representation of that word. All episodic memories concerning a dog will then reference this single semantic representation of "dog" and, likewise, all new experiences with the dog will modify the single semantic representation of that dog.
638:. This technique traces the differing pathways of nerve fibres that further create communication throughout differing structures. These networks can be thought of as neural maps that can expand or contract according to the information being processed at that time. Neural Network Models can undergo learning patterns to use episodic memories to predict certain moments. Neural network models help the episodic memories by capturing the naturalistic state you are currently in such as scenery, rooms, time, smell, or even your current feeling.
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334:, a selective agonist at the neuronal alpha4beta2 nicotinic receptor, which is developed by the company Targacept. Currently, there are several other products developed by several companies—including new catecholamine-O-methyltransferase inhibitors with fewer side effects—that aim for improving episodic memory. A recent placebo controlled study found that
263:, from damage of the medial temporal lobe, is an impairment of declarative memory that affects both episodic and semantic memory operations. Originally, Tulving proposed that episodic and semantic memory were separate systems that competed with each other in retrieval. However, this theory was rejected when Howard and Kahana completed experiments on
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remember events and what we end up recalling from memory. Similarly, autobiographical memory is constructive and reconstructed as an evolving process of history. A person's autobiographical memory is fairly reliable, although the reliability of autobiographical memories is questionable because of memory distortions.
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Neural networks help us understand how the brain sends and receives different messages to the body, and how they are connected. These networks are a group of neurons or structures that are connected together. These structures work harmoniously to produce different cognitions within the brain. One of
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The ability of animals to encode and retrieve past experiences relies on the circuitry of the medial temporal lobe, a structure including the hippocampus. Animal lesion studies have provided significant findings related to the importance of particular brain structures in episodic-like memory. For
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Despite similar neural areas and evidence from experiments, some scholars remain cautious about comparisons to human episodic memory. Purported episodic-like memory often seems fixed to a particular domain or could be explained in terms of procedural or semantic memory. The problem may be better
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originally described episodic memory as a record of a person's experience that held temporally dated information and spatio-temporal relations. A feature of episodic memory that
Tulving later elaborates on is that it allows an agent to imagine traveling back in time. A current situation may cue
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play a role in episodic memory, potentially acting as an accumulator to support the subjective feeling that something is "old", or perhaps supporting mental imagery which allows you a sense of the vividness of memories. Indeed, bilateral damage to the inferior parietal lobe results in episodic
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is a personal representation of general or specific events and personal facts. Additionally, it also refers to the memory of a person's history. An individual does not remember exactly everything that has happened in one's past. Memory is constructive, where previous experience affects how we
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Tulving (1983) proposed that to meet the criteria of episodic memory, evidence of conscious recollection must be provided. Demonstrating episodic memory in the absence of language, and thus in non-human animals, has been declared impossible as long as there are no agreed-upon non-linguistic
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were the first animal to demonstrate two of the aspects of episodic memory—the ability to recall where certain flowers were located and how recently they were visited. Other studies have examined this type of memory in different animal species, such as dogs, rats, honey bees, and primates.
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example, hippocampal lesions have severely impacted all three components (what, where, and when) in animals, suggesting that the hippocampus is responsible for detecting novel events, stimuli, and places when forming new memories and retrieving that information later on.
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Researchers do not agree about how long episodic memories are stored in the hippocampus. Some researchers believe that episodic memories always rely on the hippocampus. Others believe the hippocampus only stores episodic memories for a short time, after which the
267:(LSA) that supported the opposite. Instead of an increase in semantic similarity when there was a decrease in the strength of temporal associations, the two worked together so semantic cues on retrieval were strongest when episodic cues were strong as well.
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Dunbar G, Boeijinga PH, Demazières A, Cisterni C, Kuchibhatla R, Wesnes K, Luthringer R (May 2007). "Effects of TC-1734 (AZD3480), a selective neuronal nicotinic receptor agonist, on cognitive performance and the EEG of young healthy male volunteers".
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is one example of this. Flashbulb memory is event-specific, which consists of depictions of personal experiences. For example, saying "I remember seeing
Grandma smile when I gave her the present", or remembering the detailed events of the tragedy of
195:) is also involved in the formation of new episodic memories (also known as episodic encoding). Patients with damage to the prefrontal cortex can learn new information, but tend to do so in a disordered fashion. For example, they might show normal
630:) if the stored representation includes information on the spatiotemporal context in which an item was studied. Smaller memories such as words or references said by someone are labeled as inactive or active neurons in the entorhinal cortex.
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Together, semantic and episodic memory make up our declarative memory. They each represent different parts of context to form a complete picture. As such, something that affects episodic memory can also affect semantic memory. For example,
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Apud JA, Mattay V, Chen J, Kolachana BS, Callicott JH, Rasetti R, Alce G, Iudicello JE, Akbar N, Egan MF, Goldberg TE, Weinberger DR (May 2007). "Tolcapone improves cognition and cortical information processing in normal human subjects".
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It is known that autobiographical memories initially are stored as episodic memories, but it is currently unknown if autobiographical memories are the same as episodic memories or if the autobiographical memories become converted to
285:) seems to be different between younger (aged 23–39) and older people (aged 67–80) upon episodic memory retrieval. Older people tend to activate both their left and right hippocampus, while younger people activate only the left one.
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There are essentially nine properties of episodic memory that collectively distinguish it from other types of memory. Other types of memory may exhibit a few of these properties, but only episodic memory has all nine:
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retrieval of a previous episode, so that context that colours the previous episode is experienced at the immediate moment. The agent is provided with a means of associating previous feelings with current situations.
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Autobiographical memories can differ for special periods of life. For instance, people recall a few personal events from the first years of their lives. The loss of these first events is called childhood or
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What it feels like stepping into the ocean in general. This is a memory of what a personal event is generally like. It might be based on the memories of having stepped in the ocean, many times during the
83:, which elicits the retrieval of contextual information pertaining to a specific event or experience that has occurred. Tulving seminally defined three key properties of episodic memory recollection as:
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Flashbulb memory recall in healthy adults – a functional magnetic resonance imaging study: B. Metternich , K. Spanhel , A. Schoendube, I. Ofer, M. J. Geiger, A. Schulze-Bonhage, H. Mast and K. Wagner
310:, specifically, the amygdala. There is an abundancy of research that shows the amygdala involvement regarding retrieval of emotional memories, for example, research using brain imaging techniques.
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Alhaj HA, Massey AE, McAllister-Williams RH (November 2006). "Effects of DHEA administration on episodic memory, cortisol and mood in healthy young men: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study".
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Events that are recorded into episodic memory may trigger episodic learning, i.e. a change in behavior that occurs as a result of an event, such as a fear of dogs after being bitten by a dog.
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530:. Additionally, people recall many personal events from their previous few years. For adolescents and young adults, the reminiscence bump and the recent events can coincide.
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322:, whereas verbal episodic memory can be improved in persons with the val/val genotype of the val158met polymorphism through administration of the CNS penetrant specific
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when or where it had been viewed. Some researchers believe that the prefrontal cortex helps organize information for more efficient storage, drawing upon its role in
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is complex, but generally, emotion tends to increase the likelihood that an event will be remembered later and that it will be remembered vividly.
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In healthy adults, longterm visual episodic memory can be enhanced specifically through administration of the
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in the adult hippocampus may ease the removal of old memories and increase the efficiency of forming new memories.
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that accompanies the act of remembering, which enables an individual to be aware of the self in a subjective time
338:, which is a functional cortisol antagonist, improves episodic memory in healthy young men (Alhaj et al. 2006).
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41:, and other contextual information) that can be explicitly stated or conjured. It is the collection of past
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180:(such as playing the piano) but cannot remember the events during which they happened (See
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2418:
1996:
725:
Clayton NS, Salwiczek LH, Dickinson A (March 2007).
199:
of an object they had seen in the past, but fail to
168:
The formation of new episodic memories requires the
634:the largest proposals for this ideology is that of
330:. Furthermore, episodic memory is enhanced through
218:Other work has shown that portions of the inferior
144:
They always have a perspective (field or observer).
1277:
781:
242:
159:They are recollectively experienced when accessed.
855:Conway MA (September 2009). "Episodic memories".
443:which may contribute to memory deficits found in
141:Often represented in the form of (visual) images.
3984:
2673:
2228:
2172:Correia SP, Dickinson A, Clayton NS (May 2007).
1997:Fugazza C, Pogány Á, Miklósi Á (December 2016).
424:which can be precipitated by overconsumption of
156:They make autobiographical remembering specific.
2618:. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 365–373.
2118:
2060:Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences
1611:
1218:
2284:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 25–49,
313:
3008:
2627:. New York: Academic Press. pp. 381–403.
2407:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4388(99)80025-7
2311:
2056:"Elements of Episodic-like Memory in Animals"
399:areas and this leads to episodic memory loss
2641:Buckner, R. L.; Barch, D. (September 1999).
2640:
1789:
1396:
1326:
1154:
1097:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3139:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
1932:
1889:
1751:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
655:Schacter DL, Gilbert DT, Wegner DM (2009).
72:is factual recollection (semantic) whereas
3015:
3001:
2870:
2762:Eacott MJ, Easton A, Zinkivskay A (2005).
1658:
1612:Ilieva IP, Hook CJ, Farah MJ (June 2015).
508:
402:A rare type of shellfish poisoning called
288:
147:Represent short time slices of experience.
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163:
64:The term "episodic memory" was coined by
2988:Episodic Memory and Referential Activity
824:
582:
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2631:
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1175:
1160:
689:
14:
3985:
2922:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135114
2279:
1938:
1744:
1716:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.01.010
1190:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135114
1067:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.02.014
869:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.02.003
854:
484:According to a study conducted by the
2996:
2476:Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience
1042:
552:When you first set foot in the ocean.
153:They are subject to rapid forgetting.
1165:. New York: Oxford University Press.
586:
53:, one of the two major divisions of
2836:Neurobiology of Learning and Memory
2229:Scarf D, Smith C, Stuart M (2014).
622:Episodic memories can be stored in
24:
2647:The American Journal of Psychiatry
2606:
1397:Maguire EA, Frith CD (July 2003).
1278:Tulving E, Markowitsch HJ (1998).
270:
125:
25:
4004:
3420:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm
2946:
1981:
1618:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
829:. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
324:catecholamine-O-methyltransferase
27:Memory of autobiographical events
3965:
3953:
3022:
2967:
2953:
2421:European Journal of Neuroscience
590:
361:tests in normal healthy adults.
172:, a structure that includes the
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1390:
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1169:
1105:
624:autoassociative neural networks
243:Relationship to semantic memory
49:, it comprises the category of
3630:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model
3503:Memory and social interactions
1810:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2003.09.006
1329:Journal of Memory and Language
1018:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4163-07.2007
934:
891:
848:
833:
818:
775:
718:
683:
657:"Semantic and episodic memory"
648:
13:
1:
2811:10.1016/S1364-6613(98)01272-8
2738:10.1016/S0896-6273(04)00266-1
2470:Henderson, Jaimie M. (2012).
2143:10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00187-6
1898:Journal of Psychopharmacology
1673:10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70881-5
1131:10.1016/S0896-6273(04)00266-1
692:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
641:
458:
3339:Retrieval-induced forgetting
2799:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
2290:10.1017/cbo9780511558313.006
2121:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
912:10.1016/0028-3932(89)90184-X
784:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
505:are currently much debated.
7:
2910:Annual Review of Psychology
2634:Elements of Episodic Memory
1745:Kovács KA (December 2021).
1364:Developmental Psychobiology
1178:Annual Review of Psychology
1163:Elements of Episodic Memory
404:amnesic shellfish poisoning
314:Pharmacological enhancement
10:
4009:
3677:Levels of Processing model
3602:World Memory Championships
3435:Lost in the mall technique
3282:dissociative (psychogenic)
2636:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
2616:Children's Episodic Memory
2556:10.1037/0894-4105.18.4.629
1910:10.1177/026988119801200110
840:Baars BJ, Gage NM (2007).
796:10.1016/j.tics.2007.05.001
462:
274:
182:the hippocampus and memory
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2848:10.1016/j.nlm.2005.10.002
2369:10.1080/09658210143000353
2326:10.1037/0882-7974.11.1.85
2199:10.1016/j.cub.2007.03.063
2024:10.1016/j.cub.2016.09.057
1583:10.1007/s00213-005-0136-y
1540:10.1007/s00213-006-0675-x
1452:10.1007/s00213-005-0043-2
752:10.1016/j.cub.2007.01.011
704:10.1017/S0140525X0004440X
441:autobiographical memories
364:
293:The relationship between
229:memories are consolidated
3715:The Seven Sins of Memory
3660:Intermediate-term memory
3465:Indirect tests of memory
3442:Recovered-memory therapy
3392:Misattribution of memory
2614:Ghetti S, Lee J (2010).
2489:10.3389/fnint.2012.00015
2248:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00893
1798:Psychoneuroendocrinology
636:Diffusion Tensor Imaging
541:
420:) deficiency, a form of
265:latent semantic analysis
105:Autonoetic consciousness
3402:Source-monitoring error
2885:10.1126/science.1129217
2282:Autobiographical Memory
2235:Frontiers in Psychology
1484:Neuropsychopharmacology
1241:10.1126/science.2296719
1006:Journal of Neuroscience
844:. London: Elsevier Ltd.
515:autobiographical memory
509:Autobiographical memory
486:University of Edinburgh
357:, episodic memory, and
353:improve performance on
289:Relationship to emotion
191:(and in particular the
3809:George Armitage Miller
3769:Patricia Goldman-Rakic
2659:10.1176/ajp.156.9.1311
2625:Organization of memory
2072:10.1098/rstb.2001.0947
1845:Psychological Bulletin
1496:10.1038/sj.npp.1301227
1341:10.1006/jmla.2001.2798
665:. Macmillan. pp.
479:Aphelocoma californica
164:Cognitive neuroscience
3972:Philosophy portal
3960:Psychology portal
3824:Henry L. Roediger III
3425:False memory syndrome
3397:Misinformation effect
3377:Imagination inflation
2768:Learning & Memory
1953:10.1007/s002130050803
968:10.1073/pnas.95.3.906
583:Neural network models
275:Further information:
3329:Motivated forgetting
2314:Psychology and Aging
1764:10.3390/ijms23010462
1630:10.1162/jocn_a_00776
1416:10.1093/brain/awg157
465:Episodic-like memory
410:Korsakoff's syndrome
387:tends to damage the
170:medial temporal lobe
107:, a special kind of
43:personal experiences
3839:Arthur P. Shimamura
3739:Richard C. Atkinson
3556:Effects of exercise
3430:Memory implantation
3314:Interference theory
3230:Selective retention
3210:Meaningful learning
2688:1998Natur.395..272C
2190:2007CBio...17..856C
2066:(1413): 1483–1491.
2015:2016CBio...26.3209F
1233:1990Sci...247..301T
959:1998PNAS...95..906G
743:2007CBio...17.R189C
385:Alzheimer's disease
261:anterograde amnesia
178:procedural memories
3936:Andriy Slyusarchuk
3759:Hermann Ebbinghaus
3665:Involuntary memory
3566:Memory improvement
3551:Effects of alcohol
3513:Transactive memory
3491:Politics of memory
3460:Exceptional memory
2632:Tulving E (1983).
1941:Psychopharmacology
1857:10.1037/bul0000344
1571:Psychopharmacology
1528:Psychopharmacology
1440:Psychopharmacology
1161:Tulving E (1983).
602:. You can help by
574:Flashbulb memories
569:Flashbulb memories
428:compared to foods.
389:entorhinal cortex
359:inhibitory control
295:emotion and memory
205:executive function
98:Connection to the
93:mental time travel
3980:
3979:
3944:
3943:
3931:Cosmos Rossellius
3779:Marcia K. Johnson
3650:Exosomatic memory
3635:Context-dependent
3625:Absent-mindedness
3508:Memory conformity
3486:Collective memory
3387:Memory conformity
3324:Memory inhibition
3243:
3242:
3235:Tip of the tongue
2961:Psychology portal
2433:10.1111/ejn.13712
2299:978-0-511-55831-3
2009:(23): 3209–3213.
1851:(11): 1184–1214.
1409:(Pt 7): 1511–23.
1376:10.1002/dev.21004
825:Terry WS (2006).
727:"Episodic memory"
620:
619:
536:semantic memories
528:reminiscence bump
524:infantile amnesia
475:western scrub jay
189:prefrontal cortex
57:(the other being
18:Episodic learning
16:(Redirected from
4000:
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3968:
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3957:
3956:
3911:Jonathan Hancock
3864:Robert Stickgold
3834:Richard Shiffrin
3789:Elizabeth Loftus
3729:
3728:
3645:Childhood memory
3452:Research methods
3334:Repressed memory
3309:Forgetting curve
3297:transient global
3168:Autobiographical
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1704:Neuropsychologia
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1055:Neuropsychologia
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900:Neuropsychologia
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628:Hopfield network
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299:Flashbulb memory
277:Memory and aging
193:right hemisphere
89:subjective sense
55:long-term memory
21:
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3849:Susumu Tonegawa
3829:Daniel Schacter
3804:Eleanor Maguire
3794:Geoffrey Loftus
3749:Stephen J. Ceci
3744:Robert A. Bjork
3720:
3639:state-dependent
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3498:Cultural memory
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3470:Memory disorder
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2975:Medicine portal
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2607:Further reading
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2544:Neuropsychology
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2003:Current Biology
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372:autistic people
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351:methylphenidate
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271:Age differences
253:Semantic memory
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126:Nine properties
59:implicit memory
51:explicit memory
47:semantic memory
31:Episodic memory
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3912:
3909:
3908:
3906:
3902:
3896:
3895:Clive Wearing
3893:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3877:
3875:
3871:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3859:Endel Tulving
3857:
3855:
3854:Anne Treisman
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3814:Brenda Milner
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3800:
3799:James McGaugh
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3764:Sigmund Freud
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3736:
3734:
3730:
3727:
3723:
3717:
3716:
3712:
3709:
3708:retrospective
3705:
3702:
3698:
3695:
3694:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3687:Muscle memory
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3671:
3668:
3667:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3640:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3622:
3620:
3616:
3610:
3607:
3603:
3600:
3599:
3598:
3595:
3594:
3592:
3588:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3536:
3535:
3534:Art of memory
3532:
3530:
3527:
3526:
3524:
3520:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3492:
3489:
3488:
3487:
3484:
3483:
3481:
3477:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3457:
3455:
3453:
3449:
3443:
3440:
3436:
3433:
3432:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3417:
3415:
3413:
3409:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3382:Memory biases
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3362:Confabulation
3360:
3359:
3357:
3355:
3354:Memory errors
3351:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3272:post-hypnotic
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3259:
3258:
3255:
3254:
3252:
3250:
3246:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3225:Rote learning
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3201:
3200:Hyperthymesia
3198:
3196:
3193:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3175:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3163:Active recall
3161:
3160:
3158:
3156:
3152:
3146:
3143:
3140:
3136:
3135:
3133:
3131:
3127:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3087:
3085:
3083:
3079:
3076:
3072:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3060:Consolidation
3058:
3056:
3053:
3052:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3035:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3018:
3013:
3011:
3006:
3004:
2999:
2998:
2995:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2980:
2976:
2965:
2962:
2951:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2842:(2): 173–82.
2841:
2837:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2731:(4): 535–52.
2730:
2726:
2722:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2696:10.1038/26216
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2639:
2635:
2630:
2626:
2621:
2617:
2612:
2611:
2602:
2598:
2596:
2592:
2591:
2583:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2534:
2525:
2517:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2466:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2415:
2408:
2402:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2351:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2308:
2301:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2276:
2268:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2225:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2168:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2115:
2107:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2050:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1993:
1985:
1978:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1935:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1892:
1884:
1880:
1875:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1835:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1804:(8): 1093–6.
1803:
1799:
1792:
1784:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1741:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1698:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1655:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1608:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1577:(4): 541–51.
1576:
1572:
1565:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1534:(4): 919–29.
1533:
1529:
1521:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1477:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1434:
1426:
1422:
1417:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1393:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1370:(2): 125–32.
1369:
1365:
1358:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1323:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1298:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1274:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1215:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1172:
1164:
1157:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1132:
1127:
1124:(4): 535–52.
1123:
1119:
1115:
1108:
1100:
1094:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1045:
1037:
1033:
1028:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
996:
988:
984:
979:
974:
969:
964:
960:
956:
953:(3): 906–13.
952:
948:
944:
937:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
894:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
851:
843:
836:
828:
821:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
778:
770:
766:
762:
758:
753:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
721:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
686:
678:
676:9780716752158
672:
668:
664:
663:
658:
651:
647:
639:
637:
631:
629:
625:
614:
605:
601:
598:This section
596:
593:
589:
588:
575:
572:
571:
570:
567:
561:
560:
559:
556:
551:
550:
549:
546:
545:
539:
537:
531:
529:
525:
519:
516:
506:
504:
498:
494:
491:
487:
482:
480:
476:
471:
466:
453:
449:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
427:
423:
415:
412:is caused by
411:
408:
405:
401:
398:
395:before other
394:
390:
386:
383:
380:
376:
373:
369:
368:
362:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
343:meta-analysis
339:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
311:
309:
308:limbic system
305:
300:
296:
286:
284:
278:
268:
266:
262:
256:
254:
249:
248:Endel Tulving
240:
238:
234:
230:
224:
221:
220:parietal lobe
216:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
185:
183:
179:
175:
171:
158:
155:
152:
149:
146:
143:
140:
137:
134:
133:
132:
123:
120:
118:
110:
109:consciousness
106:
103:
101:
97:
94:
90:
86:
85:
84:
82:
77:
75:
71:
67:
66:Endel Tulving
62:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
3926:Ben Pridmore
3844:Larry Squire
3754:Susan Clancy
3713:
3597:Memory sport
3522:Other topics
3412:False memory
3367:Cryptomnesia
3344:Weapon focus
3304:Decay theory
3182:
3065:Neuroanatomy
3024:Human memory
2913:
2909:
2876:
2872:
2839:
2835:
2805:(2): 74–80.
2802:
2798:
2774:(3): 221–3.
2771:
2767:
2728:
2724:
2679:
2675:
2650:
2646:
2633:
2624:
2615:
2547:
2543:
2533:
2524:
2479:
2475:
2465:
2424:
2420:
2414:
2401:
2360:
2356:
2350:
2320:(1): 85–91.
2317:
2313:
2307:
2281:
2275:
2238:
2234:
2224:
2181:
2177:
2167:
2124:
2120:
2114:
2063:
2059:
2049:
2006:
2002:
1992:
1977:
1944:
1940:
1934:
1904:(1): 79–83.
1901:
1897:
1891:
1848:
1844:
1834:
1801:
1797:
1791:
1754:
1750:
1740:
1707:
1703:
1697:
1664:
1660:
1654:
1621:
1617:
1607:
1574:
1570:
1564:
1531:
1527:
1520:
1487:
1483:
1476:
1446:(1): 170–9.
1443:
1439:
1433:
1406:
1402:
1392:
1367:
1363:
1357:
1332:
1328:
1322:
1287:
1283:
1273:
1224:
1220:
1214:
1181:
1177:
1171:
1162:
1156:
1121:
1117:
1107:
1093:cite journal
1058:
1054:
1044:
1009:
1005:
995:
950:
946:
936:
903:
899:
893:
860:
856:
850:
841:
835:
826:
820:
787:
783:
777:
734:
730:
720:
695:
691:
685:
661:
650:
632:
621:
608:
604:adding to it
599:
568:
557:
547:
532:
520:
512:
499:
495:
490:hummingbirds
483:
478:
472:
468:
422:malnutrition
340:
317:
292:
280:
257:
246:
237:neurogenesis
225:
217:
186:
167:
129:
121:
114:
91:of time (or
81:recollection
78:
73:
69:
63:
30:
29:
3784:Eric Kandel
3732:Researchers
3704:Prospective
3655:Free recall
3609:Shas Pollak
3262:anterograde
3178:Declarative
2653:(9): 1311.
1947:(1): 30–6.
1284:Hippocampus
538:with time.
450:The use of
393:hippocampus
377:The label "
347:amphetamine
283:hippocampus
197:recognition
174:hippocampus
74:remembering
3819:Lynn Nadel
3697:intertrial
3682:Metamemory
3670:flashbacks
3590:In society
3287:retrograde
3249:Forgetting
3220:Procedural
3130:Short-term
3100:Eyewitness
1757:(1): 462.
1061:: 409–17.
662:Psychology
642:References
611:April 2012
459:In animals
445:depression
416:(vitamin B
326:inhibitor
3571:Nutrition
3479:In groups
3292:selective
3267:childhood
3195:Flashbulb
3155:Long-term
3055:Attention
2564:1931-1559
2498:1662-5145
2441:0953-816X
2377:0965-8211
2334:0882-7974
2129:CiteSeerX
2080:0962-8436
1982:Panko B.
1865:1939-1455
1335:: 85–98.
712:144939774
626:(e.g., a
431:An acute
328:Tolcapone
320:Donepezil
233:neocortex
201:recollect
3987:Category
3873:Patients
3544:mnemonic
3539:chunking
3205:Implicit
3188:Semantic
3183:Episodic
3173:Explicit
3038:Encoding
2930:11752477
2916:: 1–25.
2901:29830044
2893:16709773
2864:26124449
2856:16290193
2827:15829881
2819:10234230
2790:15897259
2747:15157417
2667:10484938
2582:15506830
2516:22536176
2457:41810408
2449:28921686
2393:33870697
2385:12097209
2267:25161644
2208:17462894
2151:12963469
2106:11571038
2033:27889264
1926:39651353
1883:35238585
1826:31032066
1818:15219661
1783:35008886
1732:10924334
1724:15989932
1689:53180896
1681:14584570
1646:15788121
1638:25591060
1599:25964357
1591:16231168
1556:10920515
1548:17225162
1512:24026336
1504:17063156
1468:21341306
1460:16021483
1425:12805116
1384:22213009
1314:18634842
1265:40894114
1198:11752477
1184:: 1–25.
1140:15157417
1085:24565734
1036:18160649
928:29293288
885:45874336
877:19524094
812:13939288
804:17548229
769:14032010
761:17371752
488:(2006),
433:cortisol
414:thiamine
391:and the
209:semantic
39:emotions
3692:Priming
3618:Related
3561:Emotion
3257:Amnesia
3095:Eidetic
3082:Sensory
3043:Storage
2873:Science
2755:9210805
2712:4394086
2704:9751053
2684:Bibcode
2573:2790923
2507:3334531
2342:8726374
2258:4130454
2241:: 893.
2216:2905358
2186:Bibcode
2159:2573813
2097:1088530
2088:3067106
2041:6491384
2011:Bibcode
1969:2571986
1961:9952062
1918:9584971
1874:9464351
1774:8745479
1306:9662134
1257:2296719
1249:2873625
1229:Bibcode
1221:Science
1148:9210805
1076:4075961
1027:6673454
987:9448258
955:Bibcode
920:2797412
739:Bibcode
426:alcohol
379:amnesia
341:A 2015
332:AZD3480
231:to the
70:knowing
33:is the
3993:Memory
3725:People
3710:memory
3641:memory
3581:Trauma
3120:Visual
3110:Iconic
3105:Haptic
3090:Echoic
3048:Recall
2938:399748
2936:
2928:
2899:
2891:
2862:
2854:
2825:
2817:
2788:
2753:
2745:
2725:Neuron
2710:
2702:
2676:Nature
2665:
2580:
2570:
2562:
2514:
2504:
2496:
2482:: 15.
2455:
2447:
2439:
2391:
2383:
2375:
2357:Memory
2340:
2332:
2296:
2265:
2255:
2214:
2206:
2157:
2149:
2131:
2104:
2094:
2086:
2078:
2039:
2031:
1967:
1959:
1924:
1916:
1881:
1871:
1863:
1824:
1816:
1781:
1771:
1730:
1722:
1687:
1679:
1644:
1636:
1597:
1589:
1554:
1546:
1510:
1502:
1466:
1458:
1423:
1382:
1347:
1312:
1304:
1263:
1255:
1247:
1206:399748
1204:
1196:
1146:
1138:
1118:Neuron
1083:
1073:
1034:
1024:
985:
975:
926:
918:
883:
875:
810:
802:
767:
759:
710:
673:
563:years.
437:recall
365:Damage
35:memory
3904:Other
3576:Sleep
3529:Aging
3074:Types
2934:S2CID
2897:S2CID
2860:S2CID
2823:S2CID
2751:S2CID
2708:S2CID
2453:S2CID
2389:S2CID
2212:S2CID
2155:S2CID
2084:JSTOR
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