1726:
1672:
2126:
2486:
2917:
999:
1711:
2740:
2535:
2193:
1234:
3053:
722:
1751:
3124:. The distinguishing feature of phreatic explosions is that they only blast out fragments of pre-existing solid rock from the volcanic conduit; no new magma is erupted. Because they are driven by the cracking of rock strata under pressure, phreatic activity does not always result in an eruption; if the rock face is strong enough to withstand the explosive force, outright eruptions may not occur, although cracks in the rock will probably develop and weaken it, furthering future eruptions.
1485:
2505:
1692:
1948:
1360:
7074:
3248:
7098:
1117:
1875:
194:
6845:
7110:
250:, which are typically not very dangerous. On the other extreme, Plinian eruptions are large, violent, and highly dangerous explosive events. Volcanoes are not bound to one eruptive style, and frequently display many different types, both passive and explosive, even in the span of a single eruptive cycle. Volcanoes do not always erupt vertically from a single crater near their peak, either. Some volcanoes exhibit
863:
7086:
1181:, which erupted from a fissure in a cornfield in 1943. Two years into its life, pyroclastic activity began to wane, and the outpouring of lava from its base became its primary mode of activity. Eruptions ceased in 1952, and the final height was 424 m (1,391 ft). This was the first time that scientists are able to observe the complete life cycle of a volcano.
50:
3032:
Viable microbial communities have been found living in deep (â2800 m) geothermal groundwater at 349 K and pressures >300 bar. Furthermore, microbes have been postulated to exist in basaltic rocks in rinds of altered volcanic glass. All of these conditions could exist in polar regions of Mars today
889:
lava flows are denser and more viscous than pahoehoe, and tend to move slower. Flows can measure 2 to 20 m (7 to 66 ft) thick. A'a flows are so thick that the outside layers cools into a rubble-like mass, insulating the still-hot interior and preventing it from cooling. A'a lava moves in a
2155:
of magma when it comes in contact with water (as distinguished from magmatic eruptions, which are driven by thermal expansion). This temperature difference between the two causes violent water-lava interactions that make up the eruption. The products of phreatomagmatic eruptions are believed to be
1973:
generated by material collapse, which move down the side of the mountain at extreme speeds of up to 700 km (435 mi) per hour and with the ability to extend the reach of the eruption hundreds of kilometers. The ejection of hot material from the volcano's summit melts snowbanks and ice
1614:
pyroclastic flows that they drive. The mechanics of a Peléan eruption are very similar to that of a
Vulcanian eruption, except that in Peléan eruptions the volcano's structure is able to withstand more pressure, hence the eruption occurs as one large explosion rather than several smaller ones.
2892:
Products of volcano-ice interactions stand as various structures, whose shape is dependent on complex eruptive and environmental interactions. Glacial volcanism is a good indicator of past ice distribution, making it an important climatic marker. Since they are embedded in ice, as glacial ice
1316:, eventually popping the cap holding the magma down and resulting in an explosive eruption. Unlike Strombolian eruptions, ejected lava fragments are not aerodynamic; this is due to the higher viscosity of Vulcanian magma and the greater incorporation of
1217:
itself. The namesake of the mild explosive activity that it possesses has been active throughout historical time; essentially continuous
Strombolian eruptions, occasionally accompanied by lava flows, have been recorded at Stromboli for more than a
1556:, the site of a Peléan eruption in 1902 that is one of the worst natural disasters in history. In Peléan eruptions, a large amount of gas, dust, ash, and lava fragments are blown out the volcano's central crater, driven by the collapse of
1113:. The relative passivity of Strombolian eruptions, and its non-damaging nature to its source vent allow Strombolian eruptions to continue unabated for thousands of years, and also makes it one of the least dangerous eruptive types.
2025:. It is the model Plinian eruption. Mount Vesuvius has erupted several times since then. Its last eruption was in 1944 and caused problems for the allied armies as they advanced through Italy. It was the contemporary report by
1943:
airfall affecting an area 0.5 to 50 km (0 to 12 cu mi) in size. The material in the ash plume eventually finds its way back to the ground, covering the landscape in a thick layer of many cubic kilometers of ash.
94:
where that type of behavior has been observed. Some volcanoes may exhibit only one characteristic type of eruption during a period of activity, while others may display an entire sequence of types all in one eruptive series.
345:
The volcanic explosivity index (commonly shortened to VEI) is a scale, from 0 to 8, for measuring the strength of eruptions but does not capture all of the properties that may be perceived to be important. It is used by the
2375:
are another hydrovolcanic feature, generated by the explosive deposition of basaltic tephra (although they are not truly volcanic vents). They form when lava accumulates within cracks in lava, superheats and explodes in a
1840:. Eruption velocity is controlled by the gas contents of the column, and low-strength surface rocks commonly crack under the pressure of the eruption, forming a flared outgoing structure that pushes the gases even faster.
2248:
A Surtseyan (or hydrovolcanic) eruption is a type of volcanic eruption characterized by shallow-water interactions between water and lava, named after its most famous example, the eruption and formation of the island of
1931:
Plinian eruptions are similar to both
Vulcanian and Strombolian eruptions, except that rather than creating discrete explosive events, Plinian eruptions form sustained eruptive columns. They are also similar to Hawaiian
2398:
off the coast of
Iceland in 1963. Initial hydrovolcanics were highly explosive, but as the volcano grew, rising lava interacted less with water and more with air, until finally Surtseyan activity waned and became more
2858:. The eruptive process that builds these structures, originally inferred in the paper, begins with volcanic growth below the glacier. At first the eruptions resemble those that occur in the deep sea, forming piles of
1836:. These bubbles agglutinate and once they reach a certain size (about 75% of the total volume of the magma conduit) they explode. The narrow confines of the conduit force the gases and associated magma up, forming an
835:(both continuous and sporadic), which can reach heights of hundreds of meters or more. The particles from lava fountains usually cool in the air before hitting the ground, resulting in the accumulation of cindery
1351:
holding the magma down, and it disintegrates, leading to much more quiet and continuous eruptions. Thus an early sign of future
Vulcanian activity is lava dome growth, and its collapse generates an outpouring of
890:
peculiar wayâthe front of the flow steepens due to pressure from behind until it breaks off, after which the general mass behind it moves forward. Pahoehoe lava can sometimes become A'a lava due to increasing
2324:
eruptive column, one that is denser overall than a regular volcanic column. The densest part of the cloud is nearest to the vent, resulting in a wedge shape. Associated with these laterally moving rings are
3023:, scientists have suggested that there may be subglacial volcanoes on the red planet. Several potential sites of such volcanism have been reviewed, and compared extensively with similar features in Iceland:
4611:"The Utilization of Remotely Sensed Data to Analyze the Estimated Volume of Pyroclastic Deposits and Morphological Changes Caused by the 2010â2015 Eruption of Sinabung Volcano, North Sumatra, Indonesia"
816:. The volume of ejected material from Hawaiian eruptions is less than half of that found in other eruptive types. Steady production of small amounts of lava builds up the large, broad form of a
924:
Although
Hawaiian eruptions are named after the volcanoes of Hawaii, they are not necessarily restricted to them; the highest lava fountain recorded was during the 23 November 2013 eruption of
4773:
Bamber, Emily C.; Arzilli, Fabio; Polacci, Margherita; Hartley, Margaret E.; Fellowes, Jonathan; Di Genova, Danilo; ChavarrĂa, David; Saballos, JosĂ© Armando; Burton, Mike R. (February 2020).
2965:. There is evidence of past subglacial eruptive activity on the volcano in the form of a subglacial deposit on its summit. The eruptions originated about 10,000 years ago, during the last
4974:"A sequence of a plinian eruption preceded by dome destruction at Kelud volcano, Indonesia, on February 13, 2014, revealed from tephra fallout and pyroclastic density current deposits"
1643:
most active volcano. It has been the site of many different types of eruptions, Peléan included. Approximately 40 ravines radiate from the summit and provide pathways for frequent
2983:
2,200 years ago. It is believed to be that this was the biggest eruption in
Antarctica in the last 10,000 years. Volcanic ash deposits from the volcano were identified through an
3671:
Bonaccorso, A.; Calvari, S.; Linde, A.; Sacks, S. (28 July 2014). "Eruptive processes leading to the most explosive lava fountain at Etna volcano: The 23 November 2013 episode".
901:
Hawaiian eruptions are responsible for several unique volcanological objects. Small volcanic particles are carried and formed by the wind, chilling quickly into teardrop-shaped
963:
655:â There is a discontinuity between the 1st and 2nd VEI level; instead of increasing by a magnitude of 10, the value increases by a magnitude of 100 (from 10,000 to 1,000,000).
1658:. Prior to this eruption the peak had not even been recognized as a volcano. Over 3,000 people were killed, and it has become a benchmark for studying large Peléan eruptions.
3755:
Mike Burton; Patrick Allard; Filippo Muré; Alessandro La Spina (2007). "Magmatic Gas
Composition Reveals the Source Depth of Slug-Driven Strombolian Explosive Activity".
831:, a so-called "curtain of fire." These die down as the lava begins to concentrate at a few of the vents. Central-vent eruptions, meanwhile, often take the form of large
1936:
in that both eruptive types produce sustained eruption columns maintained by the growth of bubbles that move up at about the same speed as the magma surrounding them.
5316:
2504:
2485:
3985:
Kyle, P. R. (Ed.), Volcanological and
Environmental Studies of Mount Erebus, Antarctica, Antarctic Research Series, American Geophysical Union, Washington DC, 1994.
3127:
Often a precursor of future volcanic activity, phreatic eruptions are generally weak, although there have been exceptions. Some phreatic events may be triggered by
5041:"Atmospheric resonant oscillations by the 2014 eruption of the Kelud volcano, Indonesia, observed with the ionospheric total electron contents and seismic signals"
5363:
2701:
are common in shallow-water environments. As plate movement starts to carry the volcanoes away from their eruptive source, eruption rates start to die down, and
2651:. Higher spreading rates are a probable cause for higher levels of volcanism. The technology for studying seamount eruptions did not exist until advancements in
1201:, the southernmost active volcano in the world, having been observed erupting since 1972. Eruptive activity at Erebus consists of frequent Strombolian activity.
1105:, often ejected high into the air. Columns can measure hundreds of meters in height. The lavas formed by Strombolian eruptions are a form of relatively viscous
6113:
928:
in Italy, which reached a stable height of around 2,500 m (8,200 ft) for 18 minutes, briefly peaking at a height of 3,400 m (11,000 ft).
5176:
4186:
885:
lava is a relatively smooth lava flow that can be billowy or ropey. They can move as one sheet, by the advancement of "toes", or as a snaking lava column.
4573:
5484:
1339:
Initial
Vulcanian activity is characterized by a series of short-lived explosions, lasting a few minutes to a few hours and typified by the ejection of
5241:
4912:
2709:
flows. There are about 100,000 deepwater volcanoes in the world, although most are beyond the active stage of their life. Some exemplary seamounts are
1604:
1097:
The term "Strombolian" has been used indiscriminately to describe a wide variety of volcanic eruptions, varying from small volcanic blasts to large
7213:
4972:
Maeno, Fukashi; Nakada, Setsuya; Yoshimoto, Mitsuhiro; Shimano, Taketo; Hokanishi, Natsumi; Zaennudin, Akhmad; Iguchi, Masato (15 September 2019).
2886:
2877:
begins, building up flanks made up of mostly hyaloclastite. Eventually the lake boils off from continued volcanism, and the lava flows become more
1671:
5514:
954:"curtain of fire" on 3 January 1983. These gave way to centralized eruptions on the site of Kilauea's east rift, eventually building up the cone.
4743:
2170:
may be more critical to the explosive nature than thermal contraction. Fuel coolant reactions may fragment the volcanic material by propagating
5884:
5251:
5143:
5095:
4583:
4552:
4477:
4091:
3960:
3641:
3261:
1595:
make Peléan eruptions one of the most dangerous in the world, capable of tearing through populated areas and causing serious loss of life. The
5430:
231:. The former are characterized by gas-driven explosions that propel magma and tephra. The latter pour out lava without significant explosion.
6054:
2834:
The study of glaciovolcanism is still a relatively new field. Early accounts described the unusual flat-topped steep-sided volcanoes (called
1691:
7148:
5824:
4128:
2359:, circular structures built of rapidly quenched lava. These structures are associated with single vent eruptions. If eruptions arise along
1664:, Indonesia. History of its eruptions since 2013 are showing the volcano emits pyroclastic flows with frequent collapses of its lava domes.
3410:
1843:
These massive eruptive columns are the distinctive feature of a Plinian eruption, and reach up 2 to 45 km (1 to 28 mi) into the
6278:
4710:
1070:, which has been erupting nearly continuously for centuries. Strombolian eruptions are driven by the bursting of gas bubbles within the
4512:
4081:
3950:
2305:
eruptions do occur, albeit rarely), and like Strombolian eruptions Surtseyan eruptions are generally continuous or otherwise rhythmic.
1710:
177:
and phreatic eruptions are defined by their eruptive mechanism, and vary in strength. An important measure of eruptive strength is the
4216:
2842:
that were suggested to have formed from eruptions below ice. The first English-language paper on the subject was published in 1947 by
2380:, breaking the rock apart and depositing it on the volcano's flank. Consecutive explosions of this type eventually generate the cone.
6106:
2291:(water-bearing rock formation) at shallow levels under the volcano can cause them. The products of Surtseyan eruptions are generally
820:. Eruptions are not centralized at the main summit as with other volcanic types, and often occur at vents around the summit and from
1136:
fragments that travel in parabolic paths before landing around their source vent. The steady accumulation of small fragments builds
913:, the Hawaiian volcano deity). During especially high winds these chunks may even take the form of long drawn-out strands, known as
847:. If eruptive rates are high enough, they may even form splatter-fed lava flows. Hawaiian eruptions are often extremely long lived;
137:
are driven by the direct interaction of magma and water, as opposed to phreatic eruptions, where no fresh magma reaches the surface.
7027:
6291:
239:
Volcanic eruptions vary widely in strength. On the one extreme there are effusive Hawaiian eruptions, which are characterized by
4775:"Pre- and syn-eruptive conditions of a basaltic Plinian eruption at Masaya Volcano, Nicaragua: The Masaya Triple Layer (2.1 ka)"
2478:. Both of its vents exhibited Surtseyan activity for much of the time. It was also the site of an earlier eruption in May 1988.
1725:
843:, they cannot cool off fast enough due to the surrounding heat, and hit the ground still hot, the accumulation of which forms
4352:
3266:
2475:
1406:, the result of high gas contents within the magma. In some cases these have been found to be the result of interaction with
1101:. In reality, true Strombolian eruptions are characterized by short-lived and explosive eruptions of lavas with intermediate
1059:
2590:
volcanic eruptions meant their details were virtually unknown until advances in the 1990s made it possible to observe them.
2582:
Submarine eruptions occur underwater. An estimated 75% of volcanic eruptive volume is generated by submarine eruptions near
1386:" being especially common. These deeply cracked volcanic chunks form when the exterior of ejected lava cools quickly into a
527:
7198:
6099:
5337:
3440:
Ruprecht, Philipp; Plank, Terry (August 2013). "Feeding andesitic eruptions with a high-speed connection from the mantle".
2788:
1579:, a bulge in the volcano's summit preempting its total collapse. The material collapses upon itself, forming a fast-moving
6070:
3361:
6703:
6046:
5039:
Nakashima, Yuki; Heki, Kosuke; Takeo, Akiko; Cahyadi, Mokhamad N.; Aditiya, Arif; Yoshizawa, Kazunori (15 January 2016).
3851:"Phreatomagmatic to Strombolian eruptive activity of basaltic cinder cones: Montaña Los Erales, Tenerife, Canary Islands"
2612:
of mantle rock that rises on an upwelling portion of a convection cell to the crustal surface. Eruptions associated with
2575:
2241:
1998:
1591:
flow) that moves down the side of the mountain at tremendous speeds, often over 150 km (93 mi) per hour. These
1290:
797:, with this eruptive type is hallmark. Hawaiian eruptions are the calmest types of volcanic events, characterized by the
700:
4303:
Gardner, M. F.; Troll, V. R.; Gamble, J. A.; Gertisser, R.; Hart, G. L.; Ellam, R. M.; Harris, C.; Wolff, J. A. (2013).
5868:
5388:
5225:
4433:
4362:
3617:
3590:
3565:
2934:
Glaciovolcanic products have been identified in Iceland, the Canadian province of British Columbia, the U.S. states of
2862:
at the base of the volcanic structure. Some of the lava shatters when it comes in contact with the cold ice, forming a
2367:
may be dug out. Such eruptions tend to be more violent than those which form tuff rings or maars, an example being the
782:
340:
3166:
2069:
Plinian volcanism being its 1947â48 eruption. The past 800 years have been a pattern of violent initial eruptions of
2033:
1787:
556:
4248:"Grain size, mineralogical, and geochemistry of the 1996-2018 Volcanic Products of Anak Krakatau Volcano, Indonesia"
2461:. The volcano did not build tuff cones strong enough to withstand erosion and soon disappeared back below the waves.
1453:
7292:
7141:
4666:"Activity and hazards of the ongoing eruption of Sinabung Volcano, Indonesia, evaluated using UAS-derived datasets"
1822:
1795:
1655:
1537:
881:
Flows from Hawaiian eruptions are basaltic, and can be divided into two types by their structural characteristics.
7114:
6271:
5961:
5613:
5188:
4475:
Richard V. Fisher & Grant Heiken (1982). "Mt. Pelée, Martinique: May 8 and 20 pyroclastic flows and surges".
4194:
3271:
2088:
586:
1320:
material broken off from the former cap. They are also more explosive than their Strombolian counterparts, with
1094:
accompanied by the distinctive loud blasts. During eruptions, these blasts occur as often as every few minutes.
5860:
5426:
4587:
3314:
3277:
2051:
The strongest types of eruptions, with a VEI of 8, are so-called "Ultra-Plinian" eruptions, such as the one at
1651:
to the lowlands below. Mayon's most violent eruption occurred in 1814 and was responsible for over 1200 deaths.
1191:, which has displayed Strombolian activity in recent eruptions, for example in 1981, 1999, 2002â2003, and 2009.
613:
7208:
7203:
5770:"Structure of volcanic landscape in the equatorial belt (A case study of the Kerinci Volcano, Sumatra Island)"
5492:
1398:. The center of the fragment expands, cracking the exterior. The bulk of Vulcanian deposits are fine grained
5255:
4920:
6640:
5553:
3995:
Spina, Laura; Del Bello, Elisabetta; Ricci, Tullio; Taddeucci, Jacopo; Scarlato, Piergiorgio (1 May 2021).
2710:
1167:), and produce fewer molten lava flows (although the eruptive material does tend to form small rivulets).
7134:
5997:
5608:
3366:
1078:. These grow large enough to rise through the lava column. Upon reaching the surface, the difference in
7090:
7057:
7052:
6264:
6080:
5147:
4916:
4747:
4714:
4516:
4190:
4132:
3734:
3645:
3535:
3414:
3226:
2160:
2045:
1391:
855:, erupted continuously for over 35 years. Another Hawaiian volcanic feature is the formation of active
334:
198:
178:
5526:
5040:
4861:
Jolis, E. M.; Troll, V. R.; Harris, C.; Freda, C.; Gaeta, M.; Orsi, G.; Siebe, C. (15 November 2015).
3997:"Multi-parametric characterization of explosive activity at Batu Tara Volcano (Flores Sea, Indonesia)"
3996:
3705:
To the best of our knowledge, it reached the highest value ever measured for a lava fountain on Earth.
3491:
Walker, G.P. (1980). "The Taupo pumice: product of the most powerful known (ultraplinian) eruption?".
2166:
There is debate about the exact nature of phreatomagmatic eruptions, and some scientists believe that
651:* This is the minimum eruptive volume necessary for the eruption to be considered within the category.
5422:
4862:
4751:
3850:
2329:-shaped depositions of rock left behind by the lateral movement. These are occasionally disrupted by
30:
17:
5658:
5317:"The Geological History of Deep-Sea Volcanoes: Biosphere, Hydrosphere, and Lithosphere Interactions"
5151:
3649:
2795:
Subglacial eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption characterized by interactions between lava and
2261:, but because they take place in water they are much more explosive. As water is heated by lava, it
950:
which erupted continuously from 1983 to 2018. The eruptions began with a 6 km (4 mi)-long
354:
in assessing the impact of historic and prehistoric lava flows. It operates in a way similar to the
6168:
5246:
4578:
4547:
4086:
4050:
Scarlato, P.; Del Bello, E.; Gaudin, D.; Taddeucci, J.; Ricci, T.; Cesaroni, C. (1 December 2015).
3955:
3371:
2973:
2167:
2138:
1909:. Eruptions can last anywhere from hours to days, with longer eruptions being associated with more
1794:
Plinian eruptions (or Vesuvian eruptions) are a type of volcanic eruption named for the historical
1630:
1600:
1411:
351:
134:
5281:
3730:
3531:
1913:
volcanoes. Although they are usually associated with felsic magma, Plinian eruptions can occur at
6696:
5953:
5915:
5522:
5217:
3330:
2643:
Spreading rates along mid-ocean ridges vary widely, from 2 cm (0.8 in) per year at the
2621:
2055:
74 thousand years ago, which put out 2800 times the material erupted by Mount St. Helens in 1980.
1921:
1819:
642:
355:
347:
4246:
Ardian, D N; Darmawan, H; Wahyudi; Mutaqin, B W; Suratman; Haerani, N; Wikanti (1 August 2022).
4136:
3096:
Phreatic eruptions (or steam-blast eruptions) are a type of eruption driven by the expansion of
5888:. Volcanic Eruption Mechanisms â Insights from intercomparison of models of conduit processes.
5371:
5324:
5099:. Volcanic Eruption Mechanisms â Insights from intercomparison of models of conduit processes.
4450:
3418:
1324:
often reaching between 5 and 10 km (3 and 6 mi) high. Lastly, Vulcanian deposits are
681:
4718:
4419:
4304:
3186:
848:
7297:
6024:
5992:
5211:
5184:
3020:
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2671:
of 4, but acoustic waves travel well in water and over long periods of time. A system in the
2368:
497:
283:
It is important when studying the products of explosive eruptions to distinguish between...:
128:
5743:
5056:
4542:
4520:
4263:
4224:
4095:
3964:
2811:. It has been suggested that subglacial volcanoes that are not actively erupting often dump
1596:
1383:
1082:
causes the bubble to burst with a loud pop, throwing magma in the air in a way similar to a
7234:
6346:
6153:
6006:
5970:
5924:
5913:
Pyle, D. M. (January 1989). "The thickness, volume and grainsize of tephra fall deposits".
5893:
5781:
5622:
5333:
5104:
5052:
4985:
4878:
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4486:
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than the products of magmatic eruptions because of the differences in eruptive mechanisms.
2125:
2109:, Indonesia erupted in 2014 and ejected around 120,000,000 to 160,000,000 cubic metres (4.2
1003:
993:
437:
150:
68:
5548:
4272:
4247:
4159:
844:
219:
Thermal contraction from chilling on contact with water, causing phreatomagmatic eruptions
105:
are the most well-observed type of eruption. They involve the decompression of gas within
8:
7265:
6256:
6176:
6032:
4867:
liberation during Pompeii and Pollena eruptions, Vesuvius volcanic system, central Italy"
2992:
2744:
2734:
2609:
1599:
caused tremendous destruction, killing more than 30,000 people and completely destroying
1462:, Indonesia, repeated vulcanian activities since its rise in 1930 until the present time.
1159:, do not produce some volcanic products associated with Hawaiian volcanism (specifically
320:
267:
174:
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5974:
5928:
5897:
5785:
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5456:
5108:
4989:
4980:. Lessons learned from the recent eruptions of Sinabung and Kelud Volcanoes, Indonesia.
4882:
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4665:
4626:
4490:
4320:
4067:
4051:
4012:
3866:
3770:
3754:
3684:
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3453:
1074:. These gas bubbles within the magma accumulate and coalesce into large bubbles, called
523:
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7078:
7022:
6809:
6784:
6689:
6245:
6225:
6186:
6181:
6158:
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4814:
4646:
4285:
4032:
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3085:
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2873:. After a while the ice finally melts into a lake, and the more explosive eruptions of
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2601:
2539:
2529:
2197:
2187:
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1228:
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462:
224:
182:
158:
154:
146:
6143:
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515:
53:
Some of the eruptive structures formed during volcanic activity (counterclockwise): a
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associated with submarine volcanic eruptions. The reason for this is that land-based
2648:
2465:
2442:
2309:
2262:
2152:
2026:
1856:
1848:
1847:. The densest part of the plume, directly above the volcano, is driven internally by
1829:
1811:
1633:
and leaving only 3 survivors. The eruption was directly preceded by lava dome growth.
1402:. The ash is only moderately dispersed, and its abundance indicates a high degree of
1395:
1309:
1301:
1155:, but there are differences. Strombolian eruptions are noisier, produce no sustained
1152:
798:
726:
716:
689:
412:
362:, in that each interval in value represents a tenfold increasing in magnitude (it is
275:
228:
142:
112:
61:
37:
36:"Volcanic eruption" and "Volcanic eruptions" redirect here. For the short story, see
4941:
3802:
7102:
7032:
7001:
6996:
6779:
6587:
6581:
6383:
6287:
6235:
6148:
6014:
5978:
5932:
5901:
5789:
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5112:
5060:
5003:
4993:
4942:
Stephen Self; Jing-Xia Zhao; Rick E. Holasek; Ronnie C. Torres & Alan J. King.
4886:
4804:
4794:
4630:
4494:
4425:
4324:
4267:
4016:
3870:
3774:
3688:
3508:
3477:
3457:
3253:
3225:, all historical eruptions of this volcano have been phreatic including the deadly
3170:
3162:
2988:
2906:
2851:
2698:
2178:
that ultimately leads to rapid cooling and explosive contraction-driven eruptions.
2037:
1970:
1755:
1745:
1644:
1580:
1545:
1509:
1435:
1367:
1090:
associated with the lavas, continued activity is generally in the form of episodic
1087:
552:
544:
255:
251:
166:
54:
6076:
4890:
1445:
271:
216:
Ejection of entrained particles during steam eruptions, causing phreatic eruptions
7229:
7176:
6971:
6834:
6746:
6736:
6486:
6240:
5995:(September 1947). ""Tuyas," flat-topped volcanoes in northern British Columbia".
5854:
4943:
3194:
3105:
2962:
2920:
2916:
2628:. Each process generates different rock; mid-ocean ridge volcanics are primarily
2617:
2605:
2583:
2377:
2352:
2317:
2280:, but they are not confined to seamounts. They can happen on land as well, where
2209:
1955:
1925:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1837:
1716:
1572:
1321:
1304:'s observations of its 1888â1890 eruptions. In Vulcanian eruptions, intermediate
1160:
1156:
1120:
An example of the lava arcs formed during Strombolian activity. This image is of
1098:
947:
906:
895:
875:
738:
696:
493:
162:
57:
5951:
5692:
3210:
3100:. When cold ground or surface water come into contact with hot rock or magma it
1629:. The 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée completely devastated the island, destroying
7047:
6976:
6794:
6774:
6439:
6355:
6230:
5064:
4396:
4329:
4164:
3827:
3375:
3148:
3132:
3121:
2863:
2784:
2722:
2714:
2695:
2691:
2567:
2511:
2420:
2395:
2277:
2237:
2100:
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2002:
1959:
1732:
1661:
1584:
1533:
1439:
1407:
1387:
1375:
1344:
1312:
to escape. Similar to Strombolian eruptions, this leads to the buildup of high
1286:
1278:
1204:
1164:
1055:
1043:
998:
936:
914:
902:
817:
790:
778:
766:
582:
266:
before climbing upwardâa process estimated to take several thousands of years.
41:
6091:
6086:
5793:
4634:
3010:
2819:. This meltwater mix means that subglacial eruptions often generate dangerous
2739:
1851:. As it reaches higher into the air the plume expands and becomes less dense,
1702:
1622:
1549:
1066:
Strombolian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption named after the volcano
7286:
7042:
6946:
6853:
6829:
6804:
6799:
6789:
6650:
6448:
5801:
5384:
5072:
5017:
4898:
4642:
4281:
4028:
3882:
3786:
3627:
3232:
3216:
3117:
3089:
3065:
3016:
in 1996, which occurred under an estimated 2,500 ft (762 m) of ice.
2984:
2947:
2943:
2870:
2780:
2776:
2672:
2668:
2656:
2633:
2625:
2563:
2559:
2534:
2515:
2458:
2402:
2372:
2360:
2281:
2233:
2229:
2192:
2143:
Phreatomagmatic eruptions are eruptions that arise from interactions between
1933:
1918:
1906:
1815:
1783:
1763:
1678:
1636:
1611:
1529:
1505:
1459:
1379:
1340:
1282:
1258:
1250:
1233:
1129:
1051:
1023:
1019:
832:
774:
734:
693:
685:
609:
574:
263:
240:
170:
5769:
4610:
3849:
Clarke, Hilary; Troll, Valentin R.; Carracedo, Juan Carlos (10 March 2009).
3778:
3052:
3009:, is often a site of subglacial eruptions. An example an eruption under the
2820:
2117:
10 cu ft) volcanic ashes which caused economic disruptions across
1867:. At the top of the plume, powerful winds may drive the plume away from the
1575:. An early sign of a coming eruption is the growth of a so-called Peléan or
1296:
Vulcanian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption named after the volcano
859:, self-maintaining pools of raw lava with a thin crust of semi-cooled rock.
721:
7255:
7239:
7171:
7037:
6981:
6819:
6751:
6645:
6567:
6562:
6395:
6360:
6308:
5720:
3794:
3469:
3222:
3176:
3113:
3101:
3073:
2764:
2270:
2269:
and expands violently, fragmenting the magma it contacts into fine-grained
2221:
2205:
2175:
2018:
2006:
1864:
1860:
1799:
1775:
1767:
1750:
1588:
1517:
1497:
1399:
1313:
1270:
1254:
1194:
1079:
1035:
1015:
980:
951:
910:
828:
821:
813:
758:
674:
630:
116:
83:
6018:
5825:"Mount Kerinci Spews Ash, National Park Management Closes Climbing Routes"
3607:
2705:
grinds the volcano down. The final stages of eruption cap the seamount in
1484:
1403:
1174:
6931:
6886:
6861:
6769:
6741:
6731:
6660:
6546:
6479:
6458:
6453:
6331:
5983:
3692:
3180:
3081:
3061:
2859:
2803:. The nature of glaciovolcanism dictates that it occurs at areas of high
2772:
2748:
2687:
2664:
2571:
2543:
2468:
2446:
2434:
2424:
2321:
2201:
2157:
2084:
2014:
1947:
1807:
1682:
1640:
1317:
1137:
1083:
939:
274:
in 1963 was likely triggered by magma that took a nonstop route from the
87:
5952:
Colleen M. Riley; William I. Rose; Gregg J. S. Bluth (28 October 2003).
4809:
3897:
3461:
3108:, fracturing the surrounding rock and thrusting out a mixture of steam,
1466:
Vulcanian eruptions are estimated to make up at least half of all known
1359:
366:). The vast majority of volcanic eruptions are of VEIs between 0 and 2.
141:
Within these broad eruptive types are several subtypes. The weakest are
7224:
7218:
6956:
6906:
6881:
6341:
5936:
5008:
4357:(3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. p. 37.
3924:
3204:
3190:
3136:
3128:
2977:
2847:
2702:
2652:
2613:
2410:
2334:
2295:
2095:
magma, a 40 km (25 mi) high eruption column, and released 17
1852:
1844:
1698:
1626:
1576:
1553:
1449:
1421:
1198:
1184:
970:
925:
918:
359:
5877:
5634:
2257:
in 1963. Surtseyan eruptions are the "wet" equivalent of ground-based
420:
7271:
7126:
6941:
6926:
6911:
6759:
6670:
6665:
6613:
6528:
6523:
6518:
6321:
6316:
5606:
5488:
5361:
3152:
3144:
3131:
activity, another volcanic precursor, and they may also travel along
2980:
2958:
2898:
2816:
2680:
2495:
2428:
2364:
2356:
2326:
2302:
2074:
2052:
2044:, which ripped apart the volcano's summit, was a Plinian eruption of
1902:
1759:
1592:
1568:
1501:
1493:
1428:
has been the site of Vulcanian activity near-continuously since 1955.
1353:
1348:
1325:
1305:
1242:
1214:
1208:
1144:. This form of accumulation tends to result in well-ordered rings of
1141:
1121:
1116:
1102:
1067:
1027:
1007:
891:
856:
802:
794:
742:
730:
638:
445:
363:
259:
244:
185:
scale, ranging from 0 to 8, that often correlates to eruptive types.
5088:
4052:"Dynamics of strombolian eruptions at Batu Tara volcano (Indonesia)"
684:
from gas release. They range in intensity from the relatively small
314:- the extent of destruction of life or property (real or potential);
64:
6986:
6961:
6936:
6866:
6620:
6608:
6513:
6413:
6196:
5879:
5461:
5090:
3583:
Volcanoes, earthquakes, and tsunamis : a complete introduction
3247:
3213:, has frequent geyser like phreatic eruptions from its crater lake.
3165:, which exhibited phreatic activity just prior to its catastrophic
2808:
2804:
2690:, a rounded lava flow named for its unusual shape. Less common are
2600:
Submarine volcanism is driven by various processes. Volcanoes near
2594:
2587:
2438:
2333:, rock that was flung out by the explosive eruption and followed a
2330:
2292:
2274:
1565:
1557:
1467:
1431:
1363:
1075:
882:
867:
827:
Hawaiian eruptions often begin as a line of vent eruptions along a
789:
Hawaiian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption named after the
746:
4305:"Crustal Differentiation Processes at Krakatau Volcano, Indonesia"
6916:
6901:
6844:
6726:
6712:
6603:
6577:
6538:
6474:
6405:
6326:
4948:
FIRE and MUD: Eruptions and Lahars of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines
3077:
3013:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2966:
2928:
2910:
2902:
2866:
2839:
2800:
2768:
2637:
2551:
2491:
2391:
2387:
2337:
path to the ground. Accumulations of wet, spherical ash known as
2308:
A defining feature of a Surtseyan eruption is the formation of a
2288:
2254:
2250:
2225:
2092:
2062:
2010:
1986:
with the consistency of wet concrete that move at the speed of a
1983:
1898:
1874:
1868:
1803:
1779:
1648:
1521:
1329:
1297:
1274:
1246:
1133:
1039:
1011:
943:
871:
852:
762:
704:
470:
262:. Scientists believed that pulses of magma mixed together in the
91:
79:
4049:
2029:
that led scientists to refer to Vesuvian eruptions as "Plinian".
862:
6966:
6951:
6921:
6896:
6891:
6871:
6824:
5880:"A transient model for explosive and phreatomagmatic eruptions"
5091:"A transient model for explosive and phreatomagmatic eruptions"
2939:
2935:
2855:
2629:
2454:
2414:
2406:
2394:. The volcano built itself up from depth and emerged above the
2349:
2298:
2070:
2066:
2022:
1987:
1975:
1962:
1940:
1914:
1910:
1561:
1333:
1178:
1145:
1110:
1106:
958:
886:
836:
805:
671:
202:
193:
5209:
5177:"X. Classification of Volcanic Eruptions: Surtseyan Eruptions"
3605:
2881:
and thicken as the lava cools much more slowly, often forming
2316:), a ground hugging radial cloud that develops along with the
127:. This type exhibits no magmatic release, instead causing the
7157:
6434:
6388:
6130:
4474:
3140:
3109:
3097:
2885:. Well-preserved tuyas show all of these stages, for example
2828:
2824:
2547:
2472:
2450:
2284:
2266:
2213:
2148:
2144:
2106:
2096:
2058:
1979:
1951:
1939:
Regions affected by Plinian eruptions are subjected to heavy
1833:
1525:
1425:
1188:
1071:
1047:
974:
840:
770:
667:
124:
120:
106:
49:
6681:
4944:"The Atmospheric Impact of the 1991 Mount Pinatubo Eruption"
4609:
Yulianto, Fajar; Suwarsono; Sofan, Parwati (1 August 2016).
4245:
3994:
2320:. Base surges are caused by the gravitational collapse of a
6991:
6764:
6571:
6064:
6060:
6028:
5852:
5696:
5662:
5558:
5314:
5289:
4971:
4951:
4772:
4417:
4302:
4220:
3670:
3556:
Dosseto, A.; Turner, S. P.; Van-Orman, J. A., eds. (2011).
3334:
3069:
2951:
2924:
2901:. Evidence of volcanic-glacial interactions are evident in
2894:
2835:
2812:
2760:
2555:
2345:
2217:
2118:
1771:
1610:
Peléan eruptions are characterized most prominently by the
1513:
1266:
1262:
1031:
809:
754:
750:
247:
213:
Gas release under decompression, causing magmatic eruptions
6286:
5878:
A.B. Starostin, A.A. Barmin & O.E. Melnik (May 2005).
5089:
A.B. Starostin; A.A. Barmin & O.E. Melnik (May 2005).
2694:, marginal sheet flows, indicative of larger-scale flows.
1548:) are a type of volcanic eruption named after the volcano
1417:
Volcanoes that have exhibited Vulcanian activity include:
964:
List of volcanoes in the Hawaiian â Emperor seamount chain
7182:
5742:
Esguerra, Darryl John; Cinco, Maricar (12 January 2020).
5038:
3558:
Timescales of Magmatic Processes: From Core to Atmosphere
3309:. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 246.
2796:
2756:
2597:, which may break the surface and form volcanic islands.
1825:
5954:"Quantitative shape measurements of distal volcanic ash"
2897:
and other structures may destabilize, resulting in mass
2417:, 1957, both examples of above-water Surtseyan activity.
699:
more than 30 km (19 mi) high, bigger than the
209:
Volcanic eruptions arise through three main mechanisms:
5744:"BREAKING: Taal volcano spews ash in phreatic eruption"
3235:, Indonesia, produces almost annual phreatic eruptions.
2954:. Volcanoes known to have subglacial activity include:
2683:, has detected an event on average every 2 to 3 years.
1814:. The process powering Plinian eruptions starts in the
1211:, exhibited continuous Strombolian eruption since 2014.
270:
volcanologists found that the eruption of Costa Rica's
4608:
4252:
IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science
3555:
3158:
Volcanoes known to exhibit phreatic activity include:
1170:
Volcanoes known to have Strombolian activity include:
5991:
5607:
Leonid N. Germanovich & Robert P. Lowell (1995).
5602:
5600:
5598:
5242:"Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai: Index of Monthly Reports"
4860:
3848:
3243:
2383:
Volcanoes known to have Surtseyan activity include:
2077:
of basaltic lava from the lower part of the volcano.
1410:, suggesting that Vulcanian eruptions are partially
5310:
5308:
5306:
3857:. Models and products of mafic explosive activity.
3155:able to suffocate anyone in range of the eruption.
2909:, and it is even possible that they play a role in
2273:. Surtseyan eruptions are typical of shallow-water
931:Volcanoes known to have Hawaiian activity include:
5595:
5423:"Glaciovolcanism â University of British Columbia"
2969:, when the summit of Mauna Kea was covered in ice.
2091:, which produced 5 km (1 cu mi) of
5653:
5651:
5275:
5273:
4513:"How Volcanoes Work: Mount Pelée Eruption (1902)"
4418:Donald Hyndman & David Hyndman (April 2008).
3612:. Troll, V. R. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier.
1618:Volcanoes known to have Peléan activity include:
839:fragments; when the air is especially thick with
98:There are three main types of volcanic eruption:
7284:
6061:USGS Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) homepage
5450:
5448:
5303:
4738:
4736:
3585:(Illustrated ed.). London: Teach Yourself.
2494:, erupting 13 days after breaching the water. A
484:10,000,000 m (353,000,000 cu ft)
6121:
5362:Paul Wessel; David T. Sandwell; Seung-Sep Kim.
5171:
5169:
5138:
5136:
5134:
5132:
5130:
5128:
5126:
3219:, well known for its sudden phreatic eruptions.
2445:, breached sea level in July 1831 and caused a
1374:Deposits near the source vent consist of large
1308:magma within the volcano make it difficult for
898:, but A'a lava never turns into pahoehoe flow.
458:1,000,000 m (35,300,000 cu ft)
29:"Eruption" redirects here. For other uses, see
5885:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
5715:
5713:
5648:
5417:
5415:
5413:
5411:
5409:
5270:
5252:Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History
5210:Alwyn Scarth & Jean-Claude Tanguy (2001).
5096:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
4978:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
4779:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
4584:Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History
4553:Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History
4478:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
4092:Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History
4001:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
3961:Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History
3855:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
3493:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
3262:List of volcanic eruptions in the 21st century
258:. Notably, many Hawaiian eruptions start from
7142:
6697:
6272:
6107:
5741:
5686:
5684:
5682:
5680:
5541:
5445:
4830:
4828:
4733:
3439:
3304:
3274: â Research to predict volcanic activity
2679:and originally intended for the detection of
328:
6087:Live-Stream: Earth's Volcanoes and Eruptions
5166:
5123:
3725:
3723:
3721:
3719:
3717:
3715:
3713:
3634:
3323:
2667:cannot detect sea-based earthquakes below a
2647:, to up to 16 cm (6 in) along the
1969:The most dangerous eruptive feature are the
1394:shell, but the inside continues to cool and
5912:
5853:Grant Heiken & Kenneth Wohletz (1985).
5710:
5406:
5144:"How Volcanoes Work: Hydrovolcic Eruptions"
4705:
4703:
4701:
4699:
4697:
4695:
4693:
4691:
4123:
4121:
4119:
4117:
4115:
4113:
3816:
3814:
3812:
3731:"How Volcanoes Work: Strombolian Eruptions"
3356:
3354:
3352:
2893:retreats worldwide there are concerns that
2655:technology made it possible to "listen" to
2510:The fissure formed by the 1886 eruption of
2344:Over time Surtseyan eruptions tend to form
511:100,000,000 m (0.024 cu mi)
7149:
7135:
6704:
6690:
6279:
6265:
6114:
6100:
5677:
5476:
5084:
5082:
4825:
4451:"Volcanoes, Magma, and Volcanic Eruptions"
3574:
3532:"How Volcanoes Work: Eruption Variability"
3300:
3298:
3296:
3294:
3292:
1974:deposits on the volcano, which mixes with
1897:are usually associated with volatile-rich
1701:that developed after the 1902 eruption of
78:âduring which material is expelled from a
6023:. This is the original landmark paper by
5982:
5007:
4997:
4808:
4798:
4385:
4383:
4381:
4328:
4271:
4129:"How Volcanoes Work: Vulcanian Eruptions"
3748:
3710:
3526:
3524:
3522:
3405:
3403:
3401:
3399:
3397:
3395:
3393:
3362:"Volcanoes of Canada: Volcanic eruptions"
921:, the lowest density rock type on earth.
5767:
5315:Hubert Straudigal & David A Clauge.
5279:
4905:
4688:
4664:Carr, B. B.; Lev, E. (1 December 2018).
4449:Nelson, Stephan A. (30 September 2007).
4411:
4217:"VHP Photo Glossary: Vulcanian eruption"
4209:
4187:"How Volcanoes Work: Sakurajima Volcano"
4110:
3809:
3411:"How Volcanoes Work: Hawaiian Eruptions"
3349:
3305:Heiken, Grant; Wohletz, Kenneth (1985).
3051:
3033:where subglacial volcanism has occurred.
2915:
2738:
2533:
2191:
2124:
1946:
1873:
1832:and accumulate as they rise through the
1749:
1605:worst volcanic event in the 20th century
1483:
1358:
1232:
1115:
997:
861:
720:
433:10,000 m (353,000 cu ft)
192:
48:
5823:Bhwana, Petir Garda (20 October 2022).
5659:"VHP Photo Glossary: Phreatic eruption"
5573:
5507:
5079:
4711:"How Volcanoes Work: Plinian Eruptions"
4663:
4350:
4151:
3606:Carracedo, J. C. (Juan Carlos) (2016).
3580:
3289:
2976:reported a volcanic eruption under the
1993:Major Plinian eruptive events include:
1719:following the devastating 1951 eruption
102:
14:
7285:
7156:
5822:
5690:
4448:
4378:
3549:
3519:
3490:
3390:
2987:, buried under later snowfalls in the
2815:into the ice covering them, producing
2632:, whereas subduction flows are mostly
2616:, meanwhile, are driven by subducting
1810:and, specifically, for its chronicler
957:For a list of all of the volcanoes of
409:1,000 m (35,300 cu ft)
7130:
6685:
6260:
6095:
5609:"The mechanism of phreatic eruptions"
5485:"Tuya or Subglacial Volcano, Iceland"
5454:
5433:from the original on 2 September 2004
5282:"Recent Submarine Volcanic Eruptions"
3484:
3267:List of Quaternary volcanic eruptions
3151:"rain." They may also release deadly
1151:Strombolian eruptions are similar to
430:100â1,000 m (300â3,300 ft)
169:; the strongest eruptions are called
90:. These are often named after famous
7085:
4834:
4744:"How Volcanoes Work: Eruption Model"
4389:
4157:
3820:
2341:are another common surge indicator.
1109:lava, and its end product is mostly
627:1,000 km (200 cu mi)
7109:
5045:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
3642:"How Volcanoes Work: Basaltic Lava"
2686:The most common underwater flow is
1905:lavas, and occur most typically at
1828:are stored in the magma. The gases
1356:material down the volcano's slope.
701:eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD
24:
5845:
5457:"Ancient Antarctic eruption noted"
5455:Black, Richard (20 January 2008).
5280:Chadwick, Bill (10 January 2006).
2624:to the rising plate, lowering its
2132:
1863:drive it even further up into the
1438:, one of several volcanoes in the
341:List of largest volcanic eruptions
161:. The stronger eruptive types are
25:
7309:
6040:
5721:"Phreatic Eruptions â John Seach"
5482:
4863:"Skarn xenolith record crustal CO
3922:
3895:
3609:The geology of the Canary Islands
2174:, widening cracks and increasing
1886:, as viewed to the west from the
600:100 km (20 cu mi)
541:1 km (0.24 cu mi)
42:Volcanic Eruptions (film company)
7108:
7096:
7084:
7073:
7072:
6843:
5906:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2004.09.014
5768:Belyanin, P. S. (1 April 2017).
5691:Watson, John (5 February 1997).
5117:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2004.09.014
4999:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2017.03.002
4800:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2019.106761
4021:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2021.107199
3875:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.11.014
3246:
2659:, known as T-waves, released by
2593:Submarine eruptions may produce
2503:
2484:
2287:that comes into contact with an
1796:eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79
1724:
1709:
1690:
1670:
1656:1951 eruption of Mount Lamington
1452:exhibited Vulcanian activity in
1347:. These eruptions wear down the
1140:composed completely of basaltic
917:. Sometimes basalt aerates into
370:Volcanic eruptions by VEI index
223:In terms of activity, there are
5962:Journal of Geophysical Research
5816:
5774:Geography and Natural Resources
5761:
5735:
5614:Journal of Geophysical Research
5549:"Iceland's subglacial eruption"
5355:
5234:
5203:
5032:
4965:
4935:
4854:
4766:
4657:
4602:
4566:
4535:
4505:
4468:
4442:
4344:
4296:
4273:10.1088/1755-1315/1071/1/012017
4239:
4179:
4074:
4043:
3988:
3979:
3943:
3916:
3889:
3842:
3664:
3599:
3272:Prediction of volcanic activity
3135:lines. Phreatic eruptions form
2369:1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera
1928:, or if magma ascends rapidly.
653:** Values are a rough estimate.
570:10 km (2 cu mi)
5861:University of California Press
5581:"Subglacial Volcanoes On Mars"
5427:University of British Columbia
4913:"How Volcanoes Work: Calderas"
4835:Cain, Fraser (22 April 2009).
4390:Cain, Fraser (22 April 2009).
3821:Cain, Fraser (22 April 2010).
3433:
3374:. 2 April 2009. Archived from
3278:Timeline of volcanism on Earth
987:
123:due to the close proximity of
13:
1:
6711:
6071:Distinguishing eruptive types
5693:"Types of volcanic eruptions"
5515:"Kinds of Volcanic Eruptions"
4891:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2015.09.003
4421:Natural Hazards and Disasters
3331:"Glossary: Effusive Eruption"
3283:
2728:
983:in 1986 (see above paragraph)
824:radiating out of the center.
508:10â25 km (6â16 mi)
406:<100 m (330 ft)
308:- the importance of momentum;
197:Diagram showing the scale of
188:
67:flows, and a lava arc from a
6641:Potentially hazardous object
5554:Hawaiian Volcano Observatory
5364:"The Global Seamount Census"
4499:10.1016/0377-0273(82)90056-7
4158:Cain, Fraser (20 May 2009).
3673:Geophysical Research Letters
3513:10.1016/0377-0273(80)90008-6
2523:
2431:in 1886, killing 150 people.
2181:
1924:with upper portions rich in
1597:1902 eruption of Mount Pelée
1300:. It was named so following
1222:
1128:Strombolian eruptions eject
624:>25 km (16 mi)
597:>25 km (16 mi)
567:>25 km (16 mi)
538:>25 km (16 mi)
86:âhave been distinguished by
40:. For the film company, see
7:
6123:Types of volcanic eruptions
6047:Category:Volcanic eruptions
5998:American Journal of Science
5583:. Space Daily. 27 June 2001
5375:. Seamounts Special Issue.
5328:. Seamounts Special Issue.
4615:Pure and Applied Geophysics
3925:"Mt Etna Volcano Eruptions"
3898:"Mt Etna Volcano Eruptions"
3367:Geological Survey of Canada
3239:
3041:
710:
662:
481:3â15 km (2â9 mi)
76:types of volcanic eruptions
10:
7314:
7199:Fractional crystallization
6081:San Diego State University
5148:San Diego State University
5065:10.1016/j.epsl.2015.11.029
4917:San Diego State University
4748:San Diego State University
4715:San Diego State University
4574:"Lamington: Photo Gallery"
4517:San Diego State University
4191:San Diego State University
4133:San Diego State University
3735:San Diego State University
3646:San Diego State University
3581:Rothery, David A. (2016).
3536:San Diego State University
3415:San Diego State University
3045:
2946:of western North America,
2732:
2586:alone. Problems detecting
2527:
2476:breached sea level in 2009
2185:
2156:more regular in shape and
2136:
2046:Volcanic Explosivity Index
1954:from the 1985 eruption of
1743:
1739:
1477:
1226:
991:
714:
455:1â5 km (1â3 mi)
338:
335:Volcanic explosivity index
332:
329:Volcanic explosivity index
302:- the extent of dispersal;
179:Volcanic Explosivity Index
35:
28:
7248:
7191:
7164:
7068:
7010:
6852:
6841:
6719:
6633:
6596:
6555:
6537:
6506:
6499:
6467:
6433:
6426:
6404:
6374:
6340:
6307:
6298:
6213:
6195:
6167:
6129:
5794:10.1134/S1875372817020111
4635:10.1007/s00024-016-1342-8
3207:, West Indies, 1995â2012.
2636:, and more explosive and
2355:dug into the ground, and
1571:that often creates large
1473:
1291:Click for larger version.
649:
234:
135:Phreatomagmatic eruptions
38:Volcanic Eruption (manga)
31:Eruption (disambiguation)
6747:Cryptovolcanic structure
5247:Global Volcanism Program
4579:Global Volcanism Program
4548:Global Volcanism Program
4330:10.1093/petrology/egs066
4087:Global Volcanism Program
3956:Global Volcanism Program
3372:Natural Resources Canada
2974:British Antarctic Survey
2789:Click for larger version
2242:Click for larger version
2139:Phreatomagmatic eruption
1788:Click for larger version
1538:Click for larger version
1060:Click for larger version
783:Click for larger version
352:Global Volcanism Program
278:over just a few months.
109:that propels it forward.
7293:Volcanic eruption types
7028:Eruptions by death toll
5916:Bulletin of Volcanology
5523:Oregon State University
5218:Oxford University Press
5057:2016E&PSL.434..112N
4264:2022E&ES.1071a2017A
3779:10.1126/science.1141900
3021:search for life on Mars
2950:and even on the planet
393:
348:Smithsonian Institution
201:correlation with total
7249:Surface manifestations
7181:Dissolved and exolved
4354:Volcanoes of the world
3823:"Strombolian Eruption"
3197:), 1975â1976 activity.
3093:
3035:
3001:, well known for both
2931:
2792:
2579:
2245:
2168:fuel-coolant reactions
2129:
2073:followed by prolonged
1966:
1890:
1791:
1541:
1454:its 1963â1965 eruption
1371:
1293:
1281:10. Magma conduit 11.
1125:
1086:. Because of the high
1063:
894:or increasing rate of
878:
786:
382:
317:
206:
71:
6214:Other classifications
6027:that first described
6025:William Henry Mathews
6019:10.2475/ajs.245.9.560
5993:William Henry Mathews
5748:newsinfo.inquirer.net
5185:University of Alabama
4351:Siebert, Lee (2010).
4160:"Vulcanian Eruptions"
3055:
3030:
2985:airborne radar survey
2919:
2844:William Henry Mathews
2742:
2661:submarine earthquakes
2610:decompression melting
2537:
2259:Strombolian eruptions
2195:
2151:. They are driven by
2128:
1950:
1877:
1753:
1677:Pyroclastic flows at
1544:Peléan eruptions (or
1487:
1362:
1236:
1119:
1001:
865:
851:, a volcanic cone on
724:
312:destructive potential
281:
196:
52:
7235:Anorogenic magmatism
6033:subglacial eruptions
5984:10.1029/2001JB000818
5334:Oceanography Society
5258:on 30 September 2004
4590:on 30 September 2004
4428:. pp. 134â135.
4309:Journal of Petrology
3693:10.1002/2014GL060623
2675:, maintained by the
2339:accretionary lapilli
1004:Strombolian eruption
994:Strombolian eruption
296:- the emission rate;
69:Strombolian eruption
7266:Geothermal gradient
7165:Components of magma
6011:1947AmJS..245..560M
5975:2003JGRB..108.2504R
5929:1989BVol...51....1P
5898:2005JVGR..143..133S
5786:2017GNR....38..196B
5627:1995JGR...100.8417G
5213:Volcanoes of Europe
5109:2005JVGR..143..133S
4990:2019JVGR..382...24M
4883:2015ChGeo.415...17J
4791:2020JVGR..39206761B
4682:2018AGUFM.V23D0108C
4627:2016PApGe.173.2711Y
4491:1982JVGR...13..339F
4321:2013JPet...54..149G
4068:2015AGUFM.V51D3058S
4013:2021JVGR..41307199S
3867:2009JVGR..180..225C
3771:2007Sci...317..227B
3685:2014GeoRL..41.4912B
3560:. Wiley-Blackwell.
3505:1980JVGR....8...69W
3462:10.1038/nature12342
3454:2013Natur.500...68R
3378:on 20 February 2010
2993:Pine Island Glacier
2850:field in northwest
2745:Subglacial eruption
2735:Subglacial eruption
2498:surrounds the vent.
2153:thermal contraction
1895:explosive eruptions
1798:AD that buried the
1092:explosive eruptions
905:fragments known as
371:
321:George P. L. Walker
290:- the total volume;
268:Columbia University
225:explosive eruptions
7261:Geothermal systems
7158:Magmatic processes
7023:Lists of volcanoes
6810:Subglacial volcano
6785:Pyroclastic shield
6292:list by death toll
6077:How Volcanoes Work
5937:10.1007/BF01086757
5495:on 5 February 2009
4837:"Plinian Eruption"
4754:on 21 January 2013
3169:(which was itself
3094:
2932:
2875:Surtseyan activity
2793:
2713:(formerly Loihi),
2677:United States Navy
2645:Mid-Atlantic Ridge
2580:
2540:Submarine eruption
2530:Submarine eruption
2514:, an example of a
2466:underwater volcano
2246:
2198:Surtseyan eruption
2188:Surtseyan eruption
2130:
1967:
1917:volcanoes, if the
1891:
1792:
1770:rain 4. Layers of
1542:
1382:, with so-called "
1372:
1294:
1239:Vulcanian eruption
1229:Vulcanian eruption
1153:Hawaiian eruptions
1126:
1064:
879:
791:Hawaiian volcanoes
787:
670:eruptions produce
369:
229:effusive eruptions
207:
183:order-of-magnitude
115:are driven by the
113:Phreatic eruptions
103:Magmatic eruptions
72:
7280:
7279:
7124:
7123:
6877:Basaltic andesite
6815:Submarine volcano
6679:
6678:
6656:Geomagnetic storm
6629:
6628:
6495:
6494:
6422:
6421:
6366:Soil liquefaction
6288:Natural disasters
6254:
6253:
6051:Wikimedia Commons
5635:10.1029/94JB03096
5621:(B5): 8417â8434.
5561:. 11 October 1996
4721:on 8 October 2018
4455:Tulane University
4392:"Pelean Eruption"
3765:(5835): 227â230.
3679:(14): 4912â4919.
3652:on 8 October 2018
3062:Water vapor cloud
3058:phreatic eruption
3048:Phreatic eruption
2883:columnar jointing
2846:, describing the
2749:Water vapor cloud
2719:Davidson Seamount
2699:sedimentary rocks
2649:East Pacific Rise
2608:are built by the
2544:Water vapor cloud
2443:Mediterranean Sea
2310:pyroclastic surge
2253:off the coast of
2027:Pliny the Younger
2017:under a layer of
1971:pyroclastic flows
1857:thermal expansion
1812:Pliny the Younger
1731:2016 eruption of
1645:pyroclastic flows
1384:bread-crust bombs
1302:Giuseppe Mercalli
948:island of Hawaiʻi
799:effusive eruption
727:Hawaiian eruption
717:Hawaiian eruption
660:
659:
656:
256:fissure eruptions
167:Plinian eruptions
131:of existing rock.
16:(Redirected from
7305:
7177:Igneous minerals
7151:
7144:
7137:
7128:
7127:
7112:
7111:
7100:
7088:
7087:
7076:
7075:
7033:Decade Volcanoes
7011:Lists and groups
7002:Pyroclastic flow
6997:Pyroclastic fall
6847:
6780:Pyroclastic cone
6706:
6699:
6692:
6683:
6682:
6588:Tropical cyclone
6582:Tornado outbreak
6504:
6503:
6431:
6430:
6384:Pyroclastic flow
6376:Volcano eruption
6305:
6304:
6281:
6274:
6267:
6258:
6257:
6116:
6109:
6102:
6093:
6092:
6022:
5988:
5986:
5958:
5948:
5909:
5892:(1â3): 133â151.
5874:
5840:
5839:
5837:
5835:
5820:
5814:
5813:
5765:
5759:
5758:
5756:
5754:
5739:
5733:
5732:
5730:
5728:
5717:
5708:
5707:
5705:
5703:
5688:
5675:
5674:
5672:
5670:
5655:
5646:
5645:
5643:
5641:
5604:
5593:
5592:
5590:
5588:
5577:
5571:
5570:
5568:
5566:
5545:
5539:
5538:
5536:
5534:
5525:. Archived from
5511:
5505:
5504:
5502:
5500:
5491:. Archived from
5480:
5474:
5473:
5471:
5469:
5452:
5443:
5442:
5440:
5438:
5419:
5404:
5403:
5401:
5399:
5393:
5387:. Archived from
5368:
5359:
5353:
5352:
5350:
5348:
5342:
5336:. Archived from
5321:
5312:
5301:
5300:
5298:
5296:
5277:
5268:
5267:
5265:
5263:
5254:. Archived from
5238:
5232:
5231:
5207:
5201:
5200:
5198:
5196:
5191:on 29 April 2010
5187:. Archived from
5173:
5164:
5163:
5161:
5159:
5150:. Archived from
5140:
5121:
5120:
5103:(1â3): 133â151.
5086:
5077:
5076:
5036:
5030:
5029:
5011:
5001:
4969:
4963:
4962:
4960:
4958:
4939:
4933:
4932:
4930:
4928:
4923:on 25 April 2015
4919:. Archived from
4909:
4903:
4902:
4871:Chemical Geology
4858:
4852:
4851:
4849:
4847:
4832:
4823:
4822:
4812:
4802:
4770:
4764:
4763:
4761:
4759:
4750:. Archived from
4740:
4731:
4730:
4728:
4726:
4717:. Archived from
4707:
4686:
4685:
4661:
4655:
4654:
4621:(8): 2711â2725.
4606:
4600:
4599:
4597:
4595:
4586:. Archived from
4570:
4564:
4563:
4561:
4559:
4539:
4533:
4532:
4530:
4528:
4519:. Archived from
4509:
4503:
4502:
4485:(3â4): 339â371.
4472:
4466:
4465:
4463:
4461:
4446:
4440:
4439:
4426:Cengage Learning
4415:
4409:
4408:
4406:
4404:
4387:
4376:
4375:
4373:
4371:
4348:
4342:
4341:
4339:
4337:
4332:
4300:
4294:
4293:
4275:
4243:
4237:
4236:
4234:
4232:
4223:. Archived from
4213:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4202:
4193:. Archived from
4183:
4177:
4176:
4174:
4172:
4155:
4149:
4148:
4146:
4144:
4135:. Archived from
4125:
4108:
4107:
4105:
4103:
4094:. Archived from
4078:
4072:
4071:
4047:
4041:
4040:
3992:
3986:
3983:
3977:
3976:
3974:
3972:
3963:. Archived from
3947:
3941:
3940:
3938:
3936:
3929:Recent eruptions
3920:
3914:
3913:
3911:
3909:
3893:
3887:
3886:
3846:
3840:
3839:
3837:
3835:
3818:
3807:
3806:
3752:
3746:
3745:
3743:
3741:
3727:
3708:
3707:
3668:
3662:
3661:
3659:
3657:
3648:. Archived from
3638:
3632:
3631:
3603:
3597:
3596:
3578:
3572:
3571:
3553:
3547:
3546:
3544:
3542:
3528:
3517:
3516:
3488:
3482:
3481:
3437:
3431:
3430:
3428:
3426:
3417:. Archived from
3407:
3388:
3387:
3385:
3383:
3358:
3347:
3346:
3344:
3342:
3327:
3321:
3320:
3302:
3256:
3254:Volcanoes portal
3251:
3250:
3163:Mount St. Helens
2989:Hudson Mountains
2907:British Columbia
2852:British Columbia
2799:, often under a
2711:Kamaʻehuakanaloa
2614:subducting zones
2606:mid-ocean ridges
2602:plate boundaries
2584:mid ocean ridges
2576:Click to enlarge
2507:
2488:
2449:dispute between
2427:erupted along a
2353:volcanic craters
2116:
2112:
2065:, an example of
2038:Mount St. Helens
1958:, which totally
1756:Plinian eruption
1746:Plinian eruption
1728:
1713:
1694:
1674:
1581:pyroclastic flow
1573:eruptive columns
1510:Pyroclastic flow
1436:Papua New Guinea
1368:Papua New Guinea
1322:eruptive columns
1310:vesiculate gases
1157:eruptive columns
1099:eruptive columns
697:eruption columns
692:to catastrophic
650:
553:Mount St. Helens
524:Eyjafjallajökull
381:Eruptive volume
372:
368:
324:
300:dispersive power
163:Pelean eruptions
21:
7313:
7312:
7308:
7307:
7306:
7304:
7303:
7302:
7283:
7282:
7281:
7276:
7244:
7230:Partial melting
7187:
7160:
7155:
7125:
7120:
7064:
7006:
6972:Tephriphonolite
6848:
6839:
6835:Harmonic tremor
6737:Complex volcano
6715:
6710:
6680:
6675:
6625:
6592:
6556:Cyclonic storms
6551:
6533:
6491:
6487:Limnic eruption
6463:
6437:
6418:
6406:Natural erosion
6400:
6370:
6344:
6336:
6294:
6285:
6255:
6250:
6209:
6191:
6169:Phreatomagmatic
6163:
6125:
6120:
6043:
6038:
5956:
5871:
5863:. p. 258.
5848:
5846:Further reading
5843:
5833:
5831:
5821:
5817:
5766:
5762:
5752:
5750:
5740:
5736:
5726:
5724:
5723:. Volcano World
5719:
5718:
5711:
5701:
5699:
5689:
5678:
5668:
5666:
5657:
5656:
5649:
5639:
5637:
5617:. Solid Earth.
5605:
5596:
5586:
5584:
5579:
5578:
5574:
5564:
5562:
5547:
5546:
5542:
5532:
5530:
5529:on 15 July 2010
5513:
5512:
5508:
5498:
5496:
5483:Alden, Andrew.
5481:
5477:
5467:
5465:
5453:
5446:
5436:
5434:
5421:
5420:
5407:
5397:
5395:
5394:on 13 June 2010
5391:
5366:
5360:
5356:
5346:
5344:
5343:on 13 June 2010
5340:
5319:
5313:
5304:
5294:
5292:
5278:
5271:
5261:
5259:
5240:
5239:
5235:
5228:
5220:. p. 264.
5208:
5204:
5194:
5192:
5175:
5174:
5167:
5157:
5155:
5154:on 3 March 2001
5142:
5141:
5124:
5087:
5080:
5037:
5033:
4970:
4966:
4956:
4954:
4940:
4936:
4926:
4924:
4911:
4910:
4906:
4866:
4859:
4855:
4845:
4843:
4833:
4826:
4771:
4767:
4757:
4755:
4742:
4741:
4734:
4724:
4722:
4709:
4708:
4689:
4662:
4658:
4607:
4603:
4593:
4591:
4572:
4571:
4567:
4557:
4555:
4541:
4540:
4536:
4526:
4524:
4523:on 3 March 2001
4511:
4510:
4506:
4473:
4469:
4459:
4457:
4447:
4443:
4436:
4416:
4412:
4402:
4400:
4388:
4379:
4369:
4367:
4365:
4349:
4345:
4335:
4333:
4301:
4297:
4244:
4240:
4230:
4228:
4215:
4214:
4210:
4200:
4198:
4197:on 28 June 2017
4185:
4184:
4180:
4170:
4168:
4156:
4152:
4142:
4140:
4139:on 6 March 2001
4127:
4126:
4111:
4101:
4099:
4098:on 23 July 2004
4080:
4079:
4075:
4048:
4044:
3993:
3989:
3984:
3980:
3970:
3968:
3949:
3948:
3944:
3934:
3932:
3921:
3917:
3907:
3905:
3894:
3890:
3847:
3843:
3833:
3831:
3819:
3810:
3753:
3749:
3739:
3737:
3729:
3728:
3711:
3669:
3665:
3655:
3653:
3640:
3639:
3635:
3620:
3604:
3600:
3593:
3579:
3575:
3568:
3554:
3550:
3540:
3538:
3530:
3529:
3520:
3489:
3485:
3448:(7460): 68â72.
3438:
3434:
3424:
3422:
3421:on 3 March 2001
3409:
3408:
3391:
3381:
3379:
3360:
3359:
3350:
3340:
3338:
3329:
3328:
3324:
3317:
3303:
3290:
3286:
3252:
3245:
3242:
3201:SoufriĂšre Hills
3195:Lesser Antilles
3122:volcanic blocks
3050:
3044:
3019:As part of the
2743:A diagram of a
2737:
2731:
2532:
2526:
2519:
2508:
2499:
2489:
2378:steam explosion
2318:eruption column
2278:oceanic islands
2190:
2184:
2141:
2135:
2133:Phreatomagmatic
2114:
2110:
1956:Nevado del Ruiz
1926:silicon dioxide
1907:stratovolcanoes
1888:Kenai Peninsula
1884:Redoubt Volcano
1880:eruptive column
1838:eruptive column
1748:
1742:
1735:
1729:
1720:
1717:Mount Lamington
1714:
1705:
1695:
1686:
1675:
1490:Peléan eruption
1482:
1480:Peléan eruption
1476:
1376:volcanic blocks
1231:
1225:
996:
990:
814:gaseous content
719:
713:
665:
654:
652:
606:500â1000 years
494:Nevado del Ruiz
388:
343:
337:
331:
326:
319:
237:
191:
58:eruption column
45:
34:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7311:
7301:
7300:
7295:
7278:
7277:
7275:
7274:
7269:
7263:
7258:
7252:
7250:
7246:
7245:
7243:
7242:
7237:
7232:
7227:
7222:
7216:
7214:Magma mingling
7211:
7206:
7201:
7195:
7193:
7189:
7188:
7186:
7185:
7179:
7174:
7168:
7166:
7162:
7161:
7154:
7153:
7146:
7139:
7131:
7122:
7121:
7119:
7118:
7106:
7094:
7082:
7069:
7066:
7065:
7063:
7062:
7061:
7060:
7055:
7048:Volcanic field
7045:
7040:
7035:
7030:
7025:
7020:
7014:
7012:
7008:
7007:
7005:
7004:
6999:
6994:
6989:
6984:
6979:
6977:Trachyandesite
6974:
6969:
6964:
6959:
6954:
6949:
6944:
6939:
6934:
6929:
6924:
6919:
6914:
6909:
6904:
6899:
6894:
6889:
6884:
6879:
6874:
6869:
6864:
6858:
6856:
6854:Volcanic rocks
6850:
6849:
6842:
6840:
6838:
6837:
6832:
6827:
6822:
6817:
6812:
6807:
6802:
6797:
6795:Shield volcano
6792:
6787:
6782:
6777:
6775:Parasitic cone
6772:
6767:
6762:
6757:
6754:
6749:
6744:
6739:
6734:
6729:
6723:
6721:
6717:
6716:
6709:
6708:
6701:
6694:
6686:
6677:
6676:
6674:
6673:
6668:
6663:
6658:
6653:
6648:
6643:
6637:
6635:
6631:
6630:
6627:
6626:
6624:
6623:
6618:
6617:
6616:
6606:
6600:
6598:
6594:
6593:
6591:
6590:
6585:
6575:
6565:
6559:
6557:
6553:
6552:
6550:
6549:
6543:
6541:
6535:
6534:
6532:
6531:
6526:
6521:
6516:
6510:
6508:
6501:
6500:Meteorological
6497:
6496:
6493:
6492:
6490:
6489:
6484:
6483:
6482:
6471:
6469:
6465:
6464:
6462:
6461:
6456:
6451:
6445:
6443:
6428:
6424:
6423:
6420:
6419:
6417:
6416:
6410:
6408:
6402:
6401:
6399:
6398:
6393:
6392:
6391:
6380:
6378:
6372:
6371:
6369:
6368:
6363:
6358:
6356:Seismic hazard
6352:
6350:
6338:
6337:
6335:
6334:
6329:
6324:
6319:
6313:
6311:
6302:
6296:
6295:
6284:
6283:
6276:
6269:
6261:
6252:
6251:
6249:
6248:
6243:
6238:
6233:
6228:
6223:
6217:
6215:
6211:
6210:
6208:
6207:
6201:
6199:
6193:
6192:
6190:
6189:
6184:
6179:
6173:
6171:
6165:
6164:
6162:
6161:
6156:
6151:
6146:
6141:
6135:
6133:
6127:
6126:
6119:
6118:
6111:
6104:
6096:
6090:
6089:
6084:
6074:
6068:
6058:
6042:
6041:External links
6039:
6037:
6036:
6005:(9): 560â570.
5989:
5949:
5910:
5875:
5870:978-0520052413
5869:
5849:
5847:
5844:
5842:
5841:
5815:
5780:(2): 196â203.
5760:
5734:
5709:
5676:
5665:. 17 July 2008
5647:
5594:
5572:
5540:
5506:
5475:
5444:
5405:
5354:
5302:
5269:
5233:
5227:978-0195217544
5226:
5202:
5165:
5122:
5078:
5031:
4964:
4934:
4904:
4864:
4853:
4841:Universe Today
4824:
4765:
4732:
4687:
4656:
4601:
4565:
4534:
4504:
4467:
4441:
4435:978-0495316671
4434:
4410:
4397:Universe Today
4377:
4364:978-0520947931
4363:
4343:
4295:
4238:
4227:on 27 May 2010
4208:
4178:
4165:Universe Today
4150:
4109:
4073:
4042:
3987:
3978:
3967:on 8 July 2006
3942:
3915:
3888:
3861:(2): 225â245.
3841:
3828:Universe Today
3808:
3747:
3709:
3663:
3633:
3619:978-0128096642
3618:
3598:
3592:978-1473601703
3591:
3573:
3567:978-1444332605
3566:
3548:
3518:
3483:
3432:
3389:
3348:
3337:. 12 July 2017
3322:
3315:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3281:
3280:
3275:
3269:
3264:
3258:
3257:
3241:
3238:
3237:
3236:
3230:
3220:
3214:
3208:
3198:
3184:
3174:
3149:volcanic block
3118:volcanic bombs
3046:Main article:
3043:
3040:
3039:
3038:
3037:
3036:
3025:
3024:
3017:
2996:
2970:
2887:Hjorleifshofdi
2733:Main article:
2730:
2727:
2723:Axial Seamount
2715:Bowie Seamount
2696:Volcaniclastic
2657:acoustic waves
2528:Main article:
2525:
2522:
2521:
2520:
2512:Mount Tarawera
2509:
2502:
2500:
2490:
2483:
2480:
2479:
2462:
2432:
2421:Mount Tarawera
2418:
2400:
2396:Atlantic Ocean
2373:Littoral cones
2361:fracture zones
2206:Compressed ash
2186:Main article:
2183:
2180:
2137:Main article:
2134:
2131:
2123:
2122:
2104:
2101:sulfur dioxide
2078:
2056:
2049:
2030:
2003:Mount Vesuvius
1999:AD 79 eruption
1982:, fast moving
1934:lava fountains
1922:differentiates
1878:21 April 1990
1744:Main article:
1741:
1738:
1737:
1736:
1733:Mount Sinabung
1730:
1723:
1721:
1715:
1708:
1706:
1696:
1689:
1687:
1676:
1669:
1666:
1665:
1662:Mount Sinabung
1659:
1652:
1634:
1478:Main article:
1475:
1472:
1464:
1463:
1457:
1443:
1440:Rabaul Caldera
1429:
1408:meteoric water
1341:volcanic bombs
1227:Main article:
1224:
1221:
1220:
1219:
1212:
1205:Mount Batutara
1202:
1192:
1182:
1130:volcanic bombs
992:Main article:
989:
986:
985:
984:
978:
968:
955:
833:lava fountains
818:shield volcano
715:Main article:
712:
709:
686:lava fountains
664:
661:
658:
657:
647:
646:
636:
635:50,000+ years
633:
628:
625:
622:
618:
617:
607:
604:
603:Ultra-Plinian
601:
598:
595:
591:
590:
583:Mount Pinatubo
580:
577:
571:
568:
565:
561:
560:
550:
547:
542:
539:
536:
532:
531:
521:
518:
512:
509:
506:
502:
501:
491:
488:
485:
482:
479:
475:
474:
468:
465:
459:
456:
453:
449:
448:
443:
440:
434:
431:
428:
424:
423:
418:
415:
410:
407:
404:
400:
399:
396:
390:
389:eruption type
385:
379:
376:
333:Main article:
330:
327:
316:
315:
309:
303:
297:
291:
280:
241:lava fountains
236:
233:
221:
220:
217:
214:
190:
187:
165:, followed by
153:, followed by
139:
138:
132:
110:
88:volcanologists
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7310:
7299:
7296:
7294:
7291:
7290:
7288:
7273:
7270:
7267:
7264:
7262:
7259:
7257:
7254:
7253:
7251:
7247:
7241:
7238:
7236:
7233:
7231:
7228:
7226:
7223:
7220:
7217:
7215:
7212:
7210:
7207:
7205:
7202:
7200:
7197:
7196:
7194:
7190:
7184:
7180:
7178:
7175:
7173:
7170:
7169:
7167:
7163:
7159:
7152:
7147:
7145:
7140:
7138:
7133:
7132:
7129:
7117:
7116:
7107:
7105:
7104:
7099:
7095:
7093:
7092:
7083:
7081:
7080:
7071:
7070:
7067:
7059:
7056:
7054:
7051:
7050:
7049:
7046:
7044:
7043:Volcanic belt
7041:
7039:
7036:
7034:
7031:
7029:
7026:
7024:
7021:
7019:
7016:
7015:
7013:
7009:
7003:
7000:
6998:
6995:
6993:
6990:
6988:
6985:
6983:
6980:
6978:
6975:
6973:
6970:
6968:
6965:
6963:
6960:
6958:
6955:
6953:
6950:
6948:
6947:Phonotephrite
6945:
6943:
6940:
6938:
6935:
6933:
6930:
6928:
6925:
6923:
6920:
6918:
6915:
6913:
6910:
6908:
6905:
6903:
6900:
6898:
6895:
6893:
6890:
6888:
6885:
6883:
6880:
6878:
6875:
6873:
6870:
6868:
6865:
6863:
6860:
6859:
6857:
6855:
6851:
6846:
6836:
6833:
6831:
6830:Volcanic cone
6828:
6826:
6823:
6821:
6818:
6816:
6813:
6811:
6808:
6806:
6805:Stratovolcano
6803:
6801:
6800:Somma volcano
6798:
6796:
6793:
6791:
6790:Rootless cone
6788:
6786:
6783:
6781:
6778:
6776:
6773:
6771:
6768:
6766:
6763:
6761:
6758:
6755:
6753:
6750:
6748:
6745:
6743:
6740:
6738:
6735:
6733:
6730:
6728:
6725:
6724:
6722:
6718:
6714:
6707:
6702:
6700:
6695:
6693:
6688:
6687:
6684:
6672:
6669:
6667:
6664:
6662:
6659:
6657:
6654:
6652:
6651:Meteor shower
6649:
6647:
6644:
6642:
6639:
6638:
6636:
6632:
6622:
6619:
6615:
6612:
6611:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6602:
6601:
6599:
6595:
6589:
6586:
6583:
6579:
6576:
6573:
6569:
6566:
6564:
6561:
6560:
6558:
6554:
6548:
6545:
6544:
6542:
6540:
6536:
6530:
6527:
6525:
6522:
6520:
6517:
6515:
6512:
6511:
6509:
6505:
6502:
6498:
6488:
6485:
6481:
6478:
6477:
6476:
6473:
6472:
6470:
6466:
6460:
6457:
6455:
6452:
6450:
6449:Coastal flood
6447:
6446:
6444:
6441:
6436:
6432:
6429:
6425:
6415:
6412:
6411:
6409:
6407:
6403:
6397:
6394:
6390:
6387:
6386:
6385:
6382:
6381:
6379:
6377:
6373:
6367:
6364:
6362:
6359:
6357:
6354:
6353:
6351:
6348:
6343:
6339:
6333:
6330:
6328:
6325:
6323:
6320:
6318:
6315:
6314:
6312:
6310:
6306:
6303:
6301:
6297:
6293:
6289:
6282:
6277:
6275:
6270:
6268:
6263:
6262:
6259:
6247:
6244:
6242:
6239:
6237:
6234:
6232:
6229:
6227:
6224:
6222:
6219:
6218:
6216:
6212:
6206:
6203:
6202:
6200:
6198:
6194:
6188:
6185:
6183:
6180:
6178:
6175:
6174:
6172:
6170:
6166:
6160:
6157:
6155:
6152:
6150:
6147:
6145:
6142:
6140:
6137:
6136:
6134:
6132:
6128:
6124:
6117:
6112:
6110:
6105:
6103:
6098:
6097:
6094:
6088:
6085:
6082:
6078:
6075:
6072:
6069:
6066:
6062:
6059:
6056:
6052:
6048:
6045:
6044:
6034:
6030:
6026:
6020:
6016:
6012:
6008:
6004:
6000:
5999:
5994:
5990:
5985:
5980:
5976:
5972:
5969:(B10): 2504.
5968:
5964:
5963:
5955:
5950:
5946:
5942:
5938:
5934:
5930:
5926:
5922:
5918:
5917:
5911:
5907:
5903:
5899:
5895:
5891:
5887:
5886:
5881:
5876:
5872:
5866:
5862:
5858:
5857:
5851:
5850:
5830:
5826:
5819:
5811:
5807:
5803:
5799:
5795:
5791:
5787:
5783:
5779:
5775:
5771:
5764:
5749:
5745:
5738:
5722:
5716:
5714:
5698:
5694:
5687:
5685:
5683:
5681:
5664:
5660:
5654:
5652:
5636:
5632:
5628:
5624:
5620:
5616:
5615:
5610:
5603:
5601:
5599:
5582:
5576:
5560:
5556:
5555:
5550:
5544:
5528:
5524:
5520:
5519:Volcano World
5516:
5510:
5494:
5490:
5486:
5479:
5464:
5463:
5458:
5451:
5449:
5432:
5428:
5424:
5418:
5416:
5414:
5412:
5410:
5390:
5386:
5382:
5378:
5374:
5373:
5365:
5358:
5339:
5335:
5331:
5327:
5326:
5318:
5311:
5309:
5307:
5291:
5287:
5286:Vents Program
5283:
5276:
5274:
5257:
5253:
5249:
5248:
5243:
5237:
5229:
5223:
5219:
5215:
5214:
5206:
5190:
5186:
5182:
5181:Lecture Notes
5178:
5172:
5170:
5153:
5149:
5145:
5139:
5137:
5135:
5133:
5131:
5129:
5127:
5118:
5114:
5110:
5106:
5102:
5098:
5097:
5092:
5085:
5083:
5074:
5070:
5066:
5062:
5058:
5054:
5050:
5046:
5042:
5035:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5010:
5005:
5000:
4995:
4991:
4987:
4983:
4979:
4975:
4968:
4953:
4949:
4945:
4938:
4922:
4918:
4914:
4908:
4900:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4857:
4842:
4838:
4831:
4829:
4820:
4816:
4811:
4806:
4801:
4796:
4792:
4788:
4784:
4780:
4776:
4769:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4739:
4737:
4720:
4716:
4712:
4706:
4704:
4702:
4700:
4698:
4696:
4694:
4692:
4683:
4679:
4676:: V23Dâ0108.
4675:
4671:
4667:
4660:
4652:
4648:
4644:
4640:
4636:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4605:
4589:
4585:
4581:
4580:
4575:
4569:
4554:
4550:
4549:
4544:
4538:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4508:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4479:
4471:
4456:
4452:
4445:
4437:
4431:
4427:
4423:
4422:
4414:
4399:
4398:
4393:
4386:
4384:
4382:
4366:
4360:
4356:
4355:
4347:
4331:
4326:
4322:
4318:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4299:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4265:
4261:
4258:(1): 012017.
4257:
4253:
4249:
4242:
4226:
4222:
4218:
4212:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4182:
4167:
4166:
4161:
4154:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4124:
4122:
4120:
4118:
4116:
4114:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4088:
4083:
4077:
4069:
4065:
4062:: V51Dâ3058.
4061:
4057:
4053:
4046:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3998:
3991:
3982:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3957:
3952:
3946:
3931:. Volcanolive
3930:
3926:
3923:Seach, John.
3919:
3904:. Volcanolive
3903:
3902:Old eruptions
3899:
3896:Seach, John.
3892:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3845:
3830:
3829:
3824:
3817:
3815:
3813:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3759:
3751:
3736:
3732:
3726:
3724:
3722:
3720:
3718:
3716:
3714:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3667:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3637:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3615:
3611:
3610:
3602:
3594:
3588:
3584:
3577:
3569:
3563:
3559:
3552:
3537:
3533:
3527:
3525:
3523:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3487:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3436:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3406:
3404:
3402:
3400:
3398:
3396:
3394:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3368:
3363:
3357:
3355:
3353:
3336:
3332:
3326:
3318:
3312:
3308:
3301:
3299:
3297:
3295:
3293:
3288:
3279:
3276:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3259:
3255:
3249:
3244:
3234:
3233:Mount Kerinci
3231:
3228:
3227:2014 eruption
3224:
3221:
3218:
3217:Mount Bulusan
3215:
3212:
3209:
3206:
3202:
3199:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3185:
3182:
3178:
3175:
3172:
3168:
3167:1980 eruption
3164:
3161:
3160:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3125:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3091:
3090:Magma chamber
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3068:3. Layers of
3067:
3066:Magma conduit
3063:
3059:
3056:Diagram of a
3054:
3049:
3034:
3029:
3028:
3027:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3015:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2997:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2979:
2975:
2972:In 2008, the
2971:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2957:
2956:
2955:
2953:
2949:
2948:South America
2945:
2944:Cascade Range
2941:
2937:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2912:
2908:
2905:and parts of
2904:
2900:
2896:
2890:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2871:hyaloclastite
2868:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2832:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2781:Magma chamber
2778:
2777:Magma conduit
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2759:4. Layers of
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2726:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2703:water erosion
2700:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2684:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2673:North Pacific
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2641:
2639:
2635:
2634:calc-alkaline
2631:
2627:
2626:melting point
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2598:
2596:
2591:
2589:
2585:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2564:Magma chamber
2561:
2560:Magma conduit
2557:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2538:Diagram of a
2536:
2531:
2517:
2516:fracture zone
2513:
2506:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2487:
2482:
2481:
2477:
2474:
2470:
2467:
2463:
2460:
2459:Great Britain
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2433:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2419:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2403:Ukinrek maars
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2386:
2385:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2351:
2347:
2342:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2306:
2304:
2300:
2297:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2283:
2279:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2234:Magma chamber
2231:
2230:Magma conduit
2227:
2223:
2219:
2216:5. Layers of
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2196:Diagram of a
2194:
2189:
2179:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2164:
2162:
2159:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2140:
2127:
2120:
2108:
2105:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2079:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2057:
2054:
2050:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2034:1980 eruption
2031:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1995:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1964:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1942:
1937:
1935:
1929:
1927:
1923:
1920:
1919:magma chamber
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1893:These highly
1889:
1885:
1881:
1876:
1872:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1849:gas expansion
1846:
1841:
1839:
1835:
1834:magma conduit
1831:
1827:
1824:
1821:
1817:
1816:magma chamber
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1789:
1785:
1784:Magma chamber
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1764:Magma conduit
1761:
1757:
1754:Diagram of a
1752:
1747:
1734:
1727:
1722:
1718:
1712:
1707:
1704:
1700:
1693:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1679:Mayon Volcano
1673:
1668:
1667:
1663:
1660:
1657:
1653:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1637:Mayon Volcano
1635:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1621:
1620:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1608:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1530:Magma chamber
1527:
1526:Magma conduit
1523:
1519:
1515:
1512:6. Layers of
1511:
1507:
1506:Volcanic bomb
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1471:
1469:
1461:
1460:Anak Krakatoa
1458:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1446:IrazĂș Volcano
1444:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1423:
1420:
1419:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1412:hydrovolcanic
1409:
1405:
1404:fragmentation
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1355:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1337:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1283:Magma chamber
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1265:7. Layers of
1264:
1260:
1259:Volcanic bomb
1256:
1252:
1251:Lava fountain
1248:
1244:
1240:
1237:Diagram of a
1235:
1230:
1216:
1213:
1210:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1176:
1173:
1172:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1149:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1123:
1118:
1114:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1095:
1093:
1089:
1088:gas pressures
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1052:Magma chamber
1049:
1048:Magma conduit
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1030:7. Layers of
1029:
1025:
1024:Volcanic bomb
1021:
1020:Lava fountain
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1002:Diagram of a
1000:
995:
982:
979:
976:
972:
969:
966:
965:
960:
956:
953:
952:fissure-based
949:
945:
941:
938:
935:PuÊ»u Ê»ĆÊ»Ć, a
934:
933:
932:
929:
927:
922:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
899:
897:
893:
888:
884:
877:
873:
869:
864:
860:
858:
854:
850:
846:
845:spatter cones
842:
838:
834:
830:
825:
823:
822:fissure vents
819:
815:
811:
807:
804:
800:
796:
792:
784:
780:
776:
775:Magma chamber
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
753:7. Layers of
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
735:Lava fountain
732:
728:
725:Diagram of a
723:
718:
708:
706:
702:
698:
695:
694:Ultra-Plinian
691:
687:
683:
682:decompression
680:
676:
673:
669:
648:
644:
640:
637:
634:
632:
631:Supervolcanic
629:
626:
623:
620:
619:
615:
611:
608:
605:
602:
599:
596:
593:
592:
588:
584:
581:
579:50â100 years
578:
576:
575:Ultra-Plinian
572:
569:
566:
563:
562:
558:
554:
551:
548:
546:
543:
540:
537:
534:
533:
529:
525:
522:
519:
517:
513:
510:
507:
504:
503:
499:
495:
492:
489:
486:
483:
480:
477:
476:
472:
469:
466:
464:
460:
457:
454:
451:
450:
447:
444:
441:
439:
435:
432:
429:
426:
425:
422:
419:
416:
414:
411:
408:
405:
402:
401:
397:
395:
391:
386:
384:
380:
378:Plume height
377:
374:
373:
367:
365:
361:
357:
356:Richter scale
353:
349:
342:
336:
325:
322:
313:
310:
307:
304:
301:
298:
295:
292:
289:
286:
285:
284:
279:
277:
273:
272:IrazĂș Volcano
269:
265:
264:magma chamber
261:
257:
253:
249:
246:
242:
232:
230:
226:
218:
215:
212:
211:
210:
204:
200:
195:
186:
184:
180:
176:
172:
171:Ultra-Plinian
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
136:
133:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
111:
108:
104:
101:
100:
99:
96:
93:
89:
85:
81:
80:volcanic vent
77:
70:
66:
63:
59:
56:
51:
47:
43:
39:
32:
27:
19:
7298:Weather lore
7256:Igneous rock
7240:Flux melting
7209:Magma mixing
7204:Assimilation
7172:Liquid phase
7113:
7101:
7089:
7077:
7038:Volcanic arc
6982:Trachybasalt
6820:Supervolcano
6752:Fissure vent
6646:Impact event
6634:Astronomical
6568:Thunderstorm
6563:Bomb cyclone
6427:Hydrological
6396:Volcanic ash
6375:
6361:Seismic risk
6309:Mass wasting
6122:
6002:
5996:
5966:
5960:
5920:
5914:
5889:
5883:
5856:Volcanic Ash
5855:
5832:. Retrieved
5828:
5818:
5777:
5773:
5763:
5751:. Retrieved
5747:
5737:
5725:. Retrieved
5700:. Retrieved
5667:. Retrieved
5638:. Retrieved
5618:
5612:
5585:. Retrieved
5575:
5563:. Retrieved
5552:
5543:
5531:. Retrieved
5527:the original
5518:
5509:
5497:. Retrieved
5493:the original
5478:
5466:. Retrieved
5460:
5437:13 September
5435:. Retrieved
5396:. Retrieved
5389:the original
5376:
5372:Oceanography
5370:
5357:
5345:. Retrieved
5338:the original
5329:
5325:Oceanography
5323:
5293:. Retrieved
5285:
5260:. Retrieved
5256:the original
5245:
5236:
5212:
5205:
5193:. Retrieved
5189:the original
5180:
5156:. Retrieved
5152:the original
5100:
5094:
5048:
5044:
5034:
4981:
4977:
4967:
4955:. Retrieved
4947:
4937:
4925:. Retrieved
4921:the original
4907:
4874:
4870:
4856:
4844:. Retrieved
4840:
4810:11581/457982
4782:
4778:
4768:
4756:. Retrieved
4752:the original
4723:. Retrieved
4719:the original
4673:
4669:
4659:
4618:
4614:
4604:
4592:. Retrieved
4588:the original
4577:
4568:
4556:. Retrieved
4546:
4537:
4525:. Retrieved
4521:the original
4507:
4482:
4476:
4470:
4458:. Retrieved
4444:
4420:
4413:
4401:. Retrieved
4395:
4368:. Retrieved
4353:
4346:
4334:. Retrieved
4312:
4308:
4298:
4255:
4251:
4241:
4229:. Retrieved
4225:the original
4211:
4199:. Retrieved
4195:the original
4181:
4169:. Retrieved
4163:
4153:
4141:. Retrieved
4137:the original
4100:. Retrieved
4096:the original
4085:
4076:
4059:
4055:
4045:
4004:
4000:
3990:
3981:
3969:. Retrieved
3965:the original
3954:
3945:
3933:. Retrieved
3928:
3918:
3906:. Retrieved
3901:
3891:
3858:
3854:
3844:
3832:. Retrieved
3826:
3762:
3756:
3750:
3738:. Retrieved
3704:
3676:
3672:
3666:
3654:. Retrieved
3650:the original
3636:
3608:
3601:
3582:
3576:
3557:
3551:
3539:. Retrieved
3499:(1): 69â94.
3496:
3492:
3486:
3445:
3441:
3435:
3423:. Retrieved
3419:the original
3380:. Retrieved
3376:the original
3365:
3339:. Retrieved
3325:
3307:Volcanic ash
3306:
3223:Mount Ontake
3211:PoĂĄs Volcano
3187:La SoufriĂšre
3177:Taal Volcano
3157:
3126:
3095:
3031:
2961:in tropical
2933:
2911:deglaciation
2891:
2889:in Iceland.
2833:
2794:
2685:
2665:seismometers
2642:
2599:
2592:
2581:
2409:, 1977, and
2399:Strombolian.
2382:
2348:, broad low-
2343:
2313:
2307:
2247:
2176:surface area
2172:stress waves
2165:
2142:
2089:15 June 1991
1992:
1968:
1938:
1930:
1892:
1865:stratosphere
1861:volcanic ash
1842:
1793:
1768:Volcanic ash
1617:
1612:incandescent
1609:
1583:(known as a
1546:nuée ardente
1543:
1498:Volcanic ash
1465:
1416:
1392:fine-grained
1373:
1338:
1332:rather than
1314:gas pressure
1295:
1255:Volcanic ash
1195:Mount Erebus
1169:
1161:Pele's tears
1150:
1138:cinder cones
1127:
1096:
1080:air pressure
1065:
1016:Volcanic ash
981:Mount Mihara
962:
930:
923:
907:Pele's tears
900:
880:
829:fissure vent
826:
788:
773:conduit 11.
703:that buried
666:
549:10â15 years
467:Fortnightly
461:Strombolian/
344:
323:, Quoted
318:
311:
305:
299:
293:
287:
282:
238:
222:
208:
140:
117:superheating
97:
75:
73:
46:
26:
7115:WikiProject
7058:polygenetic
7053:monogenetic
6932:Nephelinite
6887:Blairmorite
6862:Agglomerate
6770:Mud volcano
6742:Cryovolcano
6732:Cinder cone
6661:Solar flare
6547:Megadrought
6507:Temperature
6480:Megatsunami
6459:Storm surge
6454:Flash flood
6332:Debris flow
6154:Strombolian
5923:(1): 1â15.
5834:28 November
5051:: 112â116.
5009:2433/241765
4670:ADS Harvard
4370:13 December
4336:28 November
4082:"Stromboli"
4056:ADS Harvard
3341:12 December
3203:volcano on
3183:, 1965 2020
3181:Philippines
3137:base surges
3082:Water table
3060:. (key: 1.
3011:Vatnajökull
2991:, close to
2860:pillow lava
2821:jökulhlaups
2773:Pillow lava
2753:Crater lake
2747:. (key: 1.
2688:pillow lava
2572:Pillow lava
2542:. (key: 1.
2469:Hunga Tonga
2447:sovereignty
2435:Ferdinandea
2425:New Zealand
2202:Water vapor
2200:. (key: 1.
2085:Philippines
2015:Herculaneum
2005:buried the
1988:river rapid
1965:in Colombia
1952:Lahar flows
1808:Herculaneum
1758:. (key: 1.
1703:Mount Pelée
1683:Philippines
1641:Philippines
1623:Mount Pelée
1550:Mount Pelée
1492:. (key: 1.
1488:Diagram of
1470:eruptions.
1354:pyroclastic
1318:crystalline
1241:. (key: 1.
1218:millennium.
1165:Pele's hair
1084:soap bubble
1006:. (key: 1.
988:Strombolian
942:located on
940:cinder cone
915:Pele's hair
729:. (key: 1.
438:Strombolian
417:Continuous
364:logarithmic
360:earthquakes
151:Strombolian
129:granulation
7287:Categories
7225:Outgassing
7219:Exsolution
6957:Rhyodacite
6907:Ignimbrite
6882:Benmoreite
6342:Earthquake
6300:Geological
6177:Subglacial
5753:12 January
4785:: 106761.
4315:(1): 149.
4007:: 107199.
3316:0520052412
3284:References
3205:Montserrat
3191:Guadeloupe
3145:avalanches
3129:earthquake
3102:superheats
2978:Antarctica
2921:HerĂ°ubreiĂ°
2899:landslides
2848:Tuya Butte
2729:Subglacial
2681:submarines
2653:hydrophone
2411:Capelinhos
2365:rift zones
2357:tuff rings
2314:base surge
2296:palagonite
2042:Washington
1853:convection
1845:atmosphere
1830:vesiculate
1699:lava spine
1631:St. Pierre
1627:Martinique
1601:St. Pierre
1593:landslides
1577:lava spine
1569:lava domes
1554:Martinique
1450:Costa Rica
1422:Sakurajima
1396:vesiculate
1199:Antarctica
1185:Mount Etna
1142:pyroclasts
971:Mount Etna
926:Mount Etna
919:reticulite
870:lava from
857:lava lakes
793:, such as
520:18 months
514:Vulcanian/
487:Vulcanian
392:Frequency
339:See also:
260:rift zones
248:lava flows
189:Mechanisms
175:Subglacial
7272:Volcanism
7268:anomalies
7192:Processes
6942:Phonolite
6927:Leucitite
6912:Komatiite
6760:Lava dome
6756:Lava cone
6713:Volcanoes
6671:Hypernova
6666:Supernova
6614:Firestorm
6529:Heat wave
6524:Ice storm
6519:Cold wave
6322:Avalanche
6317:Landslide
6246:Subaerial
6226:Explosive
6187:Surtseyan
6182:Submarine
6159:Vulcanian
5945:140635312
5810:134669773
5802:1875-371X
5489:about.com
5385:1042-8275
5073:0012-821X
5026:133325566
5018:0377-0273
4984:: 24â41.
4899:0009-2541
4877:: 17â36.
4819:214320363
4651:131937113
4643:1420-9136
4290:251950924
4282:1755-1315
4037:233912175
4029:0377-0273
3883:0377-0273
3787:1095-9203
3701:129813334
3628:951031503
3153:toxic gas
3086:Explosion
3007:volcanoes
2981:ice sheet
2959:Mauna Kea
2817:meltwater
2807:and high
2669:magnitude
2622:volatiles
2620:that add
2595:seamounts
2556:Lava flow
2524:Submarine
2496:tuff ring
2429:rift zone
2335:ballistic
2331:bomb sags
2303:andesitic
2204:cloud 2.
2182:Surtseyan
2113:10 to 5.7
2075:extrusion
2053:Lake Toba
2009:towns of
1960:destroyed
1903:rhyolitic
1820:dissolved
1802:towns of
1760:Ash plume
1502:Lava dome
1494:Ash plume
1349:lava dome
1326:andesitic
1263:Lava flow
1243:Ash plume
1223:Vulcanian
1215:Stromboli
1209:Indonesia
1175:ParĂcutin
1122:Stromboli
1103:viscosity
1076:gas slugs
1068:Stromboli
1028:Lava flow
1008:Ash plume
937:parasitic
892:viscosity
849:PuÊ»u Ê»ĆÊ»Ć
812:with low
795:Mauna Loa
751:Lava flow
747:Fumaroles
743:Lava lake
731:Ash plume
679:explosive
643:74 k.y.a.
639:Lake Toba
490:3 months
463:Vulcanian
446:Stromboli
436:Hawaiian/
294:intensity
288:magnitude
159:Surtseyan
155:Vulcanian
147:submarine
92:volcanoes
18:Eruptions
7221:of gases
7079:Category
6987:Trachyte
6962:Rhyolite
6937:Obsidian
6867:Andesite
6621:ARkStorm
6609:Wildfire
6514:Blizzard
6414:Sinkhole
6221:Effusive
6205:Phreatic
6197:Phreatic
6139:Hawaiian
6131:Magmatic
5727:6 August
5702:7 August
5669:6 August
5640:7 August
5587:5 August
5565:5 August
5533:5 August
5499:5 August
5468:5 August
5462:BBC News
5431:Archived
5347:4 August
5295:5 August
5262:5 August
5195:5 August
5158:4 August
4957:3 August
4927:3 August
4846:3 August
4758:3 August
4725:3 August
4594:2 August
4558:2 August
4527:1 August
4460:2 August
4403:2 August
4231:1 August
4201:1 August
4171:1 August
4143:1 August
3951:"Erebus"
3803:23123305
3795:17626881
3656:2 August
3541:3 August
3470:23903749
3425:2 August
3382:3 August
3240:See also
3106:explodes
3042:Phreatic
3003:glaciers
2879:effusive
2809:altitude
2805:latitude
2630:basaltic
2588:deep sea
2518:eruption
2439:seamount
2322:vaporous
2301:(though
2293:oxidized
2275:volcanic
2097:megatons
2081:Pinatubo
2067:basaltic
2048:(VEI) 5.
1984:mudflows
1978:to form
1915:basaltic
1823:volatile
1818:, where
1649:mudflows
1566:andesite
1558:rhyolite
1500:rain 3.
1468:Holocene
1432:Tavurvur
1370:erupting
1364:Tavurvur
1334:basaltic
1257:rain 5.
1107:basaltic
1018:rain 4.
883:Pahoehoe
868:pahoehoe
801:of very
711:Hawaiian
672:juvenile
668:Magmatic
663:Magmatic
573:Plinian/
413:Hawaiian
398:Example
306:violence
143:Hawaiian
74:Several
65:pahoehoe
62:Hawaiian
7091:Commons
7018:Hotspot
6917:Lapilli
6902:Felsite
6727:Caldera
6604:Derecho
6578:Tornado
6539:Drought
6475:Tsunami
6327:Mudflow
6236:Lateral
6149:Plinian
6007:Bibcode
5971:Bibcode
5925:Bibcode
5894:Bibcode
5782:Bibcode
5623:Bibcode
5398:25 June
5105:Bibcode
5053:Bibcode
4986:Bibcode
4879:Bibcode
4787:Bibcode
4678:Bibcode
4623:Bibcode
4543:"Mayon"
4487:Bibcode
4317:Bibcode
4260:Bibcode
4102:31 July
4064:Bibcode
4009:Bibcode
3971:31 July
3935:30 July
3908:30 July
3863:Bibcode
3834:30 July
3767:Bibcode
3758:Science
3740:29 July
3681:Bibcode
3501:Bibcode
3478:4425354
3450:Bibcode
3171:Plinian
3078:Stratum
3014:ice cap
2999:Iceland
2967:ice age
2929:Iceland
2903:Iceland
2869:called
2867:breccia
2840:Iceland
2801:glacier
2769:Stratum
2707:alkalic
2638:viscous
2552:Stratum
2492:Surtsey
2441:in the
2413:in the
2392:Iceland
2388:Surtsey
2299:basalts
2289:aquifer
2263:flashes
2255:Iceland
2251:Surtsey
2226:Stratum
2161:grained
2093:dacitic
2083:in the
2063:Iceland
2011:Pompeii
1899:dacitic
1869:volcano
1804:Pompeii
1780:Stratum
1740:Plinian
1522:Stratum
1330:dacitic
1306:viscous
1298:Vulcano
1275:Stratum
1247:Lapilli
1134:lapilli
1124:itself.
1040:Stratum
1012:Lapilli
946:on the
944:Kilauea
909:(after
876:Hawaiʻi
872:Kilauea
853:Kilauea
763:Stratum
705:Pompeii
677:during
610:Tambora
545:Plinian
473:(1992)
471:Galeras
421:KÄ«lauea
387:Typical
252:lateral
149:, then
84:fissure
55:Plinian
7103:Portal
6967:Tephra
6952:Pumice
6922:Latite
6897:Dacite
6892:Cinder
6872:Basalt
6825:Tossol
6241:Limnic
6144:Peléan
6055:Videos
5943:
5867:
5808:
5800:
5383:
5224:
5071:
5024:
5016:
4897:
4817:
4649:
4641:
4432:
4361:
4288:
4280:
4035:
4027:
3881:
3801:
3793:
3785:
3699:
3626:
3616:
3589:
3564:
3476:
3468:
3442:Nature
3313:
3147:, and
3141:lahars
3120:, and
2963:Hawaii
2942:, the
2940:Alaska
2936:Hawaii
2864:glassy
2856:Canada
2829:lahars
2827:) and
2825:floods
2721:, and
2692:glassy
2618:plates
2457:, and
2455:France
2415:Azores
2407:Alaska
2350:relief
2282:rising
2210:Crater
2071:pumice
2023:tephra
1980:lahars
1976:tephra
1963:Armero
1941:pumice
1911:felsic
1685:, 1984
1639:, the
1603:, the
1564:, and
1562:dacite
1474:Peléan
1388:glassy
1345:blocks
1179:Mexico
1146:tephra
1111:scoria
961:, see
959:Hawaii
903:glassy
866:Ropey
841:clasts
837:scoria
808:-type
806:basalt
739:Crater
690:Hawaii
675:clasts
516:Peléan
442:Daily
276:mantle
235:Impact
205:volume
203:ejecta
7183:gases
6720:Types
6597:Other
6468:Other
6435:Flood
6389:Lahar
6231:Flank
6029:tuyas
5957:(PDF)
5941:S2CID
5829:Tempo
5806:S2CID
5392:(PDF)
5379:(1).
5367:(PDF)
5341:(PDF)
5332:(1).
5320:(PDF)
5022:S2CID
4815:S2CID
4647:S2CID
4286:S2CID
4033:S2CID
3799:S2CID
3697:S2CID
3474:S2CID
3110:water
3098:steam
2895:tuyas
2838:) in
2836:tuyas
2548:Water
2473:Tonga
2451:Italy
2346:maars
2285:magma
2267:steam
2265:into
2214:Water
2158:finer
2149:magma
2145:water
2107:Kelud
2059:Hekla
2007:Roman
1882:from
1826:gases
1800:Roman
1587:-and-
1585:block
1426:Japan
1380:bombs
1189:Italy
1072:magma
975:Italy
896:shear
810:lavas
803:fluid
771:Magma
245:fluid
125:magma
121:steam
107:magma
6992:Tuff
6765:Maar
6572:Hail
6440:List
6347:List
6065:USGS
6031:and
5865:ISBN
5836:2022
5798:ISSN
5755:2020
5729:2010
5704:2010
5697:USGS
5671:2010
5663:USGS
5642:2010
5589:2010
5567:2010
5559:USGS
5535:2010
5501:2010
5470:2010
5439:2024
5400:2010
5381:ISSN
5349:2010
5297:2010
5290:NOAA
5264:2010
5222:ISBN
5197:2010
5160:2010
5069:ISSN
5014:ISSN
4959:2010
4952:USGS
4929:2010
4895:ISSN
4848:2010
4760:2010
4727:2010
4674:2018
4639:ISSN
4596:2010
4560:2010
4529:2010
4462:2010
4430:ISBN
4405:2010
4372:2020
4359:ISBN
4338:2022
4278:ISSN
4256:1071
4233:2010
4221:USGS
4203:2010
4173:2010
4145:2010
4104:2010
4060:2015
4025:ISSN
3973:2010
3937:2010
3910:2010
3879:ISSN
3836:2010
3791:PMID
3783:ISSN
3742:2010
3658:2010
3624:OCLC
3614:ISBN
3587:ISBN
3562:ISBN
3543:2010
3466:PMID
3427:2010
3384:2010
3343:2020
3335:USGS
3311:ISBN
3133:dike
3104:and
3072:and
3070:lava
3005:and
2952:Mars
2938:and
2925:tuya
2923:, a
2813:heat
2785:Dike
2763:and
2761:lava
2604:and
2568:Dike
2464:The
2437:, a
2327:dune
2312:(or
2238:Dike
2220:and
2218:lava
2147:and
2119:Java
2032:The
2021:and
2013:and
1997:The
1855:and
1806:and
1774:and
1772:lava
1697:The
1654:The
1647:and
1534:Dike
1532:10.
1516:and
1514:lava
1378:and
1343:and
1287:Dike
1285:12.
1279:Sill
1269:and
1267:lava
1163:and
1132:and
1056:Sill
1054:12.
1050:11.
1046:10.
1044:Dike
1034:and
1032:lava
911:Pele
779:Dike
777:12.
769:10.
767:Sill
757:and
755:lava
614:1815
587:1991
557:1980
528:2010
498:1985
375:VEI
358:for
254:and
243:and
227:and
157:and
145:and
6049:at
6015:doi
6003:245
5979:doi
5967:108
5933:doi
5902:doi
5890:143
5790:doi
5631:doi
5619:100
5113:doi
5101:143
5061:doi
5049:434
5004:hdl
4994:doi
4982:382
4887:doi
4875:415
4805:hdl
4795:doi
4783:392
4631:doi
4619:173
4495:doi
4325:doi
4268:doi
4017:doi
4005:413
3871:doi
3859:180
3775:doi
3763:317
3689:doi
3509:doi
3458:doi
3446:500
3189:of
3114:ash
3088:7.
3084:6.
3080:5.
3076:4.
3074:ash
3064:2.
2927:in
2797:ice
2783:9.
2779:8.
2775:7.
2771:6.
2767:5.
2765:ash
2757:Ice
2755:3.
2751:2.
2570:8.
2566:7.
2562:6.
2558:5.
2554:4.
2550:3.
2546:2.
2471:in
2423:in
2405:in
2271:ash
2236:9.
2232:8.
2228:7.
2224:6.
2222:ash
2212:4.
2208:3.
2099:of
2087:on
2061:in
2040:in
2036:of
2019:ash
2001:of
1901:to
1859:of
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1778:5.
1776:ash
1766:3.
1762:2.
1589:ash
1552:in
1528:9.
1524:8.
1520:7.
1518:ash
1508:5.
1504:4.
1496:2.
1448:in
1400:ash
1390:or
1366:in
1328:to
1277:9.
1273:8.
1271:ash
1261:6.
1253:4.
1249:3.
1245:2.
1197:in
1042:9.
1038:8.
1036:ash
1026:6.
1022:5.
1014:3.
1010:2.
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765:9.
761:8.
759:ash
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