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claims of economic hardship and political oppression as motivating factors for black flight. They attributed feelings of discontent to a small group of leading black rabble-rousers and outside white meddling. In solidarity, the
Democratic party as a whole "refused to admit to the fact of Southern lawlessness because many of the crimes had been perpetrated by Democrats, usually for their party's own advancement". In contrast, the Senate minority opinion, represented in a report by Minnesota Senator William Windom and New Hampshire Senator Henry W. Blair, utilized the direct testimony of prominent black figures and sided with them. Ultimately, though, the Democratic majority in Congress ensured that no legislation would be passed in support of the Exodus Movement. Appropriation bills for refugee aid introduced by Kansas Senator
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1998:. Black settlement outside of the South as a result of emigration was termed "colonization", and the New Orleans committee meeting became a full-fledged organization dubbed "The Colonization Council". The Council held its first public meetings in 1877. Council meetings consisted of speechmaking and petition writing and signing, with some 98,000 men, women, and children from Louisiana signed onto emigration lists.
1955:
2079:"the sustained migration of some 9,500 Blacks from Tennessee and Kentucky to Kansas during the decade far exceeded the much publicized migration of 1879, which netted no more than about 4,000 people from Louisiana". During the 1870s and the decade that followed, blacks bought more than 20,000 acres (81 km) of land in Kansas, and several of the settlements established during this time (e.g.,
56:
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lynchings took place during that period nationwide. On the other hand, the
Exoduster migration seems to have had some impact on labor relations between southern black farm workers and their white employers. Temporary benefits accorded to counties with the highest black labor scarcity included better price terms in leasing contracts and shrinking long-term contract commitments.
1971:, formal politicians, and white philanthropists were in some ways crucial to the Exodus, the migration ultimately came about as a result of the collective misery of black southerners and the individual inquiry and initiative taken in response by would-be migrants. Black political leaders at the time, such as Adams and Singleton at the local level and
1931:
and federal levels. Grassroots black political activism, exemplified by the leadership of Henry Adams in
Louisiana, functioned only in total secrecy and at great risk of assassination. Such efforts were eventually pushed out of rural communities and into New Orleans, where many organizers including Adams found themselves exiled.
2043:
preferences for limited government. At the local level, Topeka Mayor
Michael C. Case refused to spend municipal funds to aid Exodusters, believing that the money would be better spent to return them to the South. Moreover, much of the poor white population resented the extent of relief efforts aimed at helping immigrant blacks.
2039:
Exodusters fell entirely on the St. Louis black community. Other private relief organizations were funded by
Quakers and other abolitionists in northern states and England. The Kansas Freedman's Aid Society raised some $ 70,000 in support of Exoduster migration and settlement, $ 13,000 of which came from England.
2063:, which Republicans did win. Such accusations, lobbed in particular at Kansas Governor St. John and Thomas Conway, were only seriously considered at the end of 1879, when more attention was being given to the black migrants from North Carolina, who, unable to reach Kansas, were being redirected to Indiana.
2078:
Although the Exodus of 1879 saw a high volume of black migration during a shorter period of time, most of the black migration to Kansas occurred steadily throughout the decade. The black population of Kansas increased by some 26,000 people during the 1870s. Historian Nell
Painter further asserts that
2038:
philanthropists, formed the
Colored Relief Board and the Kansas Freedmen's Aid Society to help those stranded in St. Louis reach Kansas. In contrast to fundraising success in Kansas, "St. Louis officials discouraged the Exodusters whenever possible", and therefore the burden of providing for stranded
1899:
ended. Vigilantes operated with almost total impunity, and no other issue was of more importance to the majority of southern blacks living in the countryside. Given the extreme level of discrimination and violent intimidation blacks faced in the rural South, the
Exodusters can be accurately described
2013:
The most successful of the
Exodusters were those who moved to urban centers and found work as domestic or trade workers. Almost all of the Exodusters who attempted to homestead in the countryside settled in the Kansas uplands, which presented the most formidable obstacles to small-scale farmers. The
2022:
The Exodus of 1879 consisted mostly of refugees fleeing
Mississippi and Louisiana between March and May and Texas later in the year. There was considerable uncertainty at the time as to the actual number of Exodusters that arrived in St. Louis. However, the Colored Relief Board estimated that about
1930:
and the traumatic political campaigns of 1878 in Louisiana, the plight of organized black resistance had reached a point of hopelessness, leading to the Exodus of 1879. Political and economic oppression was enforced by means both legal and illegal, on the streets and in contracts, at both the local
2101:
The impact of the Exoduster migration on subsequent white treatment of African Americans was mixed. On the one hand, the exodus did little to alleviate the national propensity for violence towards blacks. From the 1880s through the 1930s, the lynching of African Americans increased, and some 3,000
1993:
Before the Exodus of 1879 to Kansas, southern blacks convened to discuss the option of emigration both formally and informally. Delegates from Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Texas, Arkansas, and Georgia met at a New Orleans conference in 1875 and discussed black emigration to western territories
2046:
The political response of southern white Democrats, and of some conservative "representative" black men, was one of disgust and incomprehension. They distrusted the intentions of white philanthropy in aiding black migration; in fact, they were convinced of ulterior motives. They denied outright
2042:
The failure of federal and state governments to financially support black migrants can be attributed to both bureaucratic incompetence (as in the case of the mayor of Kansas being denied temporary assistance from the secretary of war due to congressional jurisdiction) and to nineteenth-century
1911:
The Exodusters were not only fleeing extremist groups like the KKK. In fact, throughout Reconstruction a majority of the southern white population continued to resent black emancipation, resulting in an oppressive environment perpetuated by all segments of white society. Most black migration,
1907:
Although blacks greatly outnumbered whites in Louisiana, black armed resistance was practically inconceivable. According to William Murrell in testimony given to the United States Senate, "the white people in Louisiana are better armed and equipped now than during the war". As evidence of the
1908:
frightening lawlessness, which empowered the terrorist activities of the White League in the mid-1870s, the League "managed to seize a huge cache of arms from the arsenal in New Orleans worth about $ 67,000" stolen directly from the United States government.
2090:, thrived for some period before, during, and after the Exoduster movement. Similarly, in the early 20th century, black migrations to the American West and Southwest would continue, and several additional all-black towns would be established, especially in
2005:, Kansas had fought bitterly for its Free State status, and took its fair treatment of black immigrants as a point of pride. Kansas did not actively encourage the Exodusters, but its equal-opportunity stance was more welcoming than most of the country.
2014:
uplands were the only lands available for purchase after the squatters, railroads, and speculators had taken the best farmland. Given the agricultural challenge of farming these lands, many Exodusters were still destitute a year after their arrival.
2058:
Senate investigations debated whether or not black migration fit into a greater conspiratorial political scheme on the part of Republicans, who were thought to be packing swing states to increase their chances of success in the upcoming
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at the national level, were limited in their ability to influence the southern black populace. For this reason, during the post-Reconstruction period, blacks did not enjoy any truly representative national leadership.
1943:, in that many Exodusters created settlements they believed to be their new Promised Land. That the journey of these refugees was termed an "exodus", a word taken from the Old Testament in reference to the
2070:, a former slave who escaped captivity, was a critic of the movement. Douglass did not disagree with the Exodusters in principle, but he felt that the movement was ill-timed and poorly organized.
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Most southern states completely undermined federal Reconstruction efforts to promote landowning as the blacks' ticket to economic freedom and equality. For example, in 1865 the
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served to exacerbate the racist policies of white merchants and planters, who sought to offset their agricultural losses by increasing prices and interest rates for blacks.
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Woods, Randall B. (1998). "Integration, Exclusion, or Segregation? The "Color Line" in Kansas, 1878-1900." Billington, Monroe Lee; Hardaway, Roger D., eds.
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The number one cause of black migration out of the South at this time was to escape racial violence or "bulldozing" by white supremacist groups such as the
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outlawed the selling or leasing of land to blacks. As a result, in large parts of Mississippi, less than 1 in 100 black workers owned land or a house.
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1947:, indicates that the movement had spiritual motivations. The millenarian aspect of the Exodus was most realized in Tennessee, where
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Exodus to Kansas: The 1880 Senate Investigation of the Beginnings of the African American Migration from the South.
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including the Exodus of 1879, was spurred on by the dire economic prospects of black labor in the rural South. The
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Of note, however, western migration of African-Americans was not limited to the Exoduster period, and places like
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2918:"This is Not Dixie:" The Imagined South, the Kansas Free State Narrative, and the Rhetoric of Racist Violence.
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1951:'s boisterous proselytizing mostly found an enthusiastic black following and a more amenable white audience.
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2578:""Pap" Singleton's Dunlap Colony: Relief Agencies and the Failure of a Black Settlement in Eastern Kansas"
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Liberia proved an unrealistic destination for black refugees financially and logistically. As the land of
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The Exodus was not universally praised by African Americans; indeed, Republican statesman
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The movement received substantial organizational support from prominent figures, such as
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While the roles of community leaders like Singleton and Adams, white facilitators like
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of Chicago, and Henry Adams of Louisiana. As many as 40,000 Exodusters left the
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Bound for the Promised Land: African American Religion and the Great Migration
2190:(2). Association for the Study of African American Life and History: 111–129.
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African-American history between emancipation and the civil rights movement
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2651:"It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A History of the American West
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Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience
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Civil War on the Western Border: The Missouri-Kansas Conflict, 1854-1865
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2588:(1). University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Center for Great Plains Studies.
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2684:"Seeking the Promised Land: African American Migrations to Kansas"
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Reality of life for black people in the post-Reconstruction South
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The Exoduster movement has been characterized as an example of
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20,000 Exodusters reached the city between 1879 and 1880; the
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2466:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 110–111.
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Many steamboat captains refused to carry migrants across the
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899:
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quoted 6,206 arriving between March and April 1879 alone.
2903:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 210.
2888:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 147.
2873:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 146.
2787:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 252.
2772:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 250.
2757:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 255.
2742:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 254.
2724:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 253.
2709:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 233.
2668:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 232.
2653:. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 198.
2638:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 184.
2623:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 185.
2544:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 231.
2529:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 159.
2451:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 133.
2228:
Black Migration in America: A Social Demographic History
2514:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 87.
2496:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 83.
2481:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 89.
2436:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 68.
2406:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 62.
2391:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 17.
2376:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 23.
2358:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 27.
2421:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 7.
2801:
I Too Am America: Documents from 1619 to the Present
2953:
African American Women Confront the West, 1600-2000
1692:
Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers
3003:(Kansas State Historical Society, Exoduster Flier)
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2180:Van Deusen, JohnG. (1936). "The Exodus of 1879".
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2083:, which was founded in 1877) still exist today.
132:Around 26,000 African Americans arrive in Kansas
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1832:in the late nineteenth century, as part of the
94:Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era
2157:African American settlements in Western Canada
419:Education of freed people during the Civil War
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2225:Johnson, Daniel M.; Campbell, Rex R. (1981).
1887:, as well as widespread repression under the
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2503:
2270:"Henry Adams [Louisiana] (1843-?) •"
430:Historically black colleges and universities
2962:. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
2955:. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
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1962:
1891:, discriminatory laws that rendered blacks
414:Education during the slave period in the US
2976:. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado.
2916:Campney, Brent M. S. (September 6, 2007) "
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737:National Black Caucus of State Legislators
2974:African Americans on the Western Frontier
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193:Slavery in the colonial history of the US
104:Mass racial violence in the United States
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2152:Camp Nelson Heritage National Monument
3053:History of the Southern United States
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1988:
935:Athletic associations and conferences
424:History of African-American education
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2008:
858:Association for the Study of African
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1958:"Ho For Kansas!" Copyprint handbill
1672:Race and ethnicity in the US census
1173:African-American Vernacular English
742:National Conference of Black Mayors
24:
3023:African-American history of Kansas
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2162:Great Migration (African American)
2094:, which would become the state of
875:National Black Chamber of Commerce
25:
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2798:Romero, Patricia W., ed. (1978).
2576:Hickey, Joseph V. (Winter 1991).
2562:. Facts on File History Database.
2284:"Slavery in America Encyclopedia"
1983:
1934:
1579:Places by plurality of population
245:Civil rights movement (1954–1968)
235:Civil rights movement (1865–1896)
188:Abolitionism in the United States
3063:Politically motivated migrations
2983:. New York: Russell and Russell.
2969:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
2944:. Seattle: Open Hand Publishing.
1754:
276:Black Belt in the American South
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2927:Davis, Damani. (Summer 2008). "
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1844:of black people following the
1677:Racism against Black Americans
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1:
3033:African-American demographics
2804:. Publishers Agency. p.
2608:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
2167:
885:National Pan-Hellenic Council
129:98,000 sign emigration papers
2981:A Century of Negro Migration
2899:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2884:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2869:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2783:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2768:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2753:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2738:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2720:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2705:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2664:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2634:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2619:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2540:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2525:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2510:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2492:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2477:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2462:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2447:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2432:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2417:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2402:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2387:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2372:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2354:Painter, Nell Irvin (1976).
2183:The Journal of Negro History
1687:School segregation in the US
1225:Black American Sign Language
1199:Languages and other dialects
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2979:Woodson, Carter G. (1969).
2965:Savage, W. Sherman (1976).
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2692:Kansas City Public Library
2061:1880 presidential election
1052:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
727:Congressional Black Caucus
694:African Diaspora Religions
481:Martin Luther King Jr. Day
3048:1879 in the United States
3038:African-American refugees
2604:Quintard, Taylor (1998).
2130:, by Mildred Pitts Walker
2116:, by David Anthony Durham
1559:US states and territories
860:American Life and History
582:Lift Every Voice and Sing
291:Treatment of the enslaved
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2958:Ravage, John W. (1997).
2074:Impact of the Exodusters
2051:and Ohio Representative
2025:St. Louis Globe-Democrat
1975:and Mississippi Senator
1963:Role of black leadership
1949:Benjamin "Pap" Singleton
1926:In the aftermath of the
1761:United States portal
1168:African-American English
679:African-American Muslims
240:Jim Crow era (1896–1954)
2649:White, Richard (1991).
1945:Jews' flight from Egypt
1914:depression of the 1870s
1682:Reparations for slavery
770:Back-to-Africa movement
669:Black Hebrew Israelites
547:African-American beauty
60:Refugees on Levee, 1879
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2940:Katz, William (1987).
2582:Great Plains Quarterly
2134:Why the Dark Man Cries
2018:Response to the exodus
1959:
1921:Mississippi Black Code
1152:Dialects and languages
312:Second Great Migration
42:considered for merging
2846:Duke University Press
2233:Duke University Press
2136:, by Connie Fredricks
2106:Exodusters in fiction
1957:
1893:second-class citizens
1863:to settle in Kansas,
1564:US metropolitan areas
1391:List of neighborhoods
1005:Alabama Creole people
995:African-American Jews
927:Negro league baseball
890:National Urban League
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674:African-American Jews
564:African-American hair
426:, after the Civil War
255:Post–civil rights era
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1721:Criminal stereotypes
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250:Black power movement
214:during the Civil War
183:Atlantic slave trade
2324:Basic Civitas Books
2055:died in committee.
1840:. It was the first
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1078:Specific ancestries
963:Southwestern (SWAC)
486:Black History Month
317:New Great Migration
271:Agriculture history
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2967:Blacks in the West
2838:Sernett, Milton C.
2312:Gates, Henry Louis
2124:, by Toni Morrison
2068:Frederick Douglass
1989:Kansas vs. Liberia
1973:Frederick Douglass
1960:
1928:Compromise of 1877
1853:Benjamin Singleton
1834:Exoduster Movement
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1000:Afro-Puerto Ricans
953:Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
588:Self-determination
552:Black is beautiful
218:Reconstruction era
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3043:History of Kansas
2924:. ISSN 1551-2754.
2081:Nicodemus, Kansas
2053:James A. Garfield
2009:Reality in Kansas
1842:general migration
1826:Mississippi River
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2789:
2788:
2780:
2774:
2773:
2765:
2759:
2758:
2750:
2744:
2743:
2735:
2726:
2725:
2717:
2711:
2710:
2702:
2696:
2695:
2679:
2670:
2669:
2661:
2655:
2654:
2646:
2640:
2639:
2631:
2625:
2624:
2616:
2610:
2609:
2601:
2590:
2589:
2573:
2564:
2563:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2537:
2531:
2530:
2522:
2516:
2515:
2507:
2498:
2497:
2489:
2483:
2482:
2474:
2468:
2467:
2459:
2453:
2452:
2444:
2438:
2437:
2429:
2423:
2422:
2414:
2408:
2407:
2399:
2393:
2392:
2384:
2378:
2377:
2369:
2360:
2359:
2351:
2342:
2341:
2321:
2308:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2295:
2286:. Archived from
2280:
2274:
2273:
2265:
2259:
2258:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2177:
2092:Indian Territory
2088:Quindaro, Kansas
1977:Blanche K. Bruce
1969:Thomas W. Conway
1857:Philip D. Armour
1799:
1792:
1785:
1759:
1758:
1757:
1706:media depictions
1655:
1654:
1550:Population count
1246:
1245:
1180:Liberian English
1159:English dialects
1156:
1155:
1112:Samaná Americans
1037:Creoles of color
983:
982:
921:
920:
865:Black conductors
846:
845:
715:
714:
689:Louisiana Voodoo
611:
610:
356:Family structure
339:
338:
286:Military history
281:Business history
212:military history
167:
166:
140:
139:
99:Jim Crow economy
58:
51:
47:
45:
21:
3078:
3077:
3073:
3072:
3071:
3069:
3068:
3067:
3013:
3012:
2990:
2937:Vol. 40, No. 2.
2922:Southern Spaces
2913:
2911:Further reading
2908:
2897:
2893:
2882:
2878:
2867:
2863:
2856:
2835:
2831:
2816:
2796:
2792:
2781:
2777:
2766:
2762:
2751:
2747:
2736:
2729:
2718:
2714:
2703:
2699:
2680:
2673:
2662:
2658:
2647:
2643:
2632:
2628:
2617:
2613:
2602:
2593:
2574:
2567:
2554:
2553:
2549:
2538:
2534:
2523:
2519:
2508:
2501:
2490:
2486:
2475:
2471:
2460:
2456:
2445:
2441:
2430:
2426:
2415:
2411:
2400:
2396:
2385:
2381:
2370:
2363:
2352:
2345:
2338:
2309:
2302:
2293:
2291:
2282:
2281:
2277:
2266:
2262:
2247:
2223:
2219:
2196:10.2307/2714567
2178:
2174:
2170:
2147:Freedmen's town
2143:
2113:Gabriel's Story
2108:
2076:
2049:John J. Ingalls
2020:
2011:
1991:
1986:
1965:
1937:
1877:
1803:
1755:
1753:
1746:
1745:
1740:
1696:
1652:
1644:
1643:
1638:
1583:
1545:
1521:Omaha, Nebraska
1486:Historic places
1480:
1372:
1243:
1235:
1234:
1229:
1194:
1153:
1145:
1144:
1139:
1121:
1073:
1015:Black Seminoles
980:
979:Sub-communities
972:
971:
958:Southern (SIAC)
918:
910:
909:
904:
859:
843:
835:
834:
829:
746:
712:
704:
703:
698:
684:Nation of Islam
650:
627:
608:
598:
597:
592:
533:
500:
467:
439:
400:
376:Musical theater
336:
326:
325:
307:Great Migration
164:
118:
61:
46:
30:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3076:
3066:
3065:
3060:
3058:1879 in Kansas
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3011:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2989:
2988:External links
2986:
2985:
2984:
2977:
2970:
2963:
2960:Black Pioneers
2956:
2945:
2942:The Black West
2938:
2925:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2906:
2891:
2876:
2861:
2854:
2848:. p. 14.
2829:
2814:
2790:
2775:
2760:
2745:
2727:
2712:
2697:
2671:
2656:
2641:
2626:
2611:
2591:
2565:
2560:www.fofweb.com
2547:
2532:
2517:
2499:
2484:
2469:
2454:
2439:
2424:
2409:
2394:
2379:
2361:
2343:
2336:
2300:
2275:
2260:
2245:
2231:. Durham, NC:
2217:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2165:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2142:
2139:
2138:
2137:
2131:
2125:
2117:
2107:
2104:
2075:
2072:
2032:Missouri River
2019:
2016:
2010:
2007:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1984:Promised lands
1982:
1964:
1961:
1941:millenarianism
1936:
1935:Millenarianism
1933:
1897:Reconstruction
1876:
1873:
1855:of Tennessee,
1838:Exodus of 1879
1805:
1804:
1802:
1801:
1794:
1787:
1779:
1776:
1775:
1774:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1748:
1747:
1742:
1741:
1739:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1712:
1709:
1708:
1698:
1697:
1695:
1694:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1667:Black genocide
1663:
1660:
1659:
1653:
1650:
1649:
1646:
1645:
1640:
1639:
1637:
1636:
1631:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1595:
1592:
1591:
1585:
1584:
1582:
1581:
1576:
1574:US communities
1571:
1566:
1561:
1555:
1552:
1551:
1547:
1546:
1544:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1531:South Carolina
1528:
1526:North Carolina
1523:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1503:
1498:
1492:
1489:
1488:
1482:
1481:
1479:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1423:
1418:
1413:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1382:
1379:
1378:
1374:
1373:
1371:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1348:South Carolina
1345:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1328:North Carolina
1325:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1254:
1251:
1250:
1244:
1241:
1240:
1237:
1236:
1231:
1230:
1228:
1227:
1222:
1217:
1216:
1215:
1204:
1201:
1200:
1196:
1195:
1193:
1192:
1187:
1185:Samaná English
1182:
1177:
1176:
1175:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1154:
1151:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1141:
1140:
1138:
1137:
1135:LGBT community
1131:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1122:
1120:
1119:
1114:
1109:
1104:
1099:
1094:
1092:Creek Freedmen
1089:
1083:
1080:
1079:
1075:
1074:
1072:
1071:
1066:
1065:
1064:
1062:Carmel Indians
1054:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1024:
1023:
1022:
1017:
1007:
1002:
997:
991:
988:
987:
981:
978:
977:
974:
973:
968:
967:
966:
965:
960:
955:
950:
945:
943:Central (CIAA)
937:
936:
932:
931:
930:
929:
919:
916:
915:
912:
911:
906:
905:
903:
902:
897:
892:
887:
882:
877:
872:
867:
862:
854:
851:
850:
844:
841:
840:
837:
836:
831:
830:
828:
827:
822:
817:
812:
810:Pan-Africanism
807:
802:
797:
792:
787:
782:
777:
772:
767:
762:
756:
753:
752:
748:
747:
745:
744:
739:
734:
729:
723:
720:
719:
713:
710:
709:
706:
705:
700:
699:
697:
696:
691:
686:
681:
676:
671:
666:
660:
657:
656:
652:
651:
649:
648:
643:
641:Black theology
637:
634:
633:
629:
628:
626:
625:
619:
616:
615:
609:
604:
603:
600:
599:
594:
593:
591:
590:
585:
578:
573:
572:
571:
561:
556:
555:
554:
543:
540:
539:
535:
534:
532:
531:
526:
521:
516:
510:
507:
506:
505:Economic class
502:
501:
499:
498:
493:
488:
483:
477:
474:
473:
469:
468:
466:
465:
460:
455:
449:
446:
445:
444:Academic study
441:
440:
438:
437:
432:
427:
421:
416:
410:
407:
406:
402:
401:
399:
398:
393:
388:
383:
378:
373:
368:
363:
358:
353:
347:
344:
343:
337:
332:
331:
328:
327:
322:
321:
320:
319:
314:
309:
301:
300:
296:
295:
294:
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
265:
264:
260:
259:
258:
257:
252:
247:
242:
237:
232:
227:
226:
225:
215:
205:
200:
195:
190:
185:
180:
172:
171:
165:
160:
159:
156:
155:
149:
148:
136:
135:
134:
133:
130:
125:
121:
120:
113:
109:
108:
107:
106:
101:
91:
87:
86:
85:Exodus of 1879
83:
79:
78:
75:
71:
70:
67:
63:
62:
59:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3075:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3020:
3018:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2998:"Exodusters")
2997:
2992:
2991:
2982:
2978:
2975:
2971:
2968:
2964:
2961:
2957:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2943:
2939:
2936:
2935:
2930:
2926:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2914:
2902:
2895:
2887:
2880:
2872:
2865:
2857:
2855:0-8223-1993-4
2851:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2833:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2815:0-87781-206-3
2811:
2807:
2803:
2802:
2794:
2786:
2779:
2771:
2764:
2756:
2749:
2741:
2734:
2732:
2723:
2716:
2708:
2701:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2682:Warren, Kim.
2678:
2676:
2667:
2660:
2652:
2645:
2637:
2630:
2622:
2615:
2607:
2600:
2598:
2596:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2572:
2570:
2561:
2557:
2551:
2543:
2536:
2528:
2521:
2513:
2506:
2504:
2495:
2488:
2480:
2473:
2465:
2458:
2450:
2443:
2435:
2428:
2420:
2413:
2405:
2398:
2390:
2383:
2375:
2368:
2366:
2357:
2350:
2348:
2339:
2337:0-465-00071-1
2333:
2329:
2325:
2320:
2319:
2313:
2307:
2305:
2290:on 2007-08-27
2289:
2285:
2279:
2271:
2264:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2246:0-8223-0449-X
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2229:
2221:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2184:
2176:
2172:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2144:
2135:
2132:
2129:
2126:
2123:
2122:
2118:
2115:
2114:
2110:
2109:
2103:
2099:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2084:
2082:
2071:
2069:
2064:
2062:
2056:
2054:
2050:
2044:
2040:
2037:
2033:
2028:
2026:
2015:
2006:
2004:
1999:
1997:
1981:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1956:
1952:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1932:
1929:
1924:
1922:
1917:
1915:
1909:
1905:
1903:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1872:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1849:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1800:
1795:
1793:
1788:
1786:
1781:
1780:
1778:
1777:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1752:
1751:
1750:
1749:
1737:
1736:Minstrel show
1734:
1732:
1731:Magical Negro
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1713:
1711:
1710:
1707:
1703:
1700:
1699:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1685:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1664:
1662:
1661:
1657:
1656:
1648:
1647:
1635:
1632:
1630:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1596:
1594:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1586:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1557:
1556:
1554:
1553:
1549:
1548:
1542:
1541:West Virginia
1539:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1502:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1493:
1491:
1490:
1487:
1484:
1483:
1477:
1476:San Francisco
1474:
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1456:New York City
1454:
1452:
1449:
1447:
1444:
1442:
1439:
1437:
1434:
1432:
1429:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1383:
1381:
1380:
1376:
1375:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1279:
1276:
1274:
1271:
1269:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1255:
1253:
1252:
1248:
1247:
1239:
1238:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1214:
1211:
1210:
1209:
1206:
1205:
1203:
1202:
1198:
1197:
1191:
1188:
1186:
1183:
1181:
1178:
1174:
1171:
1170:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1163:
1162:
1158:
1157:
1149:
1148:
1136:
1133:
1132:
1130:
1129:
1125:
1124:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1107:Nova Scotians
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1084:
1082:
1081:
1077:
1076:
1070:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1059:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1021:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1012:
1011:
1010:Black Indians
1008:
1006:
1003:
1001:
998:
996:
993:
992:
990:
989:
985:
984:
976:
975:
964:
961:
959:
956:
954:
951:
949:
948:HBCU (HBCUAC)
946:
944:
941:
940:
939:
938:
934:
933:
928:
925:
924:
923:
922:
914:
913:
901:
898:
896:
893:
891:
888:
886:
883:
881:
878:
876:
873:
871:
868:
866:
863:
861:
856:
855:
853:
852:
849:Organizations
848:
847:
839:
838:
826:
823:
821:
818:
816:
813:
811:
808:
806:
803:
801:
798:
796:
793:
791:
788:
786:
783:
781:
778:
776:
773:
771:
768:
766:
763:
761:
758:
757:
755:
754:
750:
749:
743:
740:
738:
735:
733:
730:
728:
725:
724:
722:
721:
718:Organizations
717:
716:
708:
707:
695:
692:
690:
687:
685:
682:
680:
677:
675:
672:
670:
667:
665:
662:
661:
659:
658:
654:
653:
647:
644:
642:
639:
638:
636:
635:
631:
630:
624:
621:
620:
618:
617:
613:
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1966:
1938:
1925:
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1910:
1906:
1885:White League
1881:Ku Klux Klan
1878:
1850:
1837:
1833:
1809:
1808:
1634:Sierra Leone
1466:Philadelphia
1436:Jacksonville
1032:Brass Ankles
785:Conservatism
760:Afrocentrism
732:Joint Center
623:Black church
614:Institutions
529:Billionaires
519:Middle class
472:Celebrations
435:Fraternities
112:Participants
35:
2326:. pp.
1889:Black Codes
1702:Stereotypes
1629:Nova Scotia
1511:Mississippi
1471:San Antonio
1451:Los Angeles
1386:Black mecca
1313:Mississippi
1220:Negro Dutch
1042:Dominickers
986:Multiethnic
895:TransAfrica
805:Nationalism
775:Black power
559:Black pride
524:Upper class
223:Politicians
31:‹ The
3017:Categories
2901:Exodusters
2886:Exodusters
2871:Exodusters
2785:Exodusters
2770:Exodusters
2755:Exodusters
2740:Exodusters
2722:Exodusters
2707:Exodusters
2666:Exodusters
2636:Exodusters
2621:Exodusters
2542:Exodusters
2527:Exodusters
2512:Exodusters
2494:Exodusters
2479:Exodusters
2464:Exodusters
2449:Exodusters
2434:Exodusters
2419:Exodusters
2404:Exodusters
2389:Exodusters
2374:Exodusters
2356:Exodusters
2294:2007-10-19
2235:. p.
2168:References
2003:John Brown
1824:along the
1810:Exodusters
1268:California
1242:Population
815:Patriotism
800:Liberalism
780:Capitalism
751:Ideologies
632:Theologies
491:Juneteenth
463:Literature
391:Newspapers
299:Migrations
230:Juneteenth
2212:224830636
1846:Civil War
1726:Hollywood
1716:Blackface
1651:Prejudice
1569:US cities
1446:Lexington
1421:Davenport
1401:Baltimore
1377:US cities
1353:Tennessee
1303:Louisiana
1249:US states
1057:Melungeon
1027:Blaxicans
825:Socialism
790:Garveyism
765:Anarchism
569:Good hair
396:Soul food
366:Folktales
40:is being
18:Exoduster
2996:The West
2951:(2003).
2934:Prologue
2840:(1997).
2314:(1999).
2141:See also
2121:Paradise
2096:Oklahoma
1902:refugees
1883:and the
1869:Colorado
1865:Oklahoma
1818:migrated
1766:Category
1589:Diaspora
1516:Missouri
1441:Kentucky
1368:Virginia
1338:Oklahoma
1323:New York
1318:Nebraska
1308:Maryland
1283:Illinois
1263:Arkansas
1102:Merikins
1047:Freedmen
1020:Mascogos
820:Populism
711:Politics
606:Religion
576:Stepping
342:Lifeways
178:Timeline
145:a series
143:Part of
74:Location
44:. ›
33:template
2824:4662987
2255:6421175
2204:2714567
2036:eastern
1996:Liberia
1624:Liberia
1506:Georgia
1501:Florida
1431:Houston
1426:Detroit
1411:Chicago
1396:Atlanta
1288:Indiana
1278:Georgia
1273:Florida
1258:Alabama
1190:Tutnese
1069:Redbone
795:Leftism
496:Kwanzaa
453:Studies
405:Schools
334:Culture
263:Aspects
208:Slavery
170:Periods
162:History
124:Outcome
2852:
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1895:after
1830:Kansas
1822:states
1658:Racism
1619:Israel
1609:France
1604:Canada
1599:Africa
1406:Boston
1343:Oregon
1298:Kansas
1208:Gullah
1097:Gullah
917:Sports
664:Hoodoo
2994:(PBS
2208:S2CID
2200:JSTOR
1861:South
1820:from
1771:Index
1614:Ghana
1536:Texas
1461:Omaha
1358:Texas
870:NAACP
381:Names
371:Music
351:Dance
90:Cause
2850:ISBN
2820:OCLC
2810:ISBN
2332:ISBN
2251:OCLC
2241:ISBN
1994:and
1867:and
1816:who
1704:and
1363:Utah
1333:Ohio
1293:Iowa
900:UNCF
361:Film
210:and
69:1879
66:Date
2806:150
2328:722
2192:doi
1900:as
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1836:or
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458:Art
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