Chadian Civil War (1965–1979)

1111:, as his top military commander. Mohammed El Baghalani became Abatcha's main representative in Sudan. Both men were much more conservative than Abatcha, and Baghalani preferred to appeal to the conservative Persian Gulf Arab states for materiel support rather than Egypt or other socialist states—to some success. Nevertheless, the diversity of political philosophies in FROLINAT laid the groundwork for future divisions; over time the rebels increasingly split into factions, headed by independent-minded commanders and backed by different ethnic groups. Abatcha's leadership was able to give FROLINAT some cohesiveness. However, Musa's faction broke off again soon after FROLINAT's founding, forming the independent 1221:, both relatively close to the capital. Conflict between security forces and insurgents was brutal. Rebels abducted and murdered village leaders, robbed and mutilated traders, destroyed infrastructure, and attacked communities suspected of sympathising with the government. For their part, Chadian forces killed numerous civilians, held public executions of insurgents and "sympathisers", and in at least one case burnt a village in Wadai for the alleged rebel sympathies of its populace. Rebels were sometimes able to inflict serious losses on the security forces, but in direct conflict the Chadian troops usually inflicted greater losses on the insurgents. 1333:. Cortadellas was an elderly officer nearing retirement with counterinsurgency experience gleaned from campaigns in Indochina and Algeria. In early November FROLINAT launched a coordinated offensive in central and eastern Chad, capturing some outposts and defeating isolated detachments. After two weeks, the Franco-Chadian forces initiated their counteroffensive. With enhanced mobility provided by French transport helicopters, they quickly reversed FROLINAT's advances. Despite limited equipment and supplies, the French inflicted devastating losses upon FROLINAT throughout late 1969 and early 1970. 1154:, Wadai, and Guéra prefectures, where its members plotted the assassination of government officials and ambushed army detachments. French observers stated that the insurgents aimed to aggravate Muslim resentment of black Chadians and prevent the government from collecting taxes. The lack of tax revenue forced Tombalbaye to cut expenditures, undermining administration and lowering the morale of civil servants. The president also attempted to ease local grievances by replacing Sara bureaucrats with Muslims. Frustrated at the army's inability to suppress rebellion in central Chad, he created the 548: 317: 1469:

representative institutions. He set a high priority on freeing Chad from French economic and political control, but in this effort he was unsuccessful. He sent French combat forces home, but he retained several hundred French advisers and renegotiated a series of military accords to ensure emergency aid. In his position he requested the removal of French military units from Chad, resulting in France abandoning the 172 Fort-Lamy Air Base at N'Djamena International Airport. By 1975 the only branches of the Chadian Armed Forces that continued to function were the Gendarmerie and the Army.

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Tombalbaye sought to counter this by increasing cotton production. His efforts were partly successful in this regard, but generated antagonism when soldiers rounded up townspeople for "volunteer" labour. In March 1975 he had several senior army officers arrested for supposedly plotting against him. Several more arrests and a threat of a purge in early April moved military officers to take action. On April 13, 1975, several units of N'Djamena's gendarmerie under junior officers mutinied. Senior officers, joined by army commander General

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that would generate reconciliation and ease inter-regional relations. At these urgings, the Chadian government opened negotiations with local chiefs, improved tax collection, and released some political prisoners. Nevertheless, the reforms failed to improve underlying weaknesses within the economy or ease the political climate. Tombalbaye continued to rule Chad unabated as a one-party state, though he stressed national reconciliation and reshuffled his cabinet to include more Muslims and northerners.

1524: 1048:, there were open clashes between civilians and government forces. According to unconfirmed French reports, the Chadian Army torched villages and killed 250–400 people. Locals stated that soldiers bound alleged tax evaders and beat them to death. Chadian officials, fearing for their safety, rarely left their offices, diminishing administration in rural areas and further reducing tax revenue. Despite the financial problems, Tombalbaye pushed for increased defence expenditures in the 1966 budget. 1341:, though the French military has denied that it was ever employed. The intervention officially terminated in June 1971. By then combined Chadian and French military actions had killed between 2,000 and 10,000 people, including civilians, and destroyed many palm groves in the north. About 1,200 French military personnel remained afterwards to provide training to the approximately 2,700 members of the Chadian Army. Between May 1969 and August 1972, 50 French soldiers were killed fighting rebels. 1345: 152: 3512: 710:(BET) region and much of the centre-east, government presence was restricted to a handful of towns. Economically, it relied on cotton exports and French subsidies. Chad was sparsely populated but ethnically, it was highly diverse. In addition, the country was divided by religion; about 50% of the people were Muslims, most of them living in the north and east, whereas Christians and animists dominated the south. Constitutionally, the country was bequeathed a 1297:. The MRA posted French advisors to all prefects and subprefects in troubled areas. They were made responsible for tax collection and could veto the decisions of local administrators. The entire BET was taken over by a French military administration. The mission also emphasised the restoration of "traditional chiefdoms" in the north. As for military matters, a unified command of all Chadian security forces was placed under the direction of French general 1252:

requested French air support after a surprise attack on a Gendarmerie unit. De Gaulle felt that "there is no way of solving this kind of problem by dropping bombs on peasants" but concluded he had to offer assistance to the Chadian president. He decided that the best way of mitigating Tombalbaye's problems involved a French takeover of the Chadian military as well as an extensive program of administrative reform to be supervised by French civil servants.

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directives from the French Cooperation and Defence ministries, complicating his mission. He also wanted to deploy French forces in search-and-destroy operations, though this became difficult as FROLINAT tried to avoid direct confrontations. Some of his subordinates argued that French forces should instead garrison much of rural Chad to intimidate the population and enforce central authority. Furthermore, Arnaud objected to the

345: 599: 590: 579: 560: 529: 517: 498: 479: 296: 284: 272: 260: 619: 608: 1232:, and went on to lead his own militia near the Sudanese border. Issaka was dismissed from his military role in June 1970 and murdered two years later. However, Siddick's favoritism and leadership style made him unpopular, and other frontline rebel commanders gradually broke away, organizing factions backed by certain regions and ethnicities. The two largest factions gradually transformed into the First Liberation Army of 360: 1473:

traditional leaders and traditionalist opposition groups to lay down their weapons and reconcile with his leadership. Among others, Musa's FLT ended its insurgency. However, Malloum's attempts to end the war with FROLINAT proved less successful, partially due to the divisions among the movement's leadership. He made a deal with the First Liberation Army under Acyl, enlisting its aid against the Second Liberation Army.

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policies. Abandoning national reconciliation, he arrested over 1,000 alleged "enemies of the state", including hundreds of southerners, and dismissed two southern ministers from his cabinet. He also completely reoriented his foreign policy to secure economic assistance from Arab states and marginalize FRONILAT. He severed diplomatic ties with Israel in September and, a few months later, got Libya to offer Chad

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Tombalbaye was unhappy with the regular army's inability to completely quell the insurgency, and in turn increased the size of other branches of the armed forces. Some analysts believe that the deal with Libya made him feel assured about the security of the country's territory from foreign aggression, and thus he saw the army as less useful and more of a threat to his own authority.

718:, was a southerner whose government quickly proved to be corrupt, granting favors to his political supporters in the south while marginalizing the rest of Chad. Tensions and discontent consequently grew, especially as Tombalbaye undermined traditional local leaders who still held great respect among the people and became increasingly authoritarian. 1192:

the north, while the latter wished to avoid an expensive and drawn out conflict. The French intervention began in August with the arrival of a small contingent, though by its end three months later the force totaled 2,000 marines. These troops came in support of aircraft, as De Gaulle did not want to use French soldiers to recapture Aouzou. French

1240:. The Second Liberation Army was completely autonomous, while the First Liberation Army initially maintained at least a tenuous loyalty to Siddick's command. However, the First Liberation Army included several separatist and Islamist sub-factions which later formed their own groups such as "FROLINAT-Fundamental", "FROLINAT-Orthodoxe", and the 1091:. Musa was in prison in Sudan at the time, and Abatcha became FROLINAT's first leader. Though the organisation's leaders were mostly Muslims, some of its members were secularists. Abatcha was a committed socialist and FROLINAT adopted a left-leaning political platform—designed to attract the support of Arab socialist governments and the 1305:(military delegate). Dozens of French military officers and non-commissioned officers were dispatched to help train and restructure the Chadian military, as well as assume direct command over Chadian units when necessary. Several infantry companies were also deployed to reinforce the French military presence and assist Chadian forces. 1491:

During the summer of 1977, FROLINAT rebels under the command of Goukouni Oueddeï and supported by Libya launched a military offensive from northern Chad. This offensive witnessed the first appearance of modern Soviet military equipment in the civil war. For the first time, aircraft were threatened by

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to gain the support of Chad's urban elite, Africanising the names of people and places in the country. Fort-Lamy became known as N'Djamena. To regain the support of Sara conservatives in the south, he required all non-Muslim southern civil servants, ministers, and high ranking military officers to go

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In August 1971, parts of the Chadian military launched a coup attempt against Tombalbaye with Libyan support. Government reform ceased, and Tombalbaye severed relations with Libya while inviting anti-Gaddafi Libyans to establish themselves in Chad. Gaddafi retaliated by increasing materiel support to

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promptly agreed, and France quickly organised an expeditionary force with the goal "to make possible the reinstallation of Chadian administration in the BET". Neither Tombalbaye nor the French sought to completely suppress the rebellion; the former feared the political fallout of brutal repression in

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traveled into the Chadian interior to recruit new members and link FROLINAT with the local revolts. The organisation grew its ranks by taking advantage of anti-government sentiment caused by repression of unrelated rebellions. Abatcha tapped El Hajj Issaka, a deposed customary chief who had organised

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published afterwards alleged that Tombalbaye intended to declare himself king and recruit a new army of fanatics which would destroy the rebellion against his rule. Many Chadians sympathised with the armed forces at the time of the coup, having been irked by the president's frequent mocking of their

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was the last major French operation of Tombalbaye's rule; the Chadian President consequently requested the French military to reduce its presence in the country. He also became increasingly critical of the Chadian Armed Forces' commanders and ordered the arrest of several officers, further worsening

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Though most of the rebels were either suppressed by the intervention or had rallied to the government, the state's control of rural areas remained weak. Eager to avoid another crisis which would lead to calls for another intervention, the French pushed for the Chadian government to implement reforms

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that left over 500 people dead, including a representative to the National Assembly and nine other public officials. The riots—together with the revolt in Bardaï—marked the general start of widespread rebellion in Chad; the tax riots are usually considered the beginning of the civil war. Afterwards,

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became Vice President; and Acyl became Foreign Minister. In sum, the ministerial portfolios were balanced between the southerners (11) and the rest of the country (13) and among the favorite politicians of neighbouring states. GUNT was to rule until elections were held in the spring of 1982. In the

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The end of Tombalbaye's regime caused Gaddafi to restart his support for the insurgents, as Malloum denounced the Libyan occupation of the Aouzou Strip and repudiated the 1972 deal. To improve his position, Malloum instead turned to the rebels. His government proved successful at convincing various

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On 15 April Malloum became chairman of the Supreme Military Council; the supreme body responsible for running the country. He became head of state a few months later. As a southerner with strong kinship ties to the north, Malloum believed that he could reconcile Chad's divided regions and establish

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The French successfully blunted FROLINAT's advances into the south and recaptured some of their territory in the north. Rebel activity in the BET, specifically Tibetsi, was diminished. The morale of the Chadian Armed Forces was left substantially improved in engagements with the rebels. Conversely,

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tactics favored by Chadian officers. The tensions between Aranud and the Chadians peaked in an August meeting when he entered a shouting match with Tombalbaye. The Chadian president ordered him to kill 15,000 Arabs in communities he believed were supporting the rebellion. Arnaud thought the request

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Meanwhile, unrest grew in rural areas over issues of taxation. Tombalbaye attempted to buttress the paltry resources of his government by raising revenue, leading to tax increases and the collection of a "national loan" in 1964. Many Chadians were often confused to see tax collectors return to them

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initiation rites of a Sara subgroup. Between mid 1973 and April 1974 an estimated 3,000 persons went through the process, but the rites were seen as anti-Christian and further disaffected civil servants, military officers, and students with the regime. Drought also caused an economic downturn, and

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formally approached the Chadian president with the offer, the terms of which were not negotiable. Tombalbaye was relieved that he would be receiving assistance but stunned by the scope of the project. He feared that it would be seen as a recolonisation of Chad, while members of his government were

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also kept a signed, undated letter from Tombalbaye requesting protection in case his personal safety was jeopardised. In 1965, the French military had 1,000 troops in Chad, while French personnel permeated Chadian security institutions. The Air Force's pilots were almost all French until 1975. The

1543:, which was under French protection, and two days later the belligerents reached a ceasefire. French troops policed the truce while Nigeran diplomats attempted to mediate a longer-lasting agreement. Governance broke down, and FROLINAT seized the opportunity by launching an offensive in the north. 1487:

With Libyan support, the FROLINAT rebels battled Malloum's regime. However, the rebels did not universally appreciate Gaddafi's influence; Hissène Habré strongly disagreed with the pro-Libyan stance of Oueddeï. Habré eventually split with the rest of FROLINAT over this issue, and began to wage a

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to Libya in return for promises by Gaddafi to stop supporting FROLINAT. Despite helping Tombalbaye in containing the insurgency, the deal with Libya greatly damaged his reputation within the military, which, proud of its success in fighting FROLINAT, sought to assert itself in national politics.

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By early 1969, Chadian administration in the centre and east was collapsing. The loss of tax revenue and increased military spending rendered Tombalbaye's regime close to insolvency. French officials began to fear that the rebellion was directly threatening the presidency. On 10 March Tombalbaye

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in early 1972 to crush the First Liberation Army in the east. The latter had been reduced to 320 active fighters, but when the French attacked a rebel convoy near Am Dagachi, the insurgents put up heavy resistance. Despite eventually winning the battle, the operation failed to destroy the First

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French military officers oversaw the government in the BET until January 1965, when they were withdrawn. They were replaced by southern bureaucrats who had little knowledge of local culture and committed abuses, engendering alienation from the state among the locals. In September 1965 a Chadian

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France maintained a significant military presence in Chad. As was common with many of its former African colonies, France and Chad had signed a military assistance agreement and a mutual defence pact. These accords included a secret provision which allowed Chad to request direct French military

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separate campaign against Malloum. In 1976, Gaddafi hinted at his intention of officially annexing the Aouzou Strip, while sending the Libyan military for forays into central Chad to assist allied rebels. By late 1976, most of the northern third of Chad was under combined Libyan-rebel control.

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Tombalbaye was reelected unopposed. The president created a new system of village militias which the MRA subsequently armed with MAS-36 rifles and hunting rifles. Tensions quickly developed within the French intervention force and between French and Chadian officials. Arnaud received competing

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In addition, Oueddei fully broke away from Siddick's forces in 1971, starting a process that culminated in the complete fracturing of FROLINAT. The loss of Libyan aid in 1972 led to direct fighting between the First Liberation Army and Second Liberation Army for supplies. Over the next years,

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Meanwhile, on 1 September 1972 Cortadellas retired from his post and flew back to France, handing over all command of Chadian military forces to Malloum. The French and Chadian government treated his retirement as signaling the end of direct French intervention in the civil war. The remaining

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The Chadian Armed Forces were formed by Chadian veterans of the French colonial military, and continued to receive training and equipment from France. In 1964 the Chadian Army consisted of 500 soldiers trained by 200 Frenchmen. From independence until 1979, the Chadian Army was overwhelmingly

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In 1972 Tombalbaye was beset with a financial crisis, a drought, factionalism in the government, and civil unrest. The situation came to a head in June when Libyan-backed rebels were arrested while trying to smuggle weapons into the capital. This caused the president to drastically alter his

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were deployed to the BET to provide air support to Chadian ground forces while transport aircraft conducted parachute drops to resupply the Aouzou garrison. The Chadian Army eventually reached Aouzou and relieved the town without conflict, while the Toubou rebels fled intact into the Tibetsi

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emerged and continued the war against the insurgents. Following foreign interventions by Libya and France, the fracturing of the rebels into rival factions, and an escalation of the fighting, Malloum stepped down in March 1979. This paved the way for a new national government, known as

733:, resulting in between 19 and 100 deaths. Several opposition groups began organising resistance, though the first attempted insurgencies were easily suppressed by Tombalbaye's forces. Many opposition leaders fled to neighboring Sudan, where they began to prepare for a full rebellion. 1515:

On 25 August, 1978 the Supreme Military Council and Habré reached an understanding and signed the Fundamental Charter. The accord formally dissolved the council and replaced it with a provisional national unity government that was to run Chad until it could organise elections for a

1539:. Equipped with mortars and machine guns, Habré's forces seized control of most of the city, while French troops occupied the European quarter. Sara people, fearful of losing their favorable political position, reportedly massacred thousands of Muslim civilians. Malloum fled to 1178:. Though it caused political problems within FROLINAT, Abatcha's death did not restrain the growth of rebellion. Shortly thereafter Issaka took command of FROLINAT's First Liberation Army. The following month Tobou members of a Nomadic Guard contingent near the northern town of 1413:

numerous larger and smaller splinter groups emerged, while Siddick was left with a minor and quasi-powerless faction known as "FROLINAT-Originel" from 1974 on. With the rebels weakened due to internal disagreements and reduced Libyan support, the French launched Operation

754:, which was to secure the borders, mitigate crime, and protect the President; the Gendarmerie, which acted as a police force; and the Chadian Army, which consisted of four battalions. The Gendarmerie was the best-trained of all the branches. There was also a small 1551:

On 23 March 1979 Malloum resigned the presidency and went to Nigeria. Power was turned over to an eight-person provisional council headed by Oueddei, pending a permanent solution on government to be decided at a conference in the Nigerian city of

1162:, and 120 French soldiers. The president never completely trusted the regular army, and frequently characterised it as poorly motivated, undisciplined, and ill-trained. He used Moroccans as his personal bodyguards, while French, Israeli, and 1201:

with opening negotiations with the Toubou insurgents. With Aouzou and the surrounding area abandoned by the Chadian Army, Libyan forces began paying "unofficial visits" in the area, distributing gifts and Libyan passports to the populace.

781:(BCSR). These men were ruthless in regards to their readiness to violently suppress dissidents in Chad, and appreciated by the Chadian government as well as the French government. The heavy French involvement in Chad led to accusations of 1441:

By 1973 Tombalbaye's political strength was beginning to wane. In June he arrested Malloum and numerous PPT officials on charges of "political sorcery" for alleged involvement in animal sacrifices. In August he replaced the PPT with the

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FROLINAT and allowing Siddick to set up a base in Tripoli. In November 1971 disaffected students in Fort-Lamy went on strike. The unrest was easily suppressed, but in response the president replaced the army chief of staff General

1095:—and called for the institution of Arabic as an official language of Chad. FROLINAT hoped to secure the backing of Chad's Arab diaspora and Chadian expatriate university students; many of its earliest supporters were students in 80:, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Knowledge. 1593:

GUNT's members deeply distrusted one another and thus the government never fully consolidated. Factional militias were left armed, and by January 1980 Habré's forces were fighting another GUNT signatory group in Wadai.

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military and intelligence service were headed by Frenchmen: Colonel Leverest commanded the Chadian Army, Adjutant-Chef Albert Gelino headed the Gendarmerie, and Camille Gourvennec led the main intelligence office, the

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had no desire to clash with the French who backed Tombalbaye; accordingly the Libyans initially limited themselves to providing non-combat support such as nonlethal supplies and bases. However, the monarchy was

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Mountains. Tombalbaye wanted his forces to remain in the northern town, but the relief column quickly withdrew with the garrison to avoid being attacked in an isolated position. Tombalbaye subsequently tasked

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mutinied and joined rebels in besieging the locale. The Chadian Army mounted several relief expeditions from Bardaï, but were ultimately unsuccessful. Unable to stay the advances of FRONILAT in the BET and

1236:, mainly consisting of Chadian Arabs and operating in the east, and the Second Liberation Army which was composed mainly of Toubou, campaigned in the west and north, and was headed by Goukouni Oueddei and 770:

intervention in the event they were need to ensure the domestic "maintenance of order". Under such circumstances, French military officers would take command of Chadian forces. The French embassy in

66: 729:(PPT). His treatment of opponents, real or imagined, was extremely harsh, filling the prisons with thousands of political prisoners. Civilian demonstrations on 16 September 1963 were crushed by the 1051:

Also in 1966, the Chadian government attempted to mandate the cultivation of food crops in the BET in an attempt to force the local nomads to "sedentarise". The Toubou disliked this treatment, and

1504:. President Malloum sought the help of France. The latter implemented a support operation that halted the rebels in southern Chad at the price of eighteen French military dead and the loss of two 746:

southerners. Few northerners joined, and initially there were only two northerners in the officer corps. From the 1960s to 1979, the armed forces consisted of four branches: the Territorial Guard/

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assumed power in Libya. Gaddafi greatly increased Libyan support for the rebels, including supplying them with weapons. One of FROLINAT's leaders, Mahamat Ali Taher, went to Libya to meet with

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Oueddei asked for a delay in the implementation of the measure. The Chadian authorities attempted to arrest him. In December he and 1,000 of his followers fled to Libya. Oueddei's position as

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military advisers were either directly integrated into the Chadian Armed Forces or incorporated into the garrisons of France's three military bases in the country at Fort-Lamy, Mongo, and

1372:, greatly influenced Gaddafi's perception of Chad as potential threat to his rule. Observers suspected that Gaddafi's declared enemy Israel had been involved in the coup attempt; Israeli 1071:

As revolts spread throughout the countryside, some local leaders coalesced the resistance into small groups. On 22 June 1966, 24 delegates from various Chadian opposition groups met in

1024:. The local administration thereafter imposed restrictions on wearing turbans, growing beards, and assembling in groups. Resentful of this treatment, the residents of Bardaï rebelled. 1388:. The army itself remained poorly equipped, relying on a handful of armed scout cars and 60mm and 81mm mortars. The Air Force only fielded several transport planes and a helicopter. 1376:

agents were still training the Chadian CTS at this point. This contributed to Gaddafi's "obsession" with Chad, and he began to consider Tombalbaye a "tool" of "Israeli imperialism".

1568:(known by its French acronym GUNT) to be sworn in in November. Oueddei became president, an office which was given a largely ceremonial role; Habré became Defence Minister; Colonel 1028:

to ask for the "loan" payments. Embezzlement of tax revenue and the forceful measures of the collectors generated resentment. The situation climaxed on 1 November 1965, when

1158:(CTS), an Israeli-trained unit under his personal control. By 1968, Tombalbaye's military forces consisted of the 1,200-strong Chadian Army, the 700-strong Gendarmerie, the 1535:

Tensions between Malloum and Habré climaxed in early February 1979 when the latter called for a general strike. In late February 1979, Habré ordered about 1,000 men to

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becoming the new leader after eliminating some of his rivals in October 1969. Baghalani was expelled from the movement by Siddick's allies for supposedly engaging in

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in a fight following a dance. The local subprefect reacted harshly, having all the townspeople assembled and paraded nude. Nine people were arrested, including

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FROLINAT's losses left it internally disorganised and susceptible to outside influence. The French were reportedly aided in their campaign through the use of

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gained independence from France in August 1960. The state was left with minimal infrastructure; there were no paved roads or railways. In the northern

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personnel were used to train new recruits rather than Chadians. The French and Congolese were also responsible for equipping some Chadian formations.

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Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article.

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to grow their strength. From roughly April to October, the rain prevented government vehicles from transporting security forces across the

1921:"TCHAD/Affaire Habré: Les arrestations selectives au Tchad, Déby cherche-t-il à intimider des témoins de son implication avant le procès?" 658:) was waged by several rebel factions against two Chadian governments. The initial rebellion erupted in opposition to Chadian President 986: 1271:

The second, larger intervention was launched by the French in April 1969. The military component of the project was later dubbed

48: 17: 321: 113: 1115:(FLT). The FLT never managed to gain much traction, and operated more akin to bandits in parts of eastern Chad such as Wadai. 3489: 3376: 3280: 3204: 3185: 3068: 3672: 666:, extreme corruption, and favoritism. In 1975 Tombalbaye was murdered by his own army, and a military government headed by 1603: 1540: 1309: 91: 1460:, mounted an attack on the presidential palace, killing Tombalbaye. French forces in the capital did not intervene. A 3652: 3640: 3467: 3301: 3256: 3232: 3133: 3114: 3089: 1318:

was absurd and refused to accede to it. Troubled by this and the problems within the French intervention, Ambassador

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Content in this edit is translated from the existing French Knowledge article at ]; see its history for attribution.

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asked the French government to withdraw Arnaud. In late September General Edouard Cortadellas replaced Arnaud as

1187:, Tombalbaye requested French military support under the terms of the Franco-Chad military agreements. President 1520:. Accordingly, Malloum appointed Habré as prime minister on 29 August, and he subsequently formed a government. 766:

answered to the Ministry of Interior, while the Gendarmerie and Army were overseen by the Ministry of Defence.

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By 1967 FROLINAT had grown to become the most significant group in the rebellion. It established footholds in

3910: 3480: 3475: 2765: 1557: 1536: 1369: 979: 1128: 3494: 3312: 925: 1569: 1556:. A total of eleven various Chadian factions were represented when the meeting convened in August with an 1102:

Following FROLINAT's founding, Abatcha and seven recruited students who had received military training in

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a strong air defense artillery: two aircraft of the Chadian air force were shot down in the Tibesti: a

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to unify in his support. Three of his sons stayed behind and armed themselves against the authorities.

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Oueddei to convince him to openly rebel against the government. Once this was done, Taher mobilised

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Following the rise of GUNT, a new phase of civil war and international conflict broke out in Chad.

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had been contested since he assumed the role in 1938, but Chadian actions in the BET led the

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undermined traditional local leaders, causing resentment that contributed to the civil war.

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to destabilize Gaddafi's government and facilitate a coup. This operation, known as the "

1036: 1482: 1033: 3804: 3635: 3603: 3266: 1245: 1237: 552: 483: 2290:. No. 1215. Joint Publications Research Service. 15 September 1972. pp. 5–7. 1266: 1244:. In addition, the Third Liberation Army led by Mohammad Abu Baker Mustafa emerged in 3789: 3769: 3733: 3608: 3520: 3297: 3276: 3252: 3228: 3200: 3181: 3162: 3154: 3129: 3110: 3085: 3064: 1574: 1324: 1224:

Meanwhile, Abatcha's death caused a violent succession struggle among FROLINAT, with

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The Value of Disorder : Autonomy, Prosperity, and Plunder in the Chadian Sahara

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spontaneous peasant revolts erupted throughout Guéra. By 1966 these had spread to

714:, though this quickly morphed into a dictatorship. The country's first president, 667: 583: 198: 3853: 3759: 3723: 3686: 3547: 3537: 3397: 3341: 3291: 3270: 3246: 3242: 3175: 3100: 3079: 3058: 1132: 1084: 855: 812: 722: 651: 444: 1001: 3829: 3784: 3713: 3415: 2914:

Hartley, William D. (February 5, 1979). "A Neighbor That's Under Libya's Gun".

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arranged to ship spare parts to Chad to for the repair of its Soviet weapons.

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French Navy helicopter and French paratroopers during a 1971 operation in Chad

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In 1970, around 200 Libyan dissidents based in Chad launched a raid against

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elements of the eastern rebels agreed to a peace deal with the government.

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irked by the possibility of French administrators subsuming their powers.

3339:

Yost, David S. (1983). "French Policy in Chad and the Libyan Challenge".

3293:

France's Wars in Chad: Military Intervention and Decolonization in Africa

1553: 1509: 1461: 1260: 1241: 1214: 1175: 1103: 865: 743: 276: 151: 1446:(known by its French acronym as MNRCS). He then engaged in a program of 1213:. FROLINAT and other factions were thus able to establish themselves in 3455: 1233: 1205:

Though Aouzou had been relieved, rebel groups took advantage of Chad's

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to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary is

3214:

Hollick, Julian Crandall (August 1982). "Civil War in Chad, 1978-82".

750:, which was responsible for controlling the north of the country; the 1508:

aircraft. Fearful of Gaddafi's influence in Chad, Egyptian President

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On 11 February 1968, FROLINAT leader Abatcha was killed in combat at

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meantime, an OAU peacekeeping mission consisting of troops from the

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Living by the Gun in Chad. Combatants, Impunity and State Formation

2284:"French Military Commander Says New Outbreak of Rebellion Possible" 1108: 1076: 235: 143: 1087:, and the Mouvement National de Libération du Tchad (MNLT) led by 823: 27:

Rebellion against Presidents François Tombalbaye and Félix Malloum

2776: 2484: 1736: 1734: 1169: 338: 3354: 3158: 3144: 3008:"President Malloum of Chad Quits And Leaves With Nigerian Aides" 2460: 1951: 1758: 1746: 1709: 1707: 1705: 1703: 1690: 1688: 1686: 1684: 1682: 1648: 1646: 1644: 1642: 1640: 1638: 1625: 1623: 1621: 1619: 77: 2571: 2426: 2424: 2422: 2420: 2321: 2205: 2203: 2201: 2199: 1968: 1966: 1582: 1373: 1338: 618: 607: 425: 397: 2689: 2687: 2685: 1731: 486:(FROLINAT, Second Liberation Army, Third Liberation Army, FAN) 2259: 2257: 1814: 1812: 1700: 1679: 1635: 1616: 1578: 1210: 1096: 1013: 413: 2791: 2472: 2417: 2215: 2196: 2186: 2184: 2089: 2026: 1963: 3385: 3248:

Limits of Anarchy. Intervention and State Formation in Chad

2682: 2002: 1531:(pictured in the 1960s) became the site of heavy fighting. 703: 598: 589: 578: 559: 528: 516: 497: 478: 365: 295: 283: 271: 259: 177: 2883: 2859: 2745: 2670: 2395: 2393: 2391: 2389: 2387: 2372: 2350: 2348: 2254: 1809: 1547:

Formation of the Transitional Government of National Unity

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National Movement for the Cultural and Social Revolution

2960:(United States ed.). 26 February 1979. p. 47. 2733: 2634: 2622: 2610: 2561: 2559: 2520: 2496: 2436: 2384: 2360: 2345: 2311: 2309: 2242: 2232: 2230: 2154: 2152: 2113: 2065: 2055: 2053: 1978: 1829: 1827: 1787: 1785: 1560:(OAU) committee. On 21 August the delegates signed the 3030: 3018: 2964: 2871: 2164: 1903: 1901: 1899: 1884: 1863: 1797: 1396:

23 billion in aid. Tombalbaye also ceded the disputed

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Second French intervention and splintering of FROLINAT

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Bureau de Coordination et de Synthèse du Renseignement

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1,200 Armed Forces, 700 Gendarmerie, 120 French (1968)

110:{{Translated|fr|Guerre civile tchadienne (1965-1979)}} 2934: 2922: 2844: 2827: 2803: 2714: 2595: 1990: 1658: 1122:, which claimed parts of northern Chad. However King 2996:(United States ed.). 19 March 1979. p. 49. 2658: 2646: 2556: 2532: 2508: 2448: 2405: 2333: 2306: 2294: 2227: 2149: 2125: 2101: 2077: 2050: 2038: 1939: 1851: 1839: 1824: 1782: 1079:(FROLINAT). The new organisation was a union of the 73: 2014: 1896: 1770: 69:

a machine-translated version of the French article.

3180:(online ed.). Havertown: Helion and Company. 1719: 1430: 1282:. The civilian component primarily comprised the 3882: 3173: 2278: 2276: 2274: 2272: 1764: 1752: 1713: 1694: 1652: 1629: 1476: 1118:The rebels also enjoyed covert support from the 3272:Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991 3218:. Vol. 38, no. 7/8. pp. 297–304. 3081:The Roots of Violence: A History of War in Chad 3123: 2577: 2430: 2327: 1957: 1740: 1352:with military officers during a parade in 1970 1170:First French intervention and death of Abatcha 686: 524:(FROLINAT, First Liberation Army; Volcan Army) 98:accompanying your translation by providing an 60:Click for important translation instructions. 47:expand this article with text translated from 3370: 3098: 2797: 2785: 2490: 2478: 2466: 2269: 2221: 2209: 2095: 2032: 2008: 1972: 1585:was to replace the French military presence. 980: 3310: 2951: 2949: 2693: 1564:, which outlined the establishment of a new 3241: 2901: 2190: 721:By January 1962, Tombalbaye had banned all 3377: 3363: 3149:. Area handbook series. Washington, D.C.: 3099:Azevedo, Mario J.; Decalo, Samuel (2018). 1423:his relations with the military. In 1974, 1286:(MRA), headed by former colonial governor 987: 973: 150: 3275:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 3225:Foreign Interventions in Ethnic Conflicts 3222: 3128:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3124:Brachet, Julien; Scheele, Judith (2019). 2946: 2739: 2676: 2399: 2378: 2354: 1566:Transitional Government of National Unity 1384:—well-liked by the students—with Colonel 695:Chadian notables in the 1960s. President 673:Transitional Government of National Unity 210:Transitional Government of National Unity 3311:Solomon, Hussein; Swart, Gerrie (2005). 3174:Cooper, Tom; Grandolini, Albert (2015). 1522: 1343: 690: 3265: 3213: 3142: 3077: 3063:. New York City: Taylor & Francis. 3056: 3039: 3024: 2979: 2913: 2889: 2877: 2838: 2821: 2809: 2751: 2727: 2708: 2604: 2263: 2175: 1996: 1878: 1818: 1803: 1673: 1066: 793: 762:. Until 1975 the Territorial Guard and 737:Chadian Armed Forces and French support 505:(FROLINAT, Second Liberation Army, FAP) 14: 3883: 3289: 3060:Chad: A Nation In Search Of Its Future 2940: 2928: 2865: 2853: 2764:Freund, Andreas (September 10, 1972). 2763: 2757: 2664: 2652: 2640: 2628: 2616: 2589: 2565: 2550: 2538: 2526: 2514: 2502: 2454: 2442: 2411: 2366: 2339: 2315: 2300: 2248: 2236: 2158: 2143: 2131: 2119: 2107: 2083: 2071: 2059: 2044: 1984: 1945: 1857: 1845: 1833: 1791: 1284:Mission pour la réforme administrative 3358: 3194: 1907: 1890: 1776: 1725: 1465:abilities and purges of their ranks. 656:Guerre civile tchadienne de 1965–1979 3338: 2711:, Chapter "International Relations". 2020: 29: 1368:" due to the involvement of Prince 758:and a naval force that operated on 24: 3177:Libyan Air Wars: Part 1: 1973–1985 3105:(4th ed.). Lanham, Maryland: 2288:Translations on Sub-Saharan Africa 1604:Chadian Civil War (disambiguation) 1537:attack Malloum forces in N'Djamena 1310:1969 Chadian presidential election 1217:, Guéra Prefecture and in Bousso, 1156:Compagnies Tchadiennes de Securité 594:Ahmat Acyl (First Liberation Army) 376:FROLINAT's First Liberation Army ( 242:First Liberation Army (until 1975) 25: 3932: 3490:Insurgency in Chad (2016–present) 3384: 1143:exiles for insurgent activities. 1077:National Liberation Front of Chad 251:Third Liberation Army (from 1968) 3510: 3313:"Libya's foreign policy in flux" 3251:. University Press of Virginia. 822: 617: 606: 597: 588: 577: 558: 546: 539: 527: 515: 508: 496: 489: 477: 470: 458: 438: 418: 406: 390: 358: 343: 331: 315: 308: 294: 282: 270: 258: 229: 34: 3349:(4) (Winter ed.): 965–997. 3000: 2985: 2907: 1913: 1541:N'Djamena International Airport 168:1 November 1965 – November 1979 3296:. Cambridge University Press. 3227:. Taylor & Francis Group. 3049: 1431:Political unrest and 1975 coup 648:Chadian Civil War of 1965–1979 108:You may also add the template 13: 1: 3673:Transitional Military Council 3468:Chadian Civil War (2005–2010) 3431:Chadian Civil War (1965–1979) 3290:Powell, Nathaniel K. (2020). 3143:Collelo, Thomas, ed. (1990). 3102:Historical Dictionary of Chad 1609: 1558:Organization of African Unity 1477:Malloum's military government 681: 662:, whose regime was marked by 377: 137:Chadian Civil War (1965–1979) 2916:U.S. News & World Report 1765:Cooper & Grandolini 2015 1753:Cooper & Grandolini 2015 1714:Cooper & Grandolini 2015 1695:Cooper & Grandolini 2015 1653:Cooper & Grandolini 2015 1630:Cooper & Grandolini 2015 1588: 1113:Front de Libération du Tchad 7: 3146:Chad : a country study 1597: 1370:Abdallah al-Abid al Senussi 1301:, who was officially named 687:Political situation in Chad 10: 3937: 3641:Chief of the General Staff 3223:Nalbandov, Robert (2009). 3078:Azevedo, Mario J. (2005). 3057:Azevedo, Mario J. (1998). 2578:Brachet & Scheele 2019 2431:Brachet & Scheele 2019 2328:Brachet & Scheele 2019 1958:Brachet & Scheele 2019 1741:Brachet & Scheele 2019 1480: 1434: 1264: 1160:National and Nomadic Guard 1081:Union Nationale Tchadienne 748:National and Nomadic Guard 72:Machine translation, like 3847: 3755: 3746: 3694: 3685: 3589: 3580: 3528: 3519: 3508: 3396: 3195:Debos, Marielle (2016) . 3151:Federal Research Division 2798:Azevedo & Decalo 2018 2786:Azevedo & Decalo 2018 2491:Azevedo & Decalo 2018 2479:Azevedo & Decalo 2018 2467:Azevedo & Decalo 2018 2222:Azevedo & Decalo 2018 2210:Azevedo & Decalo 2018 2096:Azevedo & Decalo 2018 2033:Azevedo & Decalo 2018 2009:Azevedo & Decalo 2018 1973:Azevedo & Decalo 2018 1570:Wadel Abdelkader Kamougué 1219:Chari-Baguirmi prefecture 727:Chadian Progressive Party 627: 431: 305:Tribal and peasant rebels 254:Various splinter factions 221: 160: 149: 141: 136: 49:the corresponding article 3267:Pollack, Kenneth Michael 3107:Rowman & Littlefield 2694:Solomon & Swart 2005 1925:LeTchadanthropus Tribune 1496:by a 14.5 mm and a 1451:through the traditional 1437:1975 Chadian coup d'état 353:(non-combat, until 1969) 3451:Chadian–Libyan conflict 3446:Transitional government 1366:Black Prince conspiracy 1032:broke out in Mangalmé, 906:Transitional Government 190:Overthrow and death of 119:For more guidance, see 18:First Chadian Civil War 3421:French Colonial Period 2766:"A Small But Real War" 1532: 1353: 1000:soldier was killed in 866:French colonial period 788: 700: 655: 633:3,000 (FROLINAT, 1966) 432:Commanders and leaders 246:Second Liberation Army 3906:Wars involving France 3426:Tombalbaye government 2956:"Civil War in Chad". 1526: 1481:Further information: 1435:Further information: 1347: 1265:Further information: 956:Civil War (2005–2010) 886:Civil War (1965–1979) 876:Tombalbaye government 708:Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti 694: 121:Knowledge:Translation 92:copyright attribution 3911:Wars involving Libya 3472:Battle of N'Djamena 3332:10.1093/afraf/adi006 2992:"Massacre in Chad". 2868:, pp. 122, 124. 2788:, pp. 228, 231. 2493:, pp. 214, 418. 1518:constituent assembly 1458:Noël Milarew Odingar 1067:Founding of FROLINAT 850:1480/1522–1897 846:Sultanate of Bagirmi 794:Outbreak of conflict 731:Chadian Armed Forces 712:parliamentary system 372:Chadian Armed Forces 324:(1969–72, from 1975) 208:and installation of 3411:Kingdom of Baguirmi 3243:Nolutshungu, Sam C. 2892:, pp. 375–376. 2754:, pp. 117–118. 2469:, pp. 230–231. 2266:, pp. 118–119. 1821:, pp. 116–117. 1350:François Tombalbaye 916:Conflict with Libya 716:François Tombalbaye 697:François Tombalbaye 660:François Tombalbaye 623:Edouard Cortadellas 603:Hissène Habré (FAN) 565:François Tombalbaye 192:François Tombalbaye 3901:Civil wars in Chad 3719:Telecommunications 3441:Malloum government 3406:Kanem-Bornu Empire 3012:The New York Times 2770:The New York Times 2592:, pp. 47, 66. 2553:, pp. 47, 49. 2146:, pp. 28, 30. 1960:, pp. 90, 92. 1533: 1354: 1273:Operation Limousin 1129:overthrown in 1969 950:1990–present 896:Malloum government 836:Kanem–Bornu Empire 701: 553:Muammar al-Gaddafi 100:interlanguage link 3878: 3877: 3843: 3842: 3742: 3741: 3681: 3680: 3653:Political parties 3648:National Assembly 3614:Foreign relations 3576: 3575: 3502:COVID-19 pandemic 3282:978-0-8032-0686-1 3206:978-1-78360-532-3 3187:978-1-910777-51-0 3070:978-0-367-01114-7 2824:, pp. 23–24. 2679:, pp. 58–59. 2643:, pp. 67–68. 2631:, pp. 66–67. 2619:, pp. 68–69. 2580:, pp. 93–94. 2529:, pp. 46–47. 2505:, pp. 43–44. 2445:, pp. 40–41. 2381:, pp. 57–58. 2369:, pp. 36–37. 2330:, pp. 92–93. 2251:, pp. 30–31. 2122:, pp. 29–30. 2074:, pp. 32–33. 1987:, pp. 26–27. 1893:, pp. 44–45. 1767:, pp. 27–28. 1755:, pp. 26–27. 1743:, pp. 91–92. 1575:Republic of Congo 1418:Liberation Army. 1331:Délégué militaire 1303:Délégué militaire 1189:Charles de Gaulle 1089:Ahmed Hassan Musa 1018:Oueddei Kichidemi 997: 996: 964: 963: 840:c. 700–1380 756:Chadian Air Force 723:political parties 644: 643: 635:2,000 (FAN, 1978) 217: 216: 132: 131: 61: 57: 16:(Redirected from 3928: 3863: 3856: 3800:List of Chadians 3753: 3752: 3692: 3691: 3587: 3586: 3526: 3525: 3514: 3463:1990 coup d'état 3436:1975 coup d'état 3379: 3372: 3365: 3356: 3355: 3350: 3335: 3326:(416): 469–492. 3317: 3307: 3286: 3262: 3238: 3219: 3210: 3191: 3170: 3139: 3120: 3095: 3074: 3043: 3037: 3028: 3022: 3016: 3015: 3004: 2998: 2997: 2989: 2983: 2977: 2962: 2961: 2953: 2944: 2938: 2932: 2926: 2920: 2919: 2911: 2905: 2902:Nolutshungu 1996 2899: 2893: 2887: 2881: 2875: 2869: 2863: 2857: 2851: 2842: 2836: 2825: 2819: 2813: 2807: 2801: 2795: 2789: 2783: 2774: 2773: 2761: 2755: 2749: 2743: 2737: 2731: 2725: 2712: 2706: 2697: 2691: 2680: 2674: 2668: 2662: 2656: 2650: 2644: 2638: 2632: 2626: 2620: 2614: 2608: 2602: 2593: 2587: 2581: 2575: 2569: 2563: 2554: 2548: 2542: 2536: 2530: 2524: 2518: 2512: 2506: 2500: 2494: 2488: 2482: 2476: 2470: 2464: 2458: 2452: 2446: 2440: 2434: 2428: 2415: 2409: 2403: 2397: 2382: 2376: 2370: 2364: 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534:Mohamed Baghlani 532: 531: 520: 519: 513: 512: 511: 503:Goukouni Oueddei 501: 500: 494: 493: 492: 482: 481: 475: 474: 473: 463: 462: 461: 453: 443: 442: 441: 424: 422: 421: 412: 410: 409: 396: 394: 393: 379: 364: 362: 361: 351:Kingdom of Libya 349: 347: 346: 337: 335: 334: 320: 319: 313: 312: 299: 298: 287: 286: 275: 274: 263: 262: 234: 233: 232: 162: 161: 154: 134: 133: 111: 105: 78:Google Translate 59: 55: 38: 37: 30: 21: 3936: 3935: 3931: 3930: 3929: 3927: 3926: 3925: 3896:1970s conflicts 3891:1960s conflicts 3881: 3880: 3879: 3874: 3866: 3859: 3852: 3839: 3820:Public holidays 3738: 3677: 3631:Law enforcement 3572: 3515: 3506: 3392: 3383: 3353: 3320:African Affairs 3315: 3304: 3283: 3259: 3235: 3216:The World Today 3207: 3188: 3136: 3117: 3092: 3071: 3052: 3047: 3046: 3038: 3031: 3023: 3019: 3006: 3005: 3001: 2991: 2990: 2986: 2978: 2965: 2955: 2954: 2947: 2939: 2935: 2927: 2923: 2912: 2908: 2900: 2896: 2888: 2884: 2876: 2872: 2864: 2860: 2852: 2845: 2837: 2828: 2820: 2816: 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3840: 3838: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3822: 3817: 3812: 3807: 3802: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3756: 3750: 3744: 3743: 3740: 3739: 3737: 3736: 3731: 3726: 3721: 3716: 3711: 3706: 3701: 3695: 3689: 3683: 3682: 3679: 3678: 3676: 3675: 3670: 3668:Prime Minister 3665: 3663:Vice President 3660: 3655: 3650: 3645: 3644: 3643: 3633: 3628: 3627: 3626: 3616: 3611: 3606: 3601: 3596: 3590: 3584: 3578: 3577: 3574: 3573: 3571: 3570: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3550: 3545: 3540: 3535: 3529: 3523: 3517: 3516: 3509: 3507: 3505: 3504: 3499: 3498: 3497: 3495:2021 offensive 3487: 3486: 3485: 3484: 3483: 3478: 3465: 3460: 3459: 3458: 3448: 3443: 3438: 3433: 3428: 3423: 3418: 3416:Ouaddai Empire 3413: 3408: 3402: 3400: 3394: 3393: 3382: 3381: 3374: 3367: 3359: 3352: 3351: 3336: 3308: 3302: 3287: 3281: 3263: 3257: 3239: 3233: 3220: 3211: 3205: 3192: 3186: 3171: 3140: 3134: 3121: 3115: 3096: 3090: 3075: 3069: 3053: 3051: 3048: 3045: 3044: 3029: 3017: 2999: 2984: 2982:, p. 298. 2963: 2945: 2943:, p. 174. 2933: 2931:, p. 168. 2921: 2906: 2894: 2882: 2880:, p. 118. 2870: 2858: 2856:, p. 123. 2843: 2826: 2814: 2802: 2800:, p. 214. 2790: 2775: 2756: 2744: 2740:Nalbandov 2009 2732: 2713: 2698: 2696:, p. 474. 2681: 2677:Nalbandov 2009 2669: 2657: 2645: 2633: 2621: 2609: 2594: 2582: 2570: 2555: 2543: 2531: 2519: 2507: 2495: 2483: 2481:, p. 231. 2471: 2459: 2447: 2435: 2416: 2404: 2400:Nalbandov 2009 2383: 2379:Nalbandov 2009 2371: 2359: 2355:Nalbandov 2009 2344: 2332: 2320: 2305: 2293: 2268: 2253: 2241: 2226: 2224:, p. 416. 2214: 2212:, p. 230. 2195: 2180: 2178:, p. 376. 2163: 2148: 2136: 2124: 2112: 2100: 2098:, p. 229. 2088: 2076: 2064: 2049: 2037: 2035:, p. 342. 2025: 2023:, p. 967. 2013: 2001: 1989: 1977: 1975:, p. 444. 1962: 1950: 1938: 1912: 1895: 1883: 1881:, p. 117. 1862: 1850: 1838: 1823: 1808: 1806:, p. 116. 1796: 1781: 1769: 1757: 1745: 1730: 1718: 1699: 1678: 1676:, p. 375. 1657: 1634: 1614: 1613: 1611: 1608: 1607: 1606: 1599: 1596: 1590: 1587: 1548: 1545: 1478: 1475: 1432: 1429: 1382:Jacques Doumro 1320:Fernand Wibaux 1315:scorched earth 1262: 1259: 1199:Pierre Galopin 1171: 1168: 1124:Idris of Libya 1107:resistance in 1068: 1065: 995: 994: 992: 991: 984: 977: 969: 966: 965: 962: 961: 958: 952: 951: 948: 942: 941: 938: 932: 931: 928: 922: 921: 918: 912: 911: 908: 902: 901: 898: 892: 891: 888: 882: 881: 878: 872: 871: 868: 862: 861: 858: 852: 851: 848: 842: 841: 838: 828: 827: 819: 818: 809: 808: 801: 795: 792: 790: 787: 783:neocolonialism 738: 735: 688: 685: 683: 680: 642: 641: 636: 630: 629: 625: 624: 555: 434: 433: 429: 428: 388: 387: 381: 374: 354: 256: 255: 252: 249: 243: 224: 223: 219: 218: 215: 214: 213: 212: 202: 195: 186: 182: 181: 176: 174: 170: 169: 166: 158: 157: 147: 146: 139: 138: 130: 129: 125: 124: 117: 106: 84: 81: 70: 63: 44: 43: 42: 40: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3933: 3922: 3921:1970s in Chad 3919: 3917: 3916:1960s in Chad 3914: 3912: 3909: 3907: 3904: 3902: 3899: 3897: 3894: 3892: 3889: 3888: 3886: 3871: 3868: 3867: 3862: 3858: 3855: 3851: 3850: 3846: 3836: 3833: 3831: 3828: 3826: 3823: 3821: 3818: 3816: 3813: 3811: 3808: 3806: 3803: 3801: 3798: 3796: 3793: 3791: 3788: 3786: 3783: 3781: 3778: 3776: 3775:Ethnic groups 3773: 3771: 3768: 3766: 3763: 3761: 3758: 3757: 3754: 3751: 3749: 3745: 3735: 3732: 3730: 3727: 3725: 3722: 3720: 3717: 3715: 3712: 3710: 3707: 3705: 3702: 3700: 3697: 3696: 3693: 3690: 3688: 3684: 3674: 3671: 3669: 3666: 3664: 3661: 3659: 3656: 3654: 3651: 3649: 3646: 3642: 3639: 3638: 3637: 3634: 3632: 3629: 3625: 3622: 3621: 3620: 3617: 3615: 3612: 3610: 3607: 3605: 3602: 3600: 3597: 3595: 3592: 3591: 3588: 3585: 3583: 3579: 3569: 3566: 3564: 3561: 3559: 3556: 3554: 3551: 3549: 3546: 3544: 3541: 3539: 3536: 3534: 3531: 3530: 3527: 3524: 3522: 3518: 3513: 3503: 3500: 3496: 3493: 3492: 3491: 3488: 3482: 3479: 3477: 3474: 3473: 3471: 3470: 3469: 3466: 3464: 3461: 3457: 3454: 3453: 3452: 3449: 3447: 3444: 3442: 3439: 3437: 3434: 3432: 3429: 3427: 3424: 3422: 3419: 3417: 3414: 3412: 3409: 3407: 3404: 3403: 3401: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3380: 3375: 3373: 3368: 3366: 3361: 3360: 3357: 3348: 3344: 3343: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3314: 3309: 3305: 3303:9781108800525 3299: 3295: 3294: 3288: 3284: 3278: 3274: 3273: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3258:9780813916286 3254: 3250: 3249: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3234:9780754678625 3230: 3226: 3221: 3217: 3212: 3208: 3202: 3198: 3193: 3189: 3183: 3179: 3178: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3147: 3141: 3137: 3135:9781108428330 3131: 3127: 3122: 3118: 3116:9781538114377 3112: 3108: 3104: 3103: 3097: 3093: 3091:9781135300807 3087: 3084:. Routledge. 3083: 3082: 3076: 3072: 3066: 3062: 3061: 3055: 3054: 3042:, p. 29. 3041: 3036: 3034: 3027:, p. 28. 3026: 3021: 3013: 3009: 3003: 2995: 2988: 2981: 2976: 2974: 2972: 2970: 2968: 2959: 2952: 2950: 2942: 2937: 2930: 2925: 2918:. p. 51. 2917: 2910: 2904:, p. 96. 2903: 2898: 2891: 2886: 2879: 2874: 2867: 2862: 2855: 2850: 2848: 2841:, p. 24. 2840: 2835: 2833: 2831: 2823: 2818: 2812:, p. 23. 2811: 2806: 2799: 2794: 2787: 2782: 2780: 2772:. p. E2. 2771: 2767: 2760: 2753: 2748: 2742:, p. 59. 2741: 2736: 2730:, p. 22. 2729: 2724: 2722: 2720: 2718: 2710: 2705: 2703: 2695: 2690: 2688: 2686: 2678: 2673: 2667:, p. 69. 2666: 2661: 2655:, p. 68. 2654: 2649: 2642: 2637: 2630: 2625: 2618: 2613: 2607:, p. 21. 2606: 2601: 2599: 2591: 2586: 2579: 2574: 2568:, p. 47. 2567: 2562: 2560: 2552: 2547: 2541:, p. 61. 2540: 2535: 2528: 2523: 2517:, p. 46. 2516: 2511: 2504: 2499: 2492: 2487: 2480: 2475: 2468: 2463: 2457:, p. 42. 2456: 2451: 2444: 2439: 2433:, p. 94. 2432: 2427: 2425: 2423: 2421: 2414:, p. 37. 2413: 2408: 2402:, p. 58. 2401: 2396: 2394: 2392: 2390: 2388: 2380: 2375: 2368: 2363: 2357:, p. 57. 2356: 2351: 2349: 2342:, p. 31. 2341: 2336: 2329: 2324: 2318:, p. 40. 2317: 2312: 2310: 2303:, p. 39. 2302: 2297: 2289: 2285: 2279: 2277: 2275: 2273: 2265: 2260: 2258: 2250: 2245: 2239:, p. 33. 2238: 2233: 2231: 2223: 2218: 2211: 2206: 2204: 2202: 2200: 2193:, p. 97. 2192: 2187: 2185: 2177: 2172: 2170: 2168: 2161:, p. 30. 2160: 2155: 2153: 2145: 2140: 2134:, p. 41. 2133: 2128: 2121: 2116: 2110:, p. 29. 2109: 2104: 2097: 2092: 2086:, p. 38. 2085: 2080: 2073: 2068: 2062:, p. 28. 2061: 2056: 2054: 2047:, p. 27. 2046: 2041: 2034: 2029: 2022: 2017: 2011:, p. 13. 2010: 2005: 1999:, p. 20. 1998: 1993: 1986: 1981: 1974: 1969: 1967: 1959: 1954: 1948:, p. 22. 1947: 1942: 1927:. 24 May 2013 1926: 1922: 1916: 1910:, p. 45. 1909: 1904: 1902: 1900: 1892: 1887: 1880: 1875: 1873: 1871: 1869: 1867: 1860:, p. 18. 1859: 1854: 1848:, p. 17. 1847: 1842: 1836:, p. 34. 1835: 1830: 1828: 1820: 1815: 1813: 1805: 1800: 1794:, p. 26. 1793: 1788: 1786: 1779:, p. 44. 1778: 1773: 1766: 1761: 1754: 1749: 1742: 1737: 1735: 1728:, p. 46. 1727: 1722: 1716:, p. 27. 1715: 1710: 1708: 1706: 1704: 1697:, p. 33. 1696: 1691: 1689: 1687: 1685: 1683: 1675: 1670: 1668: 1666: 1664: 1662: 1655:, p. 28. 1654: 1649: 1647: 1645: 1643: 1641: 1639: 1632:, p. 37. 1631: 1626: 1624: 1622: 1620: 1615: 1605: 1602: 1601: 1595: 1586: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1544: 1542: 1538: 1530: 1525: 1521: 1519: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1489: 1484: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1463: 1459: 1454: 1449: 1445: 1438: 1428: 1426: 1425:Mubi-speaking 1421: 1416: 1410: 1408: 1402: 1399: 1395: 1389: 1387: 1386:Felix Malloum 1383: 1377: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1358: 1351: 1346: 1342: 1340: 1334: 1332: 1326: 1321: 1316: 1311: 1306: 1304: 1300: 1299:Michel Arnaud 1294: 1289: 1285: 1279: 1274: 1268: 1258: 1255: 1249: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1238:Hissène Habré 1235: 1231: 1227: 1222: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1203: 1200: 1195: 1194:A4 Skyraiders 1190: 1186: 1181: 1177: 1167: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1144: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1125: 1121: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1105: 1100: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1083:(UNT) led by 1082: 1078: 1074: 1064: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1049: 1047: 1043: 1038: 1035: 1031: 1030:intense riots 1025: 1023: 1020:and his son, 1019: 1016: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 990: 985: 983: 978: 976: 971: 970: 968: 967: 959: 957: 954: 953: 949: 947: 944: 943: 939: 937: 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196: 193: 189: 188: 187: 184: 183: 179: 175: 172: 171: 167: 164: 163: 159: 153: 148: 145: 140: 135: 122: 118: 115: 107: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 82: 79: 75: 71: 68: 65: 64: 58: 52: 50: 45:You can help 41: 32: 31: 19: 3765:Demographics 3729:Trade unions 3619:Human rights 3599:Constitution 3430: 3346: 3340: 3323: 3319: 3292: 3271: 3247: 3224: 3215: 3196: 3176: 3145: 3125: 3101: 3080: 3059: 3040:Collelo 1990 3025:Collelo 1990 3020: 3011: 3002: 2993: 2987: 2980:Hollick 1982 2957: 2936: 2924: 2915: 2909: 2897: 2890:Pollack 2004 2885: 2878:Azevedo 2005 2873: 2861: 2839:Collelo 1990 2822:Collelo 1990 2817: 2810:Collelo 1990 2805: 2793: 2769: 2759: 2752:Azevedo 2005 2747: 2735: 2728:Collelo 1990 2709:Azevedo 1998 2672: 2660: 2648: 2636: 2624: 2612: 2605:Collelo 1990 2585: 2573: 2546: 2534: 2522: 2510: 2498: 2486: 2474: 2462: 2450: 2438: 2407: 2374: 2362: 2335: 2323: 2296: 2287: 2264:Azevedo 2005 2244: 2217: 2176:Pollack 2004 2139: 2127: 2115: 2103: 2091: 2079: 2067: 2040: 2028: 2016: 2004: 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Retrieved 1924: 1915: 1886: 1879:Azevedo 2005 1853: 1841: 1819:Azevedo 2005 1804:Azevedo 2005 1799: 1772: 1760: 1748: 1721: 1674:Pollack 2004 1592: 1562:Lagos Accord 1550: 1534: 1514: 1498:Douglas DC-4 1490: 1486: 1471: 1467: 1452: 1448:Authenticité 1440: 1419: 1414: 1411: 1403: 1398:Aouzou Strip 1390: 1378: 1359: 1355: 1335: 1330: 1307: 1302: 1283: 1270: 1254:Yvon Bourges 1250: 1226:Abba Siddick 1223: 1207:rainy season 1204: 1173: 1155: 1145: 1136: 1117: 1101: 1093:Eastern Bloc 1073:Nyala, Sudan 1070: 1056: 1052: 1050: 1026: 1012: 998: 885: 776: 768: 763: 751: 740: 720: 702: 677: 647: 645: 570: 465:Abba Siddick 450: 401: 356: 326: 267:(until 1975) 238:(from 1966) 227: 222:Belligerents 206:Lagos Accord 142:Part of the 96:edit summary 87: 54: 46: 3795:LGBT rights 3699:Agriculture 3558:Prefectures 3543:Departments 3050:Works cited 2941:Powell 2020 2929:Powell 2020 2866:Powell 2020 2854:Powell 2020 2665:Powell 2020 2653:Powell 2020 2641:Powell 2020 2629:Powell 2020 2617:Powell 2020 2590:Powell 2020 2566:Powell 2020 2551:Powell 2020 2539:Powell 2020 2527:Powell 2020 2515:Powell 2020 2503:Powell 2020 2455:Powell 2020 2443:Powell 2020 2412:Powell 2020 2367:Powell 2020 2340:Powell 2020 2316:Powell 2020 2301:Powell 2020 2249:Powell 2020 2237:Powell 2020 2159:Powell 2020 2144:Powell 2020 2132:Powell 2020 2120:Powell 2020 2108:Powell 2020 2084:Powell 2020 2072:Powell 2020 2060:Powell 2020 2045:Powell 2020 1985:Powell 2020 1946:Powell 2020 1858:Powell 2020 1846:Powell 2020 1834:Powell 2020 1792:Powell 2020 1510:Anwar Sadat 1462:white paper 1323: [ 1291: [ 1288:Pierre Lami 1276: [ 1242:Volcan Army 1104:North Korea 813:History of 291:(from 1976) 279:(from 1970) 277:Volcan Army 204:Signing of 56:(July 2013) 3885:Categories 3805:Literature 3604:Corruption 3456:Toyota War 1908:Debos 2016 1891:Debos 2016 1777:Debos 2016 1726:Debos 2016 1610:References 1348:President 1234:Ahmat Acyl 1046:Lake Fitri 1037:prefecture 936:Toyota War 682:Background 675:" (GUNT). 522:Ahmat Acyl 467:(FROLINAT) 455:(FROLINAT) 3790:Languages 3770:Education 3734:Transport 3709:Companies 3658:President 3609:Elections 3521:Geography 2021:Yost 1983 1931:20 August 1589:Aftermath 1529:N'Djamena 1527:In 1979, 1420:Languedoc 1415:Languedoc 1164:Congolese 926:Habré Era 772:Fort-Lamy 760:Lake Chad 386:(1978–79) 248:(1968–76) 114:talk page 51:in French 3870:Category 3835:Abortion 3825:Religion 3704:Currency 3636:Military 3582:Politics 3568:Wildlife 3390:articles 3269:(2004). 3245:(1996). 3167:44211465 3159:89600373 2994:Newsweek 2958:Newsweek 1598:See also 1109:Dar Sila 946:Déby Era 804:a series 802:Part of 628:Strength 236:FROLINAT 173:Location 144:Cold War 90:provide 3854:Outline 3760:Cuisine 3748:Culture 3724:Tourism 3687:Economy 3594:Borders 3548:Geology 3538:Climate 3398:History 1407:Largeau 1308:In the 1152:Salamat 1044:. Near 1006:Tibesti 571:† 451:† 339:Algeria 201:in 1979 194:in 1975 112:to the 94:in the 53:. 3830:Sports 3785:Health 3714:Mining 3563:Rivers 3533:Cities 3388: 3300: 3279: 3255: 3231: 3203: 3184: 3165: 3157: 3132: 3113: 3088: 3067: 1583:Guinea 1581:, and 1374:Mossad 1339:napalm 1180:Aouzou 1176:Abéché 1141:Toubou 1131:, and 1061:Toubou 1010:Toubou 1002:Bardaï 806:on the 652:French 567: 447: 426:Israel 423: 411: 398:France 395: 363: 348: 336: 185:Result 3861:Index 3815:Music 3810:Media 3553:Lakes 3342:Orbis 3316:(PDF) 1579:Benin 1500:by a 1453:yondo 1362:Sabha 1327:] 1295:] 1280:] 1246:Kanem 1230:graft 1215:Mongo 1211:Sahel 1185:Wadai 1148:Batha 1137:derde 1097:Cairo 1057:derde 1053:derde 1034:Guéra 1014:derde 414:Egypt 380:1975) 322:Libya 74:DeepL 3780:Flag 3624:LGBT 3481:2008 3476:2006 3386:Chad 3298:ISBN 3277:ISBN 3253:ISBN 3229:ISBN 3201:ISBN 3182:ISBN 3163:OCLC 3155:LCCN 3130:ISBN 3111:ISBN 3086:ISBN 3065:ISBN 1933:2020 1554:Kano 1502:SA-7 1494:C-47 815:Chad 744:Sara 704:Chad 646:The 366:Chad 178:Chad 165:Date 88:must 86:You 67:View 3328:doi 3324:104 1394:CFA 789:War 384:FAN 301:FAN 289:FAP 265:FLT 76:or 3887:: 3347:26 3345:. 3322:. 3318:. 3161:. 3153:. 3109:. 3032:^ 3010:. 2966:^ 2948:^ 2846:^ 2829:^ 2778:^ 2768:. 2716:^ 2701:^ 2684:^ 2597:^ 2558:^ 2419:^ 2386:^ 2347:^ 2308:^ 2286:. 2271:^ 2256:^ 2229:^ 2198:^ 2183:^ 2166:^ 2151:^ 2052:^ 1965:^ 1923:. 1898:^ 1865:^ 1826:^ 1811:^ 1784:^ 1733:^ 1702:^ 1681:^ 1660:^ 1637:^ 1618:^ 1577:, 1409:. 1325:fr 1293:fr 1278:fr 1248:. 1150:, 1099:. 1004:, 654:: 378:c. 3378:e 3371:t 3364:v 3334:. 3330:: 3306:. 3285:. 3261:. 3237:. 3209:. 3190:. 3169:. 3138:. 3119:. 3094:. 3073:. 1935:. 988:e 981:t 974:v 671:" 650:( 123:. 116:. 20:)

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