402:
always mesh. On one side of the meter (A), the teeth of the gears close off the fluid flow because the elongated gear on side A is protruding into the measurement chamber, while on the other side of the meter (B), a cavity holds a fixed volume of fluid in a measurement chamber. As the fluid pushes the gears, it rotates them, allowing the fluid in the measurement chamber on side B to be released into the outlet port. Meanwhile, fluid entering the inlet port will be driven into the measurement chamber of side A, which is now open. The teeth on side B will now close off the fluid from entering side B. This cycle continues as the gears rotate and fluid is metered through alternating measurement chambers. Permanent magnets in the rotating gears can transmit a signal to an electric reed switch or current transducer for flow measurement. Though claims for high performance are made, they are generally not as precise as the sliding vane design.
765:
principles as
Venturi and orifice type DP meters, cone meters don't require the same upstream and downstream piping. The cone acts as a conditioning device as well as a differential pressure producer. Upstream requirements are between 0–5 diameters compared to up to 44 diameters for an orifice plate or 22 diameters for a Venturi. Because cone meters are generally of welded construction, it is recommended they are always calibrated prior to service. Inevitably heat effects of welding cause distortions and other effects that prevent tabular data on discharge coefficients with respect to line size, beta ratio and operating Reynolds numbers from being collected and published. Calibrated cone meters have an uncertainty up to ±0.5%. Un-calibrated cone meters have an uncertainty of ±5.0%
1409:
1070:
types of area velocity flowmeter: (1) wetted; and (2) non-contact. Wetted area velocity sensors have to be typically mounted on the bottom of a channel or river and use
Doppler to measure the velocity of the entrained particles. With depth and a programmed cross-section this can then provide discharge flow measurement. Non-contact devices that use laser or radar are mounted above the channel and measure the velocity from above and then use ultrasound to measure the depth of the water from above. Radar devices can only measure surface velocities, whereas laser-based devices can measure velocities sub-surface.
587:
1106:
510:
393:
750:
774:
plates, Venturis and other meters mentioned in this section, and is characterized by
Reynolds numbers below 2000. The primary flow element may consist of a single long capillary tube, a bundle of such tubes, or a long porous plug; such low flows create small pressure differentials but longer flow elements create higher, more easily measured differentials. These flowmeters are particularly sensitive to temperature changes affecting the fluid viscosity and the diameter of the flow element, as can be seen in the governing
1333:
787:
543:
flow velocity. This meter works mechanically much like a single jet meter except that the ports direct the flow at the impeller equally from several points around the circumference of the element, not just one point; this minimizes uneven wear on the impeller and its shaft. Thus these types of meters are recommended to be installed horizontally with its roller index pointing skywards.
2492:. in Frédérique Larrarte and Hubert Chanson, Experiences and Challenges in Sewers: Measurements and Hydrodynamics. International Meeting on Measurements and Hydraulics of Sewers IMMHS'08, Summer School GEMCEA/LCPC, Bouguenais, France, 19–21 August 2008, Hydraulic Model Report No. CH70/08, Div. of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, Dec., pp. 49–66.
803:. Floats are made in many different shapes, with spheres and spherical ellipses being the most common. Some are designed to spin visibly in the fluid stream to aid the user in determining whether the float is stuck or not. Rotameters are available for a wide range of liquids but are most commonly used with water or air. They can be made to reliably measure flow down to 1% accuracy.
1455:. The magnetic flowmeter requires a conducting fluid and a nonconducting pipe liner. The electrodes must not corrode in contact with the process fluid; some magnetic flowmeters have auxiliary transducers installed to clean the electrodes in place. The applied magnetic field is pulsed, which allows the flowmeter to cancel out the effect of stray voltage in the piping system.
333:
flow element produces a series of oscillations of pressure. Generally, the physical property generated by the primary flow element is more convenient to measure than the flow itself. The properties of the primary flow element, and the fidelity of the practical installation to the assumptions made in calibration, are critical factors in the accuracy of the flow measurement.
1488:
1968:
taken and its tracer concentration in relation to that of the injected solution is determined. The flow reference value is determined by using the tracer balance condition between the injected tracer flow and the diluting flow. The procedure is standardised (ISO 9555-1 and ISO 9555-2 for liquid flow in open channels). The best accredited measurement uncertainty is 1%.
822:
detecting optics collects scattered light on a photodetector, which then generates a pulse signal. As the same particle crosses the second beam, the detecting optics collect scattered light on a second photodetector, which converts the incoming light into a second electrical pulse. By measuring the time interval between these pulses, the gas velocity is calculated as
420:
sufficient that the inlet and outlet are always separated from each other thus blocking a free flow of liquid. The mating helical rotors create a progressive cavity which opens to admit fluid, seals itself off and then opens up to the downstream side to release the fluid. This happens in a continuous fashion and the flowrate is calculated from the speed of rotation.
1913:(LDA), focuses a laser beam into a small volume in a flowing fluid containing small particles (naturally occurring or induced). The particles scatter the light with a Doppler shift. Analysis of this shifted wavelength can be used to directly, and with great precision, determine the speed of the particle and thus a close approximation of the fluid velocity.
124:, the flow rate may also be expressed in terms of energy flow, such as gigajoule per hour or BTU per day. The energy flow rate is the volumetric flow rate multiplied by the energy content per unit volume or mass flow rate multiplied by the energy content per unit mass. Energy flow rate is usually derived from mass or volumetric flow rate by the use of a
1858:
blood. One can also calculate the expected speed of sound for a given fluid; this can be compared to the speed of sound empirically measured by an ultrasonic flowmeter for the purposes of monitoring the quality of the flowmeter's measurements. A drop in quality (change in the measured speed of sound) is an indication that the meter needs servicing.
696:
diaphragm pressure transducers with digital readout. Since these meters have significantly lower permanent pressure losses than orifice meters, Dall tubes are widely used for measuring the flow rate of large pipeworks. Differential pressure produced by a Dall tube is higher than
Venturi tube and nozzle, all of them having same throat diameters.
741:
the direction of the flow velocity in addition to its magnitude (after appropriate calibration). Three holes arranged in a line allow the pressure probes to measure the velocity vector in two dimensions. Introduction of more holes, e.g. five holes arranged in a "plus" formation, allow measurement of the three-dimensional velocity vector.
606:, but now with electronic data acquisition) can be traversed over the area of the penstock and velocities averaged to calculate total flow. This may be on the order of hundreds of cubic meters per second. The flow must be kept steady during the traverse of the current meters. Methods for testing hydroelectric turbines are given in
1145:(also called thermal dispersion or thermal displacement flowmeter) technology is used for compressed air, nitrogen, helium, argon, oxygen, and natural gas. In fact, most gases can be measured as long as they are fairly clean and non-corrosive. For more aggressive gases, the meter may be made out of special alloys (e.g.
559:) translates the mechanical action of the Pelton wheel rotating in the liquid flow around an axis into a user-readable rate of flow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The Pelton wheel tends to have all the flow traveling around it with the inlet flow focused on the blades by a jet. The original Pelton wheels were used for the
1351:
Sonar flowmeters have the capacity of measuring the velocity of liquids or gases non-intrusively within the pipe and then leverage this velocity measurement into a flow rate by using the cross-sectional area of the pipe and the line pressure and temperature. The principle behind this flow measurement
903:
Optical flowmeters are very stable with no moving parts and deliver a highly repeatable measurement over the life of the product. Because distance between the two laser sheets does not change, optical flowmeters do not require periodic calibration after their initial commissioning. Optical flowmeters
740:
Averaging pitot tubes (also called impact probes) extend the theory of pitot tube to more than one dimension. A typical averaging pitot tube consists of three or more holes (depending on the type of probe) on the measuring tip arranged in a specific pattern. More holes allow the instrument to measure
449:
Turbine flowmeters are used for the measurement of natural gas and liquid flow. Turbine meters are less accurate than displacement and jet meters at low flow rates, but the measuring element does not occupy or severely restrict the entire path of flow. The flow direction is generally straight through
432:
disk, which is eccentrically mounted. The disk must then "wobble" or nutate about the vertical axis, since the bottom and the top of the disk remain in contact with the mounting chamber. A partition separates the inlet and outlet chambers. As the disk nutates, it gives direct indication of the volume
82:
Flow measurement methods other than positive-displacement flowmeters rely on forces produced by the flowing stream as it overcomes a known constriction, to indirectly calculate flow. Flow may be measured by measuring the velocity of fluid over a known area. For very large flows, tracer methods may be
899:
Laser-based optical flowmeters measure the actual speed of particles, a property which is not dependent on thermal conductivity of gases, variations in gas flow or composition of gases. The operating principle enables optical laser technology to deliver highly accurate flow data, even in challenging
332:
A primary flow element is a device inserted into the flowing fluid that produces a physical property that can be accurately related to flow. For example, an orifice plate produces a pressure drop that is a function of the square of the volume rate of flow through the orifice. A vortex meter primary
1955:
For pipe flows a so-called transit time method is applied where a radiotracer is injected as a pulse into the measured flow. The transit time is defined with the help of radiation detectors placed on the outside of the pipe. The volume flow is obtained by multiplying the measured average fluid flow
1056:
is an exponent which varies with the device used; or it is converted according to empirically derived level/flow data points (a "flow curve"). The flow rate can then be integrated over time into volumetric flow. Level to flow devices are commonly used to measure the flow of surface waters (springs,
919:
describes cases where flowing liquid has a top surface open to the air; the cross-section of the flow is only determined by the shape of the channel on the lower side, and is variable depending on the depth of liquid in the channel. Techniques appropriate for a fixed cross-section of flow in a pipe
798:
is an example of a variable area meter, where a weighted "float" rises in a tapered tube as the flow rate increases; the float stops rising when area between float and tube is large enough that the weight of the float is balanced by the drag of fluid flow. A kind of rotameter used for medical gases
1857:
One advantage of ultrasonic flowmeters is that they can effectively measure the flow rates for a wide variety of fluids, as long as the speed of sound through that fluid is known. For example, ultrasonic flowmeters are used for the measurement of such diverse fluids as liquid natural gas (LNG) and
1844:
beam off the particulates in flowing fluid. The frequency of the transmitted beam is affected by the movement of the particles; this frequency shift can be used to calculate the fluid velocity. For the
Doppler principle to work, there must be a high enough density of sonically reflective materials
1347:
fluids and flows where insertion type flowmeters are not desired. Sonar flowmeters have been widely adopted in mining, metals processing, and upstream oil and gas industries where traditional technologies have certain limitations due to their tolerance to various flow regimes and turn down ratios.
542:
A multiple jet or multijet meter is a velocity type meter which has an impeller which rotates horizontally on a vertical shaft. The impeller element is in a housing in which multiple inlet ports direct the fluid flow at the impeller causing it to rotate in a specific direction in proportion to the
468:–12 in) or higher pipe sizes. Turbine meter bodies are commonly made of bronze, cast Iron, or ductile iron. Internal turbine elements can be plastic or non-corrosive metal alloys. They are accurate in normal working conditions but are greatly affected by the flow profile and fluid conditions.
346:
without letting it out of the pipe. These continuously forming and collapsing volumetric displacements may take the form of pistons reciprocating in cylinders, gear teeth mating against the internal wall of a meter or through a progressive cavity created by rotating oval gears or a helical screw.
345:
may be compared to a bucket and a stopwatch. The stopwatch is started when the flow starts and stopped when the bucket reaches its limit. The volume divided by the time gives the flow rate. For continuous measurements, we need a system of continually filling and emptying buckets to divide the flow
773:
Linear resistance meters, also called laminar flowmeters, measure very low flows at which the measured differential pressure is linearly proportional to the flow and to the fluid viscosity. Such flow is called viscous drag flow or laminar flow, as opposed to the turbulent flow measured by orifice
695:
The Dall tube is a shortened version of a
Venturi meter, with a lower pressure drop than an orifice plate. As with these flowmeters the flow rate in a Dall tube is determined by measuring the pressure drop caused by restriction in the conduit. The pressure differential is typically measured using
401:
An oval gear meter is a positive displacement meter that uses two or more oblong gears configured to rotate at right angles to one another, forming a T shape. Such a meter has two sides, which can be called A and B. No fluid passes through the center of the meter, where the teeth of the two gears
1967:
The radiotracer dilution method is used to calibrate open channel flow measurements. A solution with a known tracer concentration is injected at a constant known velocity into the channel flow. Downstream the tracer solution is thoroughly mixed over the flow cross-section, a continuous sample is
1193:
after von Kármán's 1912 mathematical description of the phenomenon. The frequency at which these vortices alternate sides is essentially proportional to the flow rate of the fluid. Inside, atop, or downstream of the shedder bar is a sensor for measuring the frequency of the vortex shedding. This
1152:
Today, thermal mass flowmeters are used to measure the flow of gases in a growing range of applications, such as chemical reactions or thermal transfer applications that are difficult for other flowmetering technologies. Some other typical applications of flow sensors can be found in the medical
1069:
The cross-sectional area of the flow is calculated from a depth measurement and the average velocity of the flow is measured directly (Doppler and propeller methods are common). Velocity times the cross-sectional area yields a flow rate which can be integrated into volumetric flow. There are two
522:
The paddle wheel meter is designed to be inserted into a pipe fitting, either 'in-line' or insertion style. These are available with wide range of fittings styles, connection methods and materials such as PVDF, polypropylene, and stainless steel. Similar to turbine meters, the paddle wheel meter
419:
Helical gear flowmeters get their name from the shape of their gears or rotors. These rotors resemble the shape of a helix, which is a spiral-shaped structure. As the fluid flows through the meter, it enters the compartments in the rotors, causing the rotors to rotate. The length of the rotor is
1928:
and generate a set of straight fringes. The sensor is then aligned to the flow such that the fringes are perpendicular to the flow direction. As particles pass through the fringes, the
Doppler-shifted light is collected into the photodetector. In another general LDV class, one beam is used as a
1849:
suspended in the fluid. This is in direct contrast to an ultrasonic transit time flowmeter, where bubbles and solid particles reduce the accuracy of the measurement. Due to the dependency on these particles, there are limited applications for
Doppler flowmeters. This technology is also known as
1499:
flowmeters measure the difference of the transit time of ultrasonic pulses propagating in and against the direction of flow. This time difference is a measure for the average velocity of the fluid along the path of the ultrasonic beam. By using the absolute transit times both the averaged fluid
410:
Gear meters differ from oval gear meters in that the measurement chambers are made up of the gaps between the teeth of the gears. These openings divide up the fluid stream and as the gears rotate away from the inlet port, the meter's inner wall closes off the chamber to hold the fixed amount of
518:
Paddle wheel flowmeters consist of three primary components: the paddle wheel sensor, the pipe fitting and the display/controller. The paddle wheel sensor consists of a freely rotating wheel/impeller with embedded magnets which are perpendicular to the flow and will rotate when inserted in the
1153:
field like, for example, CPAP devices, anesthesia equipment or respiratory devices. This is because thermal mass flowmeters monitor variations in one or more of the thermal characteristics (temperature, thermal conductivity, and/or specific heat) of gaseous media to define the mass flow rate.
821:
Optical flowmeters use light to determine flow rate. Small particles which accompany natural and industrial gases pass through two laser beams focused a short distance apart in the flow path in a pipe by illuminating optics. Laser light is scattered when a particle crosses the first beam. The
764:
Cone meters are a newer differential pressure metering device first launched in 1985 by McCrometer in Hemet, CA. The cone meter is a generic yet robust differential pressure (DP) meter that has shown to be resistant to effects of asymmetric and swirling flow. While working with the same basic
1471:
in motion and an applied magnetic field. In this case, the characteristic length of the magnetic field is of the same order of magnitude as the dimensions of the channel. It must be addressed that in the case where localized magnetic fields are used, it is possible to perform local velocity
907:
Commercially available optical flowmeters are capable of measuring flow from 0.1 m/s to faster than 100 m/s (1000:1 turn down ratio) and have been demonstrated to be effective for the measurement of flare gases from oil wells and refineries, a contributor to atmospheric pollution.
257:
Gases are compressible and change volume when placed under pressure, are heated or are cooled. A volume of gas under one set of pressure and temperature conditions is not equivalent to the same gas under different conditions. References will be made to "actual" flow rate through a meter and
484:
The
Woltman meter (invented by Reinhard Woltman in the 19th century) comprises a rotor with helical blades inserted axially in the flow, much like a ducted fan; it can be considered a type of turbine flowmeter. They are commonly referred to as helix meters, and are popular at larger sizes.
471:
Fire meters are a specialized type of turbine meter with approvals for the high flow rates required in fire protection systems. They are often approved by
Underwriters Laboratories (UL) or Factory Mutual (FM) or similar authorities for use in fire protection. Portable turbine meters may be
1698:
445:
The turbine wheel is set in the path of a fluid stream. The flowing fluid impinges on the turbine blades, imparting a force to the blade surface and setting the rotor in motion. When a steady rotation speed has been reached, the speed is proportional to fluid velocity.
441:
The turbine flowmeter (better described as an axial turbine) translates the mechanical action of the turbine rotating in the liquid flow around an axis into a user-readable rate of flow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The turbine tends to have all the flow traveling around it.
1202:
of such a voltage pulse is also proportional to the fluid velocity, a volumetric flow rate is calculated using the cross-sectional area of the flowmeter. The frequency is measured and the flow rate is calculated by the flowmeter electronics using the equation
476:. The meters are normally made of aluminum to be lightweight, and are usually 7.5 cm (3 in) capacity. Water utilities often require them for measurement of water used in construction, pool filling, or where a permanent meter is not yet installed.
526:
Flow displays and controllers are used to receive the signal from the paddle wheel meter and convert it into actual flow rate or total flow values. The processed signal can be used to control the process, generate an alarm, send signals to external etc.
1784:
1097:(ADV) is designed to record instantaneous velocity components at a single point with a relatively high frequency. Measurements are performed by measuring the velocity of particles in a remote sampling volume based upon the Doppler shift effect.
513:
The paddle wheel assembly generates a flow reading from the fluid flowing through the pipe instigating the spinning of the paddlewheel. Magnets in the paddle spin past the sensor. The electrical pulses produced are proportional to the rate of
454:. Strainers are generally required to be installed in front of the meter to protect the measuring element from gravel or other debris that could enter the water distribution system. Turbine meters are generally available for 4 to 30 cm (
519:
flowing medium. As the magnets in the blades spin past the sensor, the paddle wheel meter generates a frequency and voltage signal which is proportional to the flow rate. The faster the flow the higher the frequency and the voltage output.
1484:: Doppler and transit time. While they both utilize ultrasound to make measurements and can be non-invasive (measure flow from outside the tube, pipe or vessel, also called clamp-on device), they measure flow by very different methods.
1924:) to convert the light into an electrical waveform for analysis. In most devices, the original laser light is divided into two beams. In one general LDV class, the two beams are made to intersect at their focal points where they
622:. The pressure is measured either by using laminar plates, an orifice, a nozzle, or a Venturi tube to create an artificial constriction and then measure the pressure loss of fluids as they pass that constriction, or by measuring
396:
A positive displacement flowmeter of the oval gear type. Fluid forces the meshed gears to rotate; each rotation corresponds to a fixed volume of fluid. Counting the revolutions totalizes volume, and the rate is proportional to
1941:
Even though ideally the flowmeter should be unaffected by its environment, in practice this is unlikely to be the case. Often measurement errors originate from incorrect installation or other environment dependent factors.
563:
and consisted of a radial flow turbine with "reaction cups" which not only move with the force of the water on the face but return the flow in opposite direction using this change of fluid direction to further increase the
1427:
Modern innovations in the measurement of flow rate incorporate electronic devices that can correct for varying pressure and temperature (i.e. density) conditions, non-linearities, and for the characteristics of the fluid.
1597:
1878:. Furthermore, a direct measure of the density of the fluid is obtained. Coriolis measurement can be very accurate irrespective of the type of gas or liquid that is measured; the same measurement tube can be used for
319:
per minute or, when describing river flows, cumecs (cubic meters per second) or acre-feet per day. In oceanography a common unit to measure volume transport (volume of water transported by a current for example) is a
904:
require only one installation point, instead of the two installation points typically required by other types of meters. A single installation point is simpler, requires less maintenance and is less prone to errors.
1946:
methods are used when flowmeter is calibrated in the correct flow conditions. The result of a flowmeter calibration will result in two related statistics: a performance indicator metric and a flow rate metric.
682:
is a plate with a hole through it, placed perpendicular to the flow; it constricts the flow, and measuring the pressure differential across the constriction gives the flow rate. It is basically a crude form of
411:
fluid. The outlet port is located in the area where the gears are coming back together. The fluid is forced out of the meter as the gear teeth mesh and reduce the available pockets to nearly zero volume.
433:
of the liquid that has passed through the meter as volumetric flow is indicated by a gearing and register arrangement, which is connected to the disk. It is reliable for flow measurements within 1 percent.
358:
meters, also known as rotary piston or semi-positive displacement meters, are the most common flow measurement devices in the UK and are used for almost all meter sizes up to and including 40 mm (
450:
the meter, allowing for higher flow rates and less pressure loss than displacement-type meters. They are the meter of choice for large commercial users, fire protection, and as master meters for the
2432:
117:. The density of a liquid is almost independent of conditions. This is not the case for gases, the densities of which depend greatly upon pressure, temperature and to a lesser extent, composition.
940:
using various secondary devices (bubblers, ultrasonic, float, and differential pressure are common methods). This depth is converted to a flow rate according to a theoretical formula of the form
372: in). The piston meter operates on the principle of a piston rotating within a chamber of known volume. For each rotation, an amount of water passes through the piston chamber. Through a
1703:
794:
A "variable area meter" measures fluid flow by allowing the cross sectional area of the device to vary in response to the flow, causing some measurable effect that indicates the rate. A
1381:
Likewise, sonar flow measurement uses the same techniques and algorithms employed in underwater acoustics, but applies them to flow measurement of oil and gas wells and flow lines.
315:
For liquids, various units are used depending upon the application and industry, but might include gallons (U.S. or imperial) per minute, liters per second, liters per m per hour,
247:
3839:
1552:
1525:
806:
Another type is a variable area orifice, where a spring-loaded tapered plunger is deflected by flow through an orifice. The displacement can be related to the flow rate.
186:
428:
This is the most commonly used measurement system for measuring water supply in houses. The fluid, most commonly water, enters in one side of the meter and strikes the
974:
1592:
1113:
Thermal mass flowmeters generally use combinations of heated elements and temperature sensors to measure the difference between static and flowing heat transfer to a
1238:
854:
209:
2458:
1956:
velocity by the inner pipe cross-section. This reference flow value is compared with the simultaneous flow value given by the flow measurement to be calibrated.
1824:
1804:
1572:
1318:
1298:
1278:
1258:
1054:
1034:
1014:
994:
894:
874:
153:
1959:
The procedure is standardised (ISO 2975/VII for liquids and BS 5857-2.4 for gases). The best accredited measurement uncertainty for liquids and gases is 0.5%.
1129:
are constant, the meter can provide a direct mass flow readout, and does not need any additional pressure temperature compensation over their specified range.
1169:
use a heated element and a downstream temperature sensor to indicate the air flowrate. Other sensors use a spring-loaded vane. In either case, the vehicle's
1447:
lines. The potential difference is sensed by electrodes aligned perpendicular to the flow and the applied magnetic field. The physical principle at work is
1829:
With wide-beam illumination transit time ultrasound can also be used to measure volume flow independent of the cross-sectional area of the vessel or tube.
2424:
650:
measure the differential pressure before and within the constriction. This method is widely used to measure flow rate in the transmission of gas through
1901:
A beam of laser light impinging on a moving particle will be partially scattered with a change in wavelength proportional to the particle's speed (the
2388:
2305:
2231:
1467:
system is called Lorentz force flowmeter (LFF). An LFF measures the integrated or bulk Lorentz force resulting from the interaction between a
726:. A volumetric rate of flow may be determined by measuring the velocity at different points in the flow and generating the velocity profile.
1061:
are used on flow streams with low solids (typically surface waters), while flumes are used on flows containing low or high solids contents.
920:
are not useful in open channels. Measuring flow in waterways is an important open-channel flow application; such installations are known as
602:
plant can be measured by averaging the flow velocity over the entire area. Propeller-type current meters (similar to the purely mechanical
1388:
The location (or angle) of the object, which is 0 degrees since the flow is moving along the pipe, which is aligned with the sensor array
1161:
In many late model automobiles, a Mass Airflow (MAF) sensor is used to accurately determine the mass flow rate of intake air used in the
1086:) per unit time is added to a flow stream. After complete mixing, the concentration is measured. The dilution rate equals the flow rate.
534:
sensors) offer a relatively low cost, high accuracy option for many flow system applications, typically with water or water-like fluids.
497:
with radial vanes, impinged upon by a single jet. They are increasing in popularity in the UK at larger sizes and are commonplace in the
2737:
1189:
are created. The vortices trail behind the cylinder, alternatively from each side of the bluff body. This vortex trail is called the
607:
2551:
1693:{\displaystyle v={\frac {L}{2\;\cos \left(\alpha \right)}}\;{\frac {t_{\text{up}}-t_{\text{down}}}{t_{\text{up}}\;t_{\text{down}}}}}
2115:
900:
environments which may include high temperature, low flow rates, high pressure, high humidity, pipe vibration and acoustic noise.
2275:
2709:
2661:
2497:
2375:
2098:
1443:
applied to the metering tube, which results in a potential difference proportional to the flow velocity perpendicular to the
2503:
3799:
662:
of Venturi meter ranges from 0.93 to 0.97. The first large-scale Venturi meters to measure liquid flows were developed by
2764:
2517:
113:
such as cubic meters per second or kilograms per second, respectively. These measurements are related by the material's
2794:
2447:
1916:
A number of different techniques and device configurations are available for determining the Doppler shift. All use a
3119:
2625:
2145:
610:
standard 41. Such flow measurements are often commercially important when testing the efficiency of large turbines.
3962:
3849:
57:, which accumulate a fixed volume of fluid and then count the number of times the volume is filled to measure flow.
2336:
2247:
2070:
2048:
1343:
flowmeters are non-intrusive clamp-on devices that measure flow in pipes conveying slurries, corrosive fluids,
1185:(called a shedder bar) in the path of the fluid. As the fluid passes this bar, disturbances in the flow called
1133:
1448:
1190:
1139:; these flow devices can be used to measure flow rates in the range of nanoliters or microliters per minute.
775:
3410:
1930:
1851:
1094:
565:
3573:
3375:
2399:
1929:
reference and the other is Doppler-scattered. Both beams are then collected onto the photodetector where
1779:{\displaystyle c={\frac {L}{2}}\;{\frac {t_{\text{up}}+t_{\text{down}}}{t_{\text{up}}\;t_{\text{down}}}}}
1198:
crystal, which produces a small, but measurable, voltage pulse every time a vortex is created. Since the
722:
at its side is measured, yielding the dynamic pressure from which the fluid velocity is calculated using
714:
is used to measure fluid flow velocity. The tube is pointed into the flow and the difference between the
342:
54:
1132:
Technological progress has allowed the manufacture of thermal mass flowmeters on a microscopic scale as
687:, but with higher energy losses. There are three type of orifice: concentric, eccentric, and segmental.
3355:
3200:
3185:
1162:
214:
17:
3460:
2297:
2007:
1906:
1530:
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1452:
451:
3190:
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1503:
619:
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1982:
1170:
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723:
290:
1408:
162:
3916:
3859:
3588:
3558:
2889:
2787:
815:
560:
41:
in various ways. The common types of flowmeters with industrial applications are listed below:
1399:
The speed of propagation through the array (i.e. the flow velocity of the medium in the pipe).
943:
3901:
3854:
3610:
3553:
3538:
3010:
2135:
2002:
1577:
1481:
800:
659:
286:
66:
2065:. Harlow: Longman in association with the Institute of Measurement and Control. p. 21.
1363:
The speed of sound propagation through the array (i.e., the speed of sound through seawater)
1206:
1121:
and density. The fluid temperature is also measured and compensated for. If the density and
3957:
3600:
3169:
3077:
2979:
2726:
2585:
Drost, CJ (1978). "Vessel Diameter-Independent Volume Flow Measurements Using Ultrasound".
2012:
1921:
1356:
825:
298:
194:
99:
285:
flow rate can be directly measured, independent of pressure and temperature effects, with
8:
3931:
3789:
3430:
3026:
2560:
2036:
1875:
1436:
1413:
1173:
interprets the sensor signals as a real-time indication of an engine's fuel requirement.
715:
627:
603:
599:
392:
2489:
Acoustic Doppler Velocimetry (ADV) in the Field and in Laboratory: Practical Experiences
1105:
83:
used to deduce the flow rate from the change in concentration of a dye or radioisotope.
3885:
3784:
3706:
3543:
3508:
3405:
3385:
3280:
3255:
3056:
2949:
2819:
2356:(6th ed.). New York: The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. pp. 77–78.
1992:
1809:
1789:
1557:
1303:
1283:
1263:
1243:
1039:
1019:
999:
979:
879:
859:
651:
138:
92:
1324:, which is essentially a constant for a given body shape within its operating limits.
3921:
3844:
3533:
3380:
3365:
3285:
3265:
3230:
3083:
3046:
2944:
2780:
2705:
2657:
2621:
2493:
2371:
2332:
2248:
Report Number 3: Orifice Metering of Natural Gas and Other Related Hydrocarbon Fluids
2141:
2094:
2066:
2044:
1925:
916:
749:
3926:
3691:
3500:
3450:
3275:
3195:
3154:
3114:
2874:
2839:
2682:
2267:
2210:
1987:
1166:
758:
663:
631:
96:
509:
120:
When gases or liquids are transferred for their energy content, as in the sale of
3754:
3630:
3620:
3320:
3270:
3260:
3240:
3220:
3144:
3036:
2959:
2934:
2487:
1867:
1344:
1321:
719:
647:
623:
294:
110:
71:
3794:
3764:
3759:
3711:
3645:
3475:
3470:
3295:
3290:
3134:
3072:
3016:
2964:
2899:
2844:
2686:
2483:
2086:
1902:
1871:
1500:
velocity and the speed of sound can be calculated. Using the two transit times
1440:
1421:
1109:
Temperature difference between the sensors varies depending upon the mass flow.
643:
556:
498:
103:
75:
586:
3946:
3911:
3875:
3744:
3681:
3350:
3250:
3159:
3051:
3031:
2859:
2854:
2526:
2185:
2164:
1917:
1837:
1195:
1122:
1118:
684:
679:
581:
305:
125:
3804:
3721:
3661:
3640:
3635:
3548:
3523:
3465:
3445:
3435:
3420:
3360:
3345:
3315:
3300:
3235:
3215:
3164:
3109:
2974:
2954:
2884:
1870:
that causes a laterally vibrating tube to distort, a direct measurement of
1468:
1367:
921:
655:
552:
531:
473:
1332:
3749:
3726:
3701:
3686:
3578:
3455:
3440:
3425:
3370:
3340:
3335:
3325:
3310:
3305:
3225:
3210:
2984:
2924:
2017:
1893:
Coriolis flowmeters can be used for the measurement of natural gas flow.
1887:
121:
590:
A propeller-type current meter as used for hydroelectric turbine testing
3809:
3696:
3676:
3563:
3528:
3490:
3485:
3330:
3205:
2969:
2929:
1977:
1910:
1846:
1841:
1182:
711:
705:
667:
3840:
International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO)
1403:
786:
3814:
3671:
3666:
3605:
3139:
3104:
3067:
2939:
2904:
2869:
2864:
2834:
2553:
Field Trials and Pragmatic Development of SONAR Flow Meter Technology
1997:
1199:
1146:
795:
754:
523:
require a minimum run of straight pipe before and after the sensor.
3880:
3568:
2914:
2894:
2849:
2824:
2803:
2134:
Arregui, Francisco; Cabrera, Enrique Jr.; Cobacho, Ricardo (2006).
1879:
1186:
1057:
streams, and rivers), industrial discharges, and sewage. Of these,
595:
494:
429:
381:
377:
321:
1472:
measurements and thus the term Lorentz force velocimeter is used.
258:"standard" or "base" flow rate through a meter with units such as
3819:
3716:
3625:
3513:
3415:
3245:
3149:
3129:
3005:
1943:
1883:
1136:
735:
569:
114:
2760:
2758:
1554:
and the distance between receiving and transmitting transducers
1475:
932:
The level of the water is measured at a designated point behind
3906:
3615:
3583:
3089:
3062:
2919:
2909:
355:
316:
132:
1806:
is the average velocity of the fluid along the sound path and
1487:
666:, who used them to measure small and large flows of water and
3518:
3480:
3124:
3094:
2755:
2448:"Environment Agency Field Test Report – TIENet 360 LaserFlow"
2116:
Report Number 7: Measurement of Natural Gas by Turbine Meters
1417:
1340:
1126:
1114:
1058:
937:
757:
shown with ANSI 300# (21 bar; 2.1 MPa) raised face
34:
1149:), and pre-drying the gas also helps to minimize corrosion.
3595:
3400:
2989:
2879:
2772:
1444:
1384:
To measure flow velocity, sonar flowmeters use two knowns:
1083:
933:
373:
156:
304:
Further information on the Sage Prism flowmeter from:
1458:
1359:, to locate an object underwater, sonar uses two knowns:
1079:
45:
Obstruction type (differential pressure or variable area)
2268:"Best Gas Flow Measurement & Meter Types | E-direct"
2186:"Gas Flow Measurement – Different Types of Flow Meters"
107:
2425:"Desk.com – Site Not Found (Subdomain Does Not Exist)"
1181:
Another method of flow measurement involves placing a
354:
Because they are used for domestic water measurement,
2559:. North Sea Flow Measurement Workshop. Archived from
2133:
1812:
1792:
1706:
1600:
1580:
1560:
1533:
1506:
1306:
1300:
is the velocity of the flow over the bluff body, and
1286:
1266:
1246:
1209:
1042:
1022:
1002:
982:
946:
882:
862:
828:
217:
197:
165:
141:
37:
movement. Flow can be measured using devices called
2519:
An Overview of Non-Invasive Flow Measurements Method
2417:
1439:, often called "mag meter"s or "electromag"s, use a
1404:
Electromagnetic, ultrasonic and Coriolis flowmeters
1391:
The spacing between the sensors in the sensor array
1117:and infer its flow with a knowledge of the fluid's
472:temporarily installed to measure water used from a
211:, mass and volumetric flow rates may be related by
2246:
2114:
1818:
1798:
1778:
1692:
1586:
1566:
1546:
1519:
1312:
1292:
1272:
1252:
1232:
1048:
1028:
1008:
988:
968:
888:
868:
848:
618:There are several types of flowmeter that rely on
241:
203:
180:
147:
1896:
86:
3944:
2331:(3rd ed.). Mcgraw Hill. p. 6.16–6.18.
911:
2727:"Calibration and Standards in Flow Measurement"
2482:
1089:
670:beginning at the very end of the 19th century.
2180:
2178:
2788:
2673:Cornish, D (1994). "Instrument performance".
2587:Proceedings of San Diego Biomedical Symposium
1476:Ultrasonic flowmeters (Doppler, transit time)
1280:the characteristic length of the bluff body,
349:
2525:. The Americas Workshop 2009. Archived from
2476:
876:is the distance between the laser beams and
91:Both gas and liquid flow can be measured in
2368:Concepts of Chemical Engineering 4 Chemists
2175:
781:
768:
270:(thousand standard cubic meters per hour),
2795:
2781:
2354:Fluid Meters, Their Theory and Application
2265:
1762:
1723:
1676:
1637:
1616:
1100:
1962:
1327:
646:constricts the flow in some fashion, and
2159:
2157:
1486:
1407:
1331:
1104:
785:
748:
613:
585:
508:
493:A single jet meter consists of a simple
391:
336:
3850:Plumbing & Drainage Institute (PDI)
2672:
2435:from the original on 25 September 2015.
2060:
1933:is used to extract the Doppler signal.
1366:The spacing between the sensors in the
729:
530:Paddle wheel flowmeters (also known as
327:
278:(million standard cubic feet per day).
14:
3945:
2618:Introductory guide to Flow Measurement
2464:from the original on 25 September 2015
2326:
2308:from the original on 27 September 2017
2278:from the original on 27 September 2017
2165:"Paddle Wheel Principles of Operation"
2140:. London: IWA Publishing. p. 33.
2085:
1950:
1861:
1459:Non-contact electromagnetic flowmeters
1431:
1377:The location (or angle) of the object.
423:
135:flow rate is usually given the symbol
2776:
2699:
2654:Selected on Laser Doppler Velocimetry
2615:
2584:
2506:from the original on 28 October 2009.
2329:Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook
2154:
809:
537:
504:
27:Quantification of bulk fluid movement
3800:Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing
2351:
1352:is the use of underwater acoustics.
1176:
436:
266:(standard cubic meters per second),
2743:from the original on 29 August 2017
2734:Handbook of Measuring System Design
488:
24:
2445:
2370:Royal Society of Chemistry,(2007)
2298:"Cone DP Meter Calibration Issues"
2091:Experimental methods for engineers
1260:is the frequency of the vortices,
387:
25:
3974:
3120:Push-to-pull compression fittings
2724:
2137:Integrated Water Meter Management
1395:and then calculates the unknown:
1373:and then calculates the unknown:
1156:
242:{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}=\rho Q}
1064:
927:
718:at the tip of the probe and the
673:
637:
575:
479:
324:(Sv) equivalent to 10 m/s.
262:(actual cubic meters per hour),
55:Positive-displacement flowmeters
2718:
2693:
2666:
2646:
2634:
2609:
2597:
2578:
2544:
2510:
2457:. RS Hydro-Environment Agency.
2439:
2381:
2360:
2345:
2320:
2290:
2259:
2239:
1547:{\displaystyle t_{\text{down}}}
1491:Schematic view of a flow sensor
555:turbine (better described as a
546:
414:
60:Fluid dynamic (vortex shedding)
2704:. Cambridge University Press.
2652:Adrian, R. J., editor (1993);
2224:
2204:
2127:
2107:
2079:
2054:
2030:
1936:
1897:Laser Doppler flow measurement
1073:
744:
87:Kinds and units of measurement
33:is the quantification of bulk
13:
1:
2765:Finnish Accreditation Service
2656:, S.P.I.E. Milestone Series,
2352:Bean, Howard S., ed. (1971).
2023:
1840:resulting from reflecting an
1594:one can write the equations:
1520:{\displaystyle t_{\text{up}}}
912:Open-channel flow measurement
790:Techfluid-CG34-2500 rotameter
699:
405:
274:(linear feet per minute), or
131:In engineering contexts, the
3860:World Plumbing Council (WPC)
3411:Reduced pressure zone device
2802:
2389:"Flare Metering with Optics"
2061:Furness, Richard A. (1989).
1931:optical heterodyne detection
1852:acoustic Doppler velocimetry
1480:There are two main types of
1412:A magnetic flowmeter at the
1095:Acoustic Doppler velocimetry
1090:Acoustic Doppler velocimetry
753:8-inch (203 mm) V-cone
690:
376:mechanism and, sometimes, a
7:
3855:Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC)
3574:Instant hot water dispenser
3376:Piping and plumbing fitting
2327:Miller, Richard W. (1996).
1971:
1845:such as solid particles or
1336:Sonar flowmeter on gas line
384:type display are advanced.
343:positive displacement meter
191:For a fluid having density
10:
3979:
3201:Backflow prevention device
3186:Atmospheric vacuum breaker
2687:10.1177/002029409402701004
2302:Pipeline & Gas Journal
1574:and the inclination angle
1163:internal combustion engine
813:
733:
703:
654:, and has been used since
579:
350:Piston meter/rotary piston
303:
181:{\displaystyle {\dot {m}}}
48:Inferential (turbine type)
3894:
3868:
3828:
3773:
3735:
3654:
3499:
3461:Thermostatic mixing valve
3178:
2998:
2810:
2702:Flow Measurement Handbook
2008:Laser Doppler velocimetry
1907:laser Doppler velocimeter
1465:Lorentz force velocimetry
1453:electromagnetic induction
776:Hagen–Poiseuille equation
452:water distribution system
380:drive, a needle dial and
310:
3191:Automatic bleeding valve
2830:Compatibility (chemical)
2700:Baker, Roger C. (2016).
2641:American Gas Association
2616:Baker, Roger C. (2003).
2604:American Gas Association
2429:help.openchannelflow.com
2253:American Gas Association
2221:: Builders Iron Foundry.
2219:Providence, Rhode Island
2121:American Gas Association
1911:laser Doppler anemometer
1191:Von Kármán vortex street
1036:is the water level, and
969:{\displaystyle Q=KH^{X}}
814:Not to be confused with
782:Variable-area flowmeters
769:Linear resistance meters
660:coefficient of discharge
3963:Medical ultrasonography
3396:Pressure-balanced valve
3391:Pressure vacuum breaker
3100:Pipe (fluid conveyance)
3042:Drain-waste-vent system
3022:Chemical drain cleaners
2675:Measurement and Control
2093:. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
1983:Automatic meter reading
1836:flowmeters measure the
1826:is the speed of sound.
1587:{\displaystyle \alpha }
1171:electronic control unit
1125:characteristics of the
1101:Thermal mass flowmeters
291:thermal mass flowmeters
3917:Template:Public health
3589:water recycling shower
3559:Hot water storage tank
2890:Onsite sewage facility
2063:Fluid flow measurement
1963:Tracer dilution method
1820:
1800:
1780:
1694:
1588:
1568:
1548:
1521:
1492:
1424:
1337:
1328:Sonar flow measurement
1314:
1294:
1274:
1254:
1234:
1233:{\displaystyle f=SV/L}
1143:Thermal mass flowmeter
1110:
1050:
1030:
1010:
990:
970:
896:is the time interval.
890:
870:
850:
791:
761:
591:
515:
398:
287:ultrasonic flow meters
252:
243:
205:
182:
159:flow rate, the symbol
149:
3902:Fire sprinkler system
3611:Tankless water heater
3554:Garbage disposal unit
3539:Electric water boiler
3011:British Standard Pipe
2003:Ultrasonic flow meter
1909:(LDV), also called a
1874:can be obtained in a
1821:
1801:
1781:
1695:
1589:
1569:
1549:
1522:
1490:
1482:ultrasonic flowmeters
1411:
1335:
1315:
1295:
1275:
1255:
1235:
1108:
1051:
1031:
1011:
991:
971:
891:
871:
851:
849:{\displaystyle V=D/t}
801:Thorpe tube flowmeter
789:
752:
620:Bernoulli's principle
614:Pressure-based meters
594:Flow through a large
589:
512:
395:
337:Mechanical flowmeters
299:mass flow controllers
244:
206:
204:{\displaystyle \rho }
183:
150:
67:Ultrasonic flow meter
3601:Storage water heater
3170:Water heat recycling
3078:National Pipe Thread
2980:Water supply network
2366:Stefaan J.R.Simons,
2013:Primary flow element
1922:avalanche photodiode
1810:
1790:
1704:
1598:
1578:
1558:
1531:
1504:
1357:underwater acoustics
1304:
1284:
1264:
1244:
1207:
1040:
1020:
1000:
980:
944:
880:
860:
826:
816:Optical-flow sensors
730:Averaging pitot tube
724:Bernoulli's equation
628:stagnation pressures
328:Primary flow element
215:
195:
163:
139:
100:volumetric flow rate
3932:Template:Wastewater
3790:Hydrostatic testing
3431:Rooftop water tower
3027:Compression fitting
1951:Transit time method
1862:Coriolis flowmeters
1437:Magnetic flowmeters
1432:Magnetic flowmeters
716:stagnation pressure
604:Ekman current meter
600:hydroelectric power
561:generation of power
424:Nutating disk meter
93:physical quantities
3886:Waterborne disease
3785:Hydronic balancing
3544:Evaporative cooler
3509:Accessible bathtub
3406:Radiator (heating)
3386:Pressure regulator
3281:Double check valve
3256:Concentric reducer
3057:Garden Hose Thread
2950:Thermal insulation
2820:Air gap (plumbing)
2566:on 2 February 2017
2532:on 2 February 2017
2396:photon-control.com
2192:. 24 November 2020
2169:iCenta Flow Meters
2043:, CRC Press, 1993
1993:Ford viscosity cup
1876:coriolis flowmeter
1816:
1796:
1776:
1690:
1584:
1564:
1544:
1517:
1493:
1425:
1338:
1310:
1290:
1270:
1250:
1230:
1194:sensor is often a
1111:
1078:A known amount of
1046:
1026:
1006:
996:is the flow rate,
986:
966:
886:
866:
846:
810:Optical flowmeters
792:
762:
598:such as used at a
592:
538:Multiple jet meter
516:
505:Paddle wheel meter
399:
239:
201:
178:
145:
106:, with respective
3940:
3939:
3922:Template:Sewerage
3869:Health and safety
3845:NSF International
3655:Specialized tools
3534:Drinking fountain
3501:Plumbing fixtures
3381:Plug (sanitation)
3366:Nipple (plumbing)
3286:Eccentric reducer
3266:Coupling (piping)
3231:Chemigation valve
3084:Nominal Pipe Size
3047:Ductile iron pipe
2945:Thermal expansion
2711:978-1-107-04586-6
2662:978-0-8194-1297-3
2499:978-1-86499-928-0
2446:Severn, Richard.
2405:on 28 August 2008
2376:978-0-85404-951-6
2255:. September 2012.
2211:Herschel, Clemens
2171:. 4 January 2024.
2100:978-0-07-366055-4
1819:{\displaystyle c}
1799:{\displaystyle v}
1774:
1770:
1759:
1747:
1734:
1721:
1688:
1684:
1673:
1661:
1648:
1635:
1567:{\displaystyle L}
1541:
1514:
1313:{\displaystyle S}
1293:{\displaystyle V}
1273:{\displaystyle L}
1253:{\displaystyle f}
1177:Vortex flowmeters
1167:mass flow sensors
1049:{\displaystyle X}
1029:{\displaystyle H}
1009:{\displaystyle K}
989:{\displaystyle Q}
917:Open channel flow
889:{\displaystyle t}
869:{\displaystyle D}
759:weld neck flanges
437:Turbine flowmeter
227:
175:
148:{\displaystyle Q}
16:(Redirected from
3970:
3927:Template:Toilets
3692:Flare-nut wrench
3451:Submersible pump
3276:Dielectric union
3196:Automatic faucet
3155:Thread seal tape
3115:Plastic pipework
2875:Hydrostatic loop
2840:Drain (plumbing)
2797:
2790:
2783:
2774:
2773:
2767:
2762:
2753:
2752:
2750:
2748:
2742:
2731:
2725:Paton, Richard.
2722:
2716:
2715:
2697:
2691:
2690:
2670:
2664:
2650:
2644:
2643:Report Number 11
2638:
2632:
2631:
2613:
2607:
2601:
2595:
2594:
2582:
2576:
2575:
2573:
2571:
2565:
2558:
2548:
2542:
2541:
2539:
2537:
2531:
2524:
2514:
2508:
2507:
2480:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2469:
2463:
2452:
2443:
2437:
2436:
2421:
2415:
2414:
2412:
2410:
2404:
2398:. Archived from
2393:
2385:
2379:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2349:
2343:
2342:
2324:
2318:
2317:
2315:
2313:
2294:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2283:
2272:endressdirect.us
2266:Endress+Hauser.
2263:
2257:
2256:
2250:
2243:
2237:
2233:Flow Measurement
2228:
2222:
2208:
2202:
2201:
2199:
2197:
2182:
2173:
2172:
2161:
2152:
2151:
2131:
2125:
2124:
2123:. February 2006.
2118:
2111:
2105:
2104:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2058:
2052:
2041:Flow Measurement
2034:
1825:
1823:
1822:
1817:
1805:
1803:
1802:
1797:
1785:
1783:
1782:
1777:
1775:
1773:
1772:
1771:
1768:
1761:
1760:
1757:
1750:
1749:
1748:
1745:
1736:
1735:
1732:
1725:
1722:
1714:
1699:
1697:
1696:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1686:
1685:
1682:
1675:
1674:
1671:
1664:
1663:
1662:
1659:
1650:
1649:
1646:
1639:
1636:
1634:
1633:
1608:
1593:
1591:
1590:
1585:
1573:
1571:
1570:
1565:
1553:
1551:
1550:
1545:
1543:
1542:
1539:
1526:
1524:
1523:
1518:
1516:
1515:
1512:
1414:Tetley's Brewery
1319:
1317:
1316:
1311:
1299:
1297:
1296:
1291:
1279:
1277:
1276:
1271:
1259:
1257:
1256:
1251:
1239:
1237:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1055:
1053:
1052:
1047:
1035:
1033:
1032:
1027:
1015:
1013:
1012:
1007:
995:
993:
992:
987:
975:
973:
972:
967:
965:
964:
895:
893:
892:
887:
875:
873:
872:
867:
855:
853:
852:
847:
842:
664:Clemens Herschel
648:pressure sensors
632:dynamic pressure
489:Single jet meter
467:
466:
462:
459:
371:
370:
366:
363:
248:
246:
245:
240:
229:
228:
220:
210:
208:
207:
202:
187:
185:
184:
179:
177:
176:
168:
154:
152:
151:
146:
31:Flow measurement
21:
3978:
3977:
3973:
3972:
3971:
3969:
3968:
3967:
3943:
3942:
3941:
3936:
3890:
3864:
3832:
3830:
3824:
3777:
3775:
3769:
3755:Pressure sensor
3737:
3731:
3707:Plumber's snake
3650:
3631:Water dispenser
3621:Washing machine
3495:
3321:Flushing trough
3271:Diaphragm valve
3261:Condensate pump
3241:Circulator pump
3221:Butterfly valve
3174:
3145:Solvent welding
3037:Crimp (joining)
2994:
2960:Trap (plumbing)
2935:Surface tension
2812:
2806:
2801:
2771:
2770:
2763:
2756:
2746:
2744:
2740:
2729:
2723:
2719:
2712:
2698:
2694:
2681:(10): 323–328.
2671:
2667:
2651:
2647:
2639:
2635:
2628:
2614:
2610:
2606:Report Number 9
2602:
2598:
2583:
2579:
2569:
2567:
2563:
2556:
2550:
2549:
2545:
2535:
2533:
2529:
2522:
2516:
2515:
2511:
2500:
2484:Chanson, Hubert
2481:
2477:
2467:
2465:
2461:
2450:
2444:
2440:
2423:
2422:
2418:
2408:
2406:
2402:
2391:
2387:
2386:
2382:
2365:
2361:
2350:
2346:
2339:
2325:
2321:
2311:
2309:
2296:
2295:
2291:
2281:
2279:
2264:
2260:
2245:
2244:
2240:
2229:
2225:
2215:Measuring Water
2209:
2205:
2195:
2193:
2184:
2183:
2176:
2163:
2162:
2155:
2148:
2132:
2128:
2113:
2112:
2108:
2101:
2087:Holman, J. Alan
2084:
2080:
2073:
2059:
2055:
2035:
2031:
2026:
1988:Flowmeter error
1974:
1965:
1953:
1939:
1899:
1868:Coriolis effect
1864:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1791:
1788:
1787:
1767:
1763:
1756:
1752:
1751:
1744:
1740:
1731:
1727:
1726:
1724:
1713:
1705:
1702:
1701:
1681:
1677:
1670:
1666:
1665:
1658:
1654:
1645:
1641:
1640:
1638:
1623:
1612:
1607:
1599:
1596:
1595:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1559:
1556:
1555:
1538:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1528:
1511:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1501:
1478:
1461:
1434:
1406:
1330:
1322:Strouhal number
1305:
1302:
1301:
1285:
1282:
1281:
1265:
1262:
1261:
1245:
1242:
1241:
1222:
1208:
1205:
1204:
1179:
1159:
1103:
1092:
1076:
1067:
1041:
1038:
1037:
1021:
1018:
1017:
1016:is a constant,
1001:
998:
997:
981:
978:
977:
960:
956:
945:
942:
941:
930:
914:
881:
878:
877:
861:
858:
857:
838:
827:
824:
823:
819:
812:
784:
771:
747:
738:
732:
720:static pressure
708:
702:
693:
676:
640:
616:
584:
578:
549:
540:
507:
491:
482:
464:
460:
457:
455:
439:
426:
417:
408:
390:
388:Oval gear meter
368:
364:
361:
359:
352:
339:
330:
313:
308:
295:mass flowmeters
255:
219:
218:
216:
213:
212:
196:
193:
192:
167:
166:
164:
161:
160:
140:
137:
136:
104:mass flow rates
89:
72:Mass flow meter
51:Electromagnetic
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3976:
3966:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3953:Fluid dynamics
3938:
3937:
3935:
3934:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3909:
3904:
3898:
3896:
3892:
3891:
3889:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3872:
3870:
3866:
3865:
3863:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3836:
3834:
3831:organizations
3826:
3825:
3823:
3822:
3817:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3795:Leak detection
3792:
3787:
3781:
3779:
3771:
3770:
3768:
3767:
3765:Water metering
3762:
3760:Water detector
3757:
3752:
3747:
3741:
3739:
3733:
3732:
3730:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3712:Plumber wrench
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3658:
3656:
3652:
3651:
3649:
3648:
3646:Water softener
3643:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3592:
3591:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3505:
3503:
3497:
3496:
3494:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3476:Vacuum ejector
3473:
3471:Vacuum breaker
3468:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3338:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3296:Faucet aerator
3293:
3291:Expansion tank
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3182:
3180:
3176:
3175:
3173:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3135:Sewage pumping
3132:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3081:
3075:
3073:Leak detection
3070:
3065:
3060:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3017:Cast iron pipe
3014:
3008:
3002:
3000:
2996:
2995:
2993:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2965:Venturi effect
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2912:
2907:
2902:
2900:Sanitary sewer
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2845:Drinking water
2842:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2816:
2814:
2808:
2807:
2800:
2799:
2792:
2785:
2777:
2769:
2768:
2754:
2717:
2710:
2692:
2665:
2645:
2633:
2626:
2608:
2596:
2577:
2543:
2509:
2498:
2475:
2438:
2416:
2380:
2359:
2344:
2337:
2319:
2289:
2258:
2238:
2223:
2203:
2174:
2153:
2146:
2126:
2106:
2099:
2078:
2071:
2053:
2037:Béla G. Lipták
2028:
2027:
2025:
2022:
2021:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1973:
1970:
1964:
1961:
1952:
1949:
1938:
1935:
1920:(typically an
1903:Doppler effect
1898:
1895:
1863:
1860:
1815:
1795:
1766:
1755:
1743:
1739:
1730:
1720:
1717:
1712:
1709:
1680:
1669:
1657:
1653:
1644:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1622:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1606:
1603:
1583:
1563:
1537:
1510:
1477:
1474:
1460:
1457:
1441:magnetic field
1433:
1430:
1422:West Yorkshire
1405:
1402:
1401:
1400:
1393:
1392:
1389:
1379:
1378:
1371:
1370:
1364:
1329:
1326:
1309:
1289:
1269:
1249:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1218:
1215:
1212:
1178:
1175:
1158:
1157:The MAF sensor
1155:
1102:
1099:
1091:
1088:
1075:
1072:
1066:
1063:
1045:
1025:
1005:
985:
963:
959:
955:
952:
949:
929:
926:
913:
910:
885:
865:
845:
841:
837:
834:
831:
811:
808:
783:
780:
770:
767:
746:
743:
731:
728:
704:Main article:
701:
698:
692:
689:
675:
672:
639:
636:
630:to derive the
615:
612:
580:Main article:
577:
574:
557:radial turbine
548:
545:
539:
536:
506:
503:
490:
487:
481:
478:
438:
435:
425:
422:
416:
413:
407:
404:
389:
386:
351:
348:
338:
335:
329:
326:
312:
309:
254:
251:
238:
235:
232:
226:
223:
200:
174:
171:
144:
88:
85:
80:
79:
76:Coriolis force
69:
64:
61:
58:
52:
49:
46:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3975:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3950:
3948:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3912:Template:HVAC
3910:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3899:
3897:
3893:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3876:Plumbing code
3874:
3873:
3871:
3867:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3837:
3835:
3833:and standards
3827:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3783:
3782:
3780:
3772:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3745:Control valve
3743:
3742:
3740:
3734:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3682:Drain cleaner
3680:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3665:
3663:
3660:
3659:
3657:
3653:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3590:
3587:
3586:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3506:
3504:
3502:
3498:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3352:
3351:Hose coupling
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3251:Closet flange
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3183:
3181:
3177:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3160:Threaded pipe
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3085:
3082:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3052:Flare fitting
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3032:Copper tubing
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3003:
3001:
2997:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2860:Grade (slope)
2858:
2856:
2855:Friction loss
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2817:
2815:
2809:
2805:
2798:
2793:
2791:
2786:
2784:
2779:
2778:
2775:
2766:
2761:
2759:
2739:
2735:
2728:
2721:
2713:
2707:
2703:
2696:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2669:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2649:
2642:
2637:
2629:
2627:0-7918-0198-5
2623:
2619:
2612:
2605:
2600:
2592:
2588:
2581:
2562:
2555:
2554:
2547:
2528:
2521:
2520:
2513:
2505:
2501:
2495:
2491:
2490:
2485:
2479:
2460:
2456:
2449:
2442:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2420:
2401:
2397:
2390:
2384:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2363:
2355:
2348:
2340:
2334:
2330:
2323:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2293:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2262:
2254:
2249:
2242:
2235:
2234:
2227:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2191:
2187:
2181:
2179:
2170:
2166:
2160:
2158:
2149:
2147:9781843390343
2143:
2139:
2138:
2130:
2122:
2117:
2110:
2102:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2082:
2074:
2068:
2064:
2057:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2033:
2029:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1975:
1969:
1960:
1957:
1948:
1945:
1934:
1932:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1918:photodetector
1914:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1859:
1855:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1839:
1838:Doppler shift
1835:
1830:
1827:
1813:
1793:
1764:
1753:
1741:
1737:
1728:
1718:
1715:
1710:
1707:
1678:
1667:
1655:
1651:
1642:
1630:
1627:
1624:
1620:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1604:
1601:
1581:
1561:
1535:
1508:
1498:
1489:
1485:
1483:
1473:
1470:
1466:
1456:
1454:
1450:
1449:Faraday's law
1446:
1442:
1438:
1429:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1410:
1398:
1397:
1396:
1390:
1387:
1386:
1385:
1382:
1376:
1375:
1374:
1369:
1365:
1362:
1361:
1360:
1358:
1353:
1349:
1346:
1342:
1334:
1325:
1323:
1307:
1287:
1267:
1247:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1210:
1201:
1197:
1196:piezoelectric
1192:
1188:
1184:
1174:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1154:
1150:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1130:
1128:
1124:
1123:specific heat
1120:
1119:specific heat
1116:
1107:
1098:
1096:
1087:
1085:
1081:
1071:
1065:Area/velocity
1062:
1060:
1043:
1023:
1003:
983:
961:
957:
953:
950:
947:
939:
935:
928:Level to flow
925:
923:
922:stream gauges
918:
909:
905:
901:
897:
883:
863:
843:
839:
835:
832:
829:
817:
807:
804:
802:
797:
788:
779:
777:
766:
760:
756:
751:
742:
737:
727:
725:
721:
717:
713:
707:
697:
688:
686:
685:Venturi meter
681:
680:orifice plate
674:Orifice plate
671:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
644:Venturi meter
638:Venturi meter
635:
633:
629:
625:
621:
611:
609:
605:
601:
597:
588:
583:
582:Current meter
576:Current meter
573:
571:
567:
562:
558:
554:
544:
535:
533:
528:
524:
520:
511:
502:
500:
496:
486:
480:Woltman meter
477:
475:
469:
453:
447:
443:
434:
431:
421:
412:
403:
394:
385:
383:
379:
375:
357:
347:
344:
334:
325:
323:
318:
307:
306:Sage Metering
302:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
279:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
250:
236:
233:
230:
224:
221:
198:
189:
172:
169:
158:
142:
134:
129:
127:
126:flow computer
123:
118:
116:
112:
109:
105:
101:
98:
94:
84:
77:
73:
70:
68:
65:
62:
59:
56:
53:
50:
47:
44:
43:
42:
40:
36:
32:
19:
3805:Pipe marking
3778:and services
3774:Professions,
3722:Strap wrench
3662:Basin wrench
3641:Water heater
3636:Water filter
3549:Flush toilet
3524:Dehumidifier
3466:Trench drain
3446:Street elbow
3436:Safety valve
3421:Relief valve
3361:Needle valve
3346:Grinder pump
3316:Flow limiter
3301:Float switch
3236:Chopper pump
3216:Booster pump
3165:Tube bending
3110:Pipe support
2975:Water hammer
2955:Thermosiphon
2885:Neutral axis
2747:26 September
2745:. Retrieved
2733:
2720:
2701:
2695:
2678:
2674:
2668:
2653:
2648:
2636:
2617:
2611:
2599:
2590:
2586:
2580:
2570:15 September
2568:. Retrieved
2561:the original
2552:
2546:
2536:15 September
2534:. Retrieved
2527:the original
2518:
2512:
2488:
2478:
2466:. Retrieved
2454:
2441:
2428:
2419:
2407:. Retrieved
2400:the original
2395:
2383:
2367:
2362:
2353:
2347:
2328:
2322:
2310:. Retrieved
2301:
2292:
2282:26 September
2280:. Retrieved
2271:
2261:
2241:
2232:
2226:
2214:
2206:
2194:. Retrieved
2189:
2168:
2136:
2129:
2109:
2090:
2081:
2062:
2056:
2040:
2032:
1966:
1958:
1954:
1940:
1915:
1900:
1892:
1865:
1856:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1497:transit time
1496:
1494:
1479:
1469:liquid metal
1462:
1435:
1426:
1394:
1383:
1380:
1372:
1368:sensor array
1354:
1350:
1339:
1180:
1165:. Many such
1160:
1151:
1141:
1131:
1112:
1093:
1077:
1068:
931:
915:
906:
902:
898:
820:
805:
793:
772:
763:
739:
709:
694:
677:
656:Roman Empire
641:
617:
593:
553:Pelton wheel
550:
547:Pelton wheel
541:
532:Pelton wheel
529:
525:
521:
517:
492:
483:
474:fire hydrant
470:
448:
444:
440:
427:
418:
415:Helical gear
409:
400:
353:
340:
331:
314:
282:
280:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
256:
190:
130:
119:
90:
81:
38:
30:
29:
3958:Measurement
3750:Flow sensor
3738:and control
3736:Measurement
3727:Tap and die
3702:Pipe wrench
3687:Driving cap
3579:Laundry tub
3456:Tap (valve)
3441:Sewage pump
3426:Riser clamp
3371:Pinch valve
3341:Grease trap
3336:Globe valve
3326:Flushometer
3311:Floor drain
3306:Float valve
3226:Check valve
3211:Bleed screw
2985:Water table
2925:Storm sewer
2811:Fundamental
2312:1 September
2018:Water meter
1937:Calibration
1888:calibration
1847:air bubbles
1832:Ultrasonic
1495:Ultrasonic
1074:Dye testing
745:Cone meters
658:times. The
293:, Coriolis
122:natural gas
3947:Categories
3810:Pipefitter
3697:Pipecutter
3677:Core drill
3564:Humidifier
3529:Dishwasher
3491:Zone valve
3486:Water tank
3331:Gate valve
3206:Ball valve
3179:Components
2999:Technology
2970:Wastewater
2930:Stormwater
2593:: 299–302.
2338:0070423660
2251:(Report).
2213:. (1898).
2190:ES Systems
2119:(Report).
2072:0582031656
2049:080198386X
2024:References
1978:Anemometer
1886:without re
1866:Using the
1842:ultrasonic
1345:multiphase
1183:bluff body
734:See also:
712:pitot tube
706:Pitot tube
700:Pitot tube
668:wastewater
566:efficiency
406:Gear meter
155:, and the
133:volumetric
63:Anemometer
39:flowmeters
18:Flow meter
3829:Industry
3815:Pipelayer
3672:Borescope
3667:Blowtorch
3606:Sump pump
3140:Soldering
3105:Pipe dope
3068:Hydronics
2940:Tap water
2905:Sewer gas
2870:Heat trap
2865:Greywater
2835:Corrosion
2736:. Wiley.
2378:, page 75
2196:5 January
1998:Gas meter
1926:interfere
1872:mass flow
1652:−
1628:α
1621:
1582:α
1200:frequency
1147:Hastelloy
796:rotameter
755:flowmeter
691:Dall tube
652:pipelines
234:ρ
225:˙
199:ρ
173:˙
3895:See also
3881:Scalding
3569:Icemaker
3356:Manifold
2915:Sewerage
2895:Pressure
2850:Fuel gas
2825:Backflow
2813:concepts
2804:Plumbing
2738:Archived
2620:. ASME.
2504:Archived
2486:(2008).
2468:3 August
2459:Archived
2455:RS Hydro
2433:Archived
2409:14 March
2306:Archived
2276:Archived
2230:Lipták,
2089:(2001).
1972:See also
1882:gas and
1880:hydrogen
1834:Doppler
1187:vortices
596:penstock
495:impeller
430:nutating
382:odometer
378:magnetic
322:sverdrup
3820:Plumber
3776:trades,
3717:Plunger
3626:Washlet
3514:Bathtub
3416:Reducer
3246:Cistern
3150:Swaging
3130:Sealant
3006:Brazing
2236:, p. 85
2051:page 88
1944:In situ
1884:bitumen
1320:is the
1137:sensors
799:is the
736:Annubar
570:turbine
568:of the
463:⁄
367:⁄
317:bushels
115:density
3907:Piping
3616:Urinal
3584:Shower
3090:O-ring
3063:Gasket
2920:Siphon
2910:Sewage
2708:
2660:
2624:
2496:
2374:
2335:
2144:
2097:
2069:
2047:
1786:where
1240:where
976:where
936:or in
856:where
624:static
356:piston
311:Liquid
276:MMSCFD
268:kscm/h
264:sm/sec
3519:Bidet
3481:Valve
3125:Putty
3095:Oakum
3086:(NPS)
3080:(NPT)
3059:(GHT)
3013:(BSP)
2741:(PDF)
2730:(PDF)
2564:(PDF)
2557:(PDF)
2530:(PDF)
2523:(PDF)
2462:(PDF)
2451:(PDF)
2403:(PDF)
2392:(PDF)
1905:). A
1418:Leeds
1341:Sonar
1127:fluid
1115:fluid
1059:weirs
938:flume
514:flow.
397:flow.
297:, or
260:acm/h
111:units
35:fluid
3596:Sink
3401:Pump
2990:Well
2880:Leak
2749:2017
2706:ISBN
2658:ISBN
2622:ISBN
2572:2016
2538:2016
2494:ISBN
2470:2015
2411:2008
2372:ISBN
2333:ISBN
2314:2019
2284:2017
2198:2021
2142:ISBN
2095:ISBN
2067:ISBN
2045:ISBN
1769:down
1746:down
1700:and
1683:down
1660:down
1540:down
1527:and
1445:flux
1134:MEMS
1084:salt
1082:(or
934:weir
626:and
551:The
374:gear
283:mass
281:Gas
157:mass
97:kind
2683:doi
1618:cos
1451:of
1416:in
1355:In
1080:dye
678:An
608:IEC
272:LFM
253:Gas
102:or
95:of
3949::
2757:^
2732:.
2679:27
2677:.
2591:17
2589:.
2502:.
2453:.
2431:.
2427:.
2394:.
2304:.
2300:.
2274:.
2270:.
2217:.
2188:.
2177:^
2167:.
2156:^
2039:,
1890:.
1854:.
1758:up
1733:up
1672:up
1647:up
1513:up
1463:A
1420:,
924:.
778:.
710:A
642:A
634:.
572:.
501:.
499:EU
341:A
301:.
289:,
249:.
188:.
128:.
108:SI
78:).
2796:e
2789:t
2782:v
2751:.
2714:.
2689:.
2685::
2630:.
2574:.
2540:.
2472:.
2413:.
2341:.
2316:.
2286:.
2200:.
2150:.
2103:.
2075:.
1814:c
1794:v
1765:t
1754:t
1742:t
1738:+
1729:t
1719:2
1716:L
1711:=
1708:c
1679:t
1668:t
1656:t
1643:t
1631:)
1625:(
1614:2
1610:L
1605:=
1602:v
1562:L
1536:t
1509:t
1308:S
1288:V
1268:L
1248:f
1228:L
1224:/
1220:V
1217:S
1214:=
1211:f
1044:X
1024:H
1004:K
984:Q
962:X
958:H
954:K
951:=
948:Q
884:t
864:D
844:t
840:/
836:D
833:=
830:V
818:.
465:2
461:1
458:+
456:1
369:2
365:1
362:+
360:1
237:Q
231:=
222:m
170:m
143:Q
74:(
20:)
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