543:
631:
areas will be at various developmental stages due to other local histories, particularly their times since the last significant disturbance. This fact interacts with inherent environmental variability (e.g., in soils, climate, topography, etc.), also a function of area. Environmental variability constrains the suite of species that can occupy a given area, and the two factors interact to create a mosaic of vegetation conditions across the landscape. Only in
296:
154:
581:) to the community—they are natural processes occurring (mostly) independently of the natural processes of the community (such as germination, growth, death, etc.). Such events can change vegetation structure and composition very quickly and for long periods, and they can do so over large areas. Very few ecosystems are without some disturbance as a regular and recurring part of the long-term
38:
492:
and incorporates the non-floristic criteria into the upper (most general) five levels and limited floristic criteria only into the lower (most specific) two levels. In Europe, classification often relies much more heavily, sometimes entirely, on floristic (species) composition alone, without explicit
630:
Generally, the larger an area under consideration, the more likely the vegetation will be heterogeneous. Two main factors are at work. First, the temporal dynamics of disturbance and succession are increasingly unlikely to be in synchrony across any area as the size of that area increases. Different
524:
forest", referring to
Pacific madrone-tanoak forests which occur in California and Oregon, US. In practice, the levels of the alliance and/or an association are the most often used, particularly in vegetation mapping, just as the Latin binomial is most often used in discussing particular species in
613:
levels. These modifications change the suite of species most adapted to grow, survive, and reproduce in an area, causing floristic changes. These floristic changes contribute to structural changes inherent in plant growth even in the absence of species changes (especially where plants have a large
463:
There are many approaches for the classification of vegetation (physiognomy, flora, ecology, etc.). Much of the work on vegetation classification comes from
European and North American ecologists, and they have fundamentally different approaches. In North America, vegetation types are based on a
46:
These maps show a scale, or index of greenness, based on several factors: the number and type of plants, leafiness, and plant health. Where foliage is dense and plants are growing quickly, the index is high, represented in dark green. Regions with sparse vegetation and a low vegetation index are
224:
between taxonomists who studied plants as taxa and geographers who studied plants as vegetation. The physiognomic approach in the study of vegetation is common among biogeographers working on vegetation on a world scale, or when there is a lack of taxonomic knowledge of someplace (e.g., in the
993:
Ideen zu einer
Geographie der Pflanzen : nebst einem Naturgemälde der Tropenländer : auf Beobachtungen und Messungen gegründet, welche vom 10ten Grade nördlicher bis zum 10ten Grade südlicher Breite, in den Jahren 1799, 1800, 1801, 1802 und 1803 angestellt worden
975:
Essai sur la géographie des plantes : accompagné d'un tableau physique des régions équinoxiales, fondé sur des mesures exécutées, depuis le dixième degré de latitude boréale jusqu'au dixième degré de latitude australe, pendant les années 1799, 1800, 1801, 1802 et
42:
39:
622:. Moreover, accurately predicting the characteristics of such a state, even if it does arise, is not always possible. In short, vegetative communities are subject to many variables that set limits on future conditions' predictability.
508:. The lowest level, or association, is thus the most precisely defined, and incorporates the names of the dominant one to three (usually two) species of a type. An example of a vegetation type defined at the level of class might be "
792:
Martins, F. R. & Batalha, M. A. (2011). Formas de vida, espectro biolĂłgico de
Raunkiaer e fisionomia da vegetação. In: Felfili, J. M., Eisenlohr, P. V.; Fiuza de Melo, M. M. R.; Andrade, L. A.; Meira Neto, J. A. A. (Org.).
41:
533:
Like all biological systems, plant communities are temporally and spatially dynamic; they change at all possible scales. Dynamism in vegetation is defined primarily as changes in species composition and structure.
614:
maximum size, i.e., trees), causing slow and broadly predictable changes in the vegetation. Succession can be interrupted at any time by disturbance, setting the system back to a previous state or off on another
589:
and wind disturbances are prevalent throughout many vegetation types worldwide. Fire is particularly potent because of its ability to destroy not only living plants but also the seeds, spores, and living
609:
field. Succession is the relatively gradual structure and taxonomic composition change that arises as the vegetation modifies various environmental variables over time, including light, water, and
776:
Essai de phytostatique appliqué à la chaîne du Jura et aux contrées voisines, ou Étude de la dispersion des plantes vasculaires envisagée principalement quant à l'influence des roches soujacentes
553:
Temporally, many processes or events can cause change, but for the sake of simplicity, they can be categorized roughly as abrupt or gradual. Abrupt changes are generally referred to as
1605:
Provides climate diagrams for more than 3000 weather stations and for different climate periods from all over the world. Users can also create their own diagrams with their own data.
1150:
414:
405:
1026:
Die
Physiognomie des Pflanzenreiches in Brasilien. Eine Rede, gelesen in der am 14. Febr. 1824 gehaltnen Sitzung der Königlichen Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
40:
134:
is defined by characteristic dominant species, or a common aspect of the assemblage, such as an elevation range or environmental commonality. The contemporary use of
47:
shown in tan. Based on measurements from the
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA's Terra satellite. Areas where there is no data are gray.
639:
systems does vegetation ever approach perfect uniformity. There is always heterogeneity in natural systems, although its scale and intensity will vary widely.
844:
232:" is more ambiguous. The definition of a specific vegetation type may include not only physiognomy but also floristic and habitat aspects. Furthermore, the
703:
1321:
360:
1524:
Terrestrial
Vegetation of the United States Volume I – The National Vegetation Classification System: Development, Status, and Applications
806:
423:
333:
1174:
868:
830:
96:
can, and often does, refer to a wider range of spatial scales than that term does, including scales as large as the global. Primeval
1552:
1143:
473:
1534:
1031:
17:
1523:
1304:
1277:
1213:
1075:
917:
1635:
324:
1540:
1439:
Gleason, H.A. 1926. The individualistic concept of the plant association. Bulletin of the Torrey
Botanical Club, 53:1-20.
174:(1849). Prior to this, the two terms (vegetation and flora) were used indiscriminately, and still are in some contexts.
748:
210:
477:
1390:
Macroclimate and Plant Forms: An
Introduction to Predictive Modeling in Phytogeography. Tasks for Vegetation Science
1458:
837:
2024:
2014:
1593:
1529:
683:
256:
1557:
763:
Introduction to
California Plant Life; Robert Ornduff, Phyllis M. Faber, Todd Keeler-Wolf; 2003 ed.; p. 112
1385:
Barbour, M.G, J.H. Burk, and W.D. Pitts. "Terrestrial Plant Ecology". Menlo Park: Benjamin Cummings, 1987.
1332:
1229:
711:
244:
1379:
1648:
1567:
598:
characteristics and other ecosystem elements and processes (for further discussion of this topic see
458:
284:
147:
1029:
799:
1628:
351:
1049:
Origins of biogeography. The role of biological classification in early plant and animal geography
1322:"Classification and Mapping of Plant Communities: a Review with Emphasis on Tropical Vegetation"
2029:
1930:
594:
representing the potential next generation, and because of fire's impact on fauna populations,
485:
243:
An influential, clear and simple classification scheme for types of vegetation was produced by
31:
1294:
740:
734:
1267:
658:
606:
554:
1613:
1490:
1104:
547:
175:
8:
1968:
1621:
1495:
774:
678:
432:
1108:
991:
973:
618:
altogether. Because of this, successional processes may or may not lead to some static,
1935:
1120:
272:
1394:
Macroclimate and Plant Forms: An Introduction to Predictive Modeling in Phytogeography
542:
251:(1888). Other important works with a physiognomic approach includes Grisebach (1872),
1978:
1778:
1746:
1738:
1608:
1451:
Vegetation, Water, Humans and the Climate: A New Perspective on an Interactive System
1300:
1273:
1209:
1168:
1071:
913:
862:
824:
744:
500:
In the FGDC standard, the hierarchy levels, from most general to most specific, are:
264:
237:
139:
956:
939:
2019:
1464:
1190:
Tratado de fitogeografia do Brasil: aspectos ecolĂłgicos, sociolĂłgicos e florĂsticos
1112:
951:
619:
252:
217:
202:
81:
1009:
1988:
1597:
1584:
1541:
Classifying Vegetation Condition: Vegetation Assets States and Transitions (VAST)
1422:
1393:
1203:
1065:
1052:
1035:
907:
884:
494:
378:
280:
229:
221:
198:
131:
89:
67:
1562:
1877:
1732:
1644:
450:
260:
248:
233:
171:
166:
The distinction between vegetation (the general appearance of a community) and
97:
76:
1139:
Fitofisionomias do bioma Cerrado: sĂntese terminolĂłgica e relações florĂsticas
62:
they provide. It is a general term, without specific reference to particular
2008:
1783:
1364:
636:
441:
342:
276:
1912:
1811:
1482:
New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974. The Blackburn Press, 2003 (reprint).
1468:
632:
599:
183:
105:
59:
514:
Winter-rain, broad-leaved, evergreen, sclerophyllous, closed-canopy forest
186:). Later, the concept of vegetation would influence the usage of the term
1983:
1894:
1768:
1694:
673:
648:
465:
396:
194:
236:
approach in the study of vegetation relies upon a fundamental unit, the
178:(1820) also made a similar distinction but he used the terms "station" (
1842:
1805:
1707:
1454:
1124:
1092:
615:
295:
268:
116:
112:
1254:
Mapping the World's Vegetation: Regionalization of Formation and Flora
1883:
1871:
1773:
1711:
1677:
1671:
1375:
668:
663:
578:
574:
566:
493:
reference to climate, phenology or growth forms. It often emphasizes
489:
469:
1590:
1116:
906:
Lomolino, Mark V.; Sax, Dov F.; Brown, James H.; Brown (July 2004).
275:(1944, 1955), André Aubréville (1956, 1957), Trochain (1955, 1957),
1945:
1940:
1816:
1763:
1698:
1666:
1433:
979:(in French). Paris: Chez Levrault, Schoell et compagnie, libraires.
610:
591:
558:
101:
1011:
Linnaea : Ein Journal fĂĽr die Botanik in ihrem ganzen Umfange
1852:
1847:
1837:
1821:
1801:
1728:
1719:
1685:
1602:
1572:
605:
Temporal change at a slower pace is ubiquitous; it comprises the
179:
85:
1202:
Cox, C. Barry; Moore, Peter D.; Ladle, Richard J. (2016-05-31).
153:
1742:
1715:
1662:
1411:
582:
481:
387:
369:
306:
120:
109:
71:
1973:
1950:
1681:
1643:
909:
Foundations of Biogeography: Classic Papers with Commentaries
653:
570:
562:
315:
187:
170:(the taxonomic composition of a community) was first made by
167:
63:
55:
1331:. New York: J Wiley and Sons. pp. 21–88. Archived from
595:
586:
74:
or geographic characteristics. It is broader than the term
1563:
Checklist of Online Vegetation and Plant Distribution Maps
1141:. Doctoral dissertation, Universidade de BrasĂlia, p. 10,
1530:
Federal Geographic Data Committee Vegetation Subcommittee
1272:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 67–80.
1192:. 2 ed. Rio de Janeiro: Âmbito Cultural Edições, p. 7-11.
1070:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 33–64.
1568:
VEGETATION image processing and archiving centre at VITO
464:
combination of the following criteria: climate pattern,
1428:
Feldmeyer-Christie, E., N. E. Zimmerman, and S. Ghosh.
497:
which may distinguish one classification from another.
1487:
International Classification and Mapping of Vegetation
1205:
Biogeography: An Ecological and Evolutionary Approach
905:
795:
Fitossociologia no Brasil: métodos e estudos de caso.
502:
system, class, subclass, group, formation, alliance,
1230:"Sydow-Wagners Methodischer Schul-Atlas (1888-1944)"
1320:Mueller-Dombois, D. (1984). Woodwell, G. M. (ed.).
1007:
1008:Garcke, Aug.; Schlechtendal, D. F. L. von (1838).
1553:Interactive world vegetation map by Howstuffworks
912:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 263–275.
577:and the like. Their causes are usually external (
472:and/or growth form, and dominant species. In the
2006:
1265:
990:Humboldt, Alexander von; Bonpland, Aimé (1807).
989:
972:Humboldt, Alexander von; Bonpland, Aimé (1805).
971:
1319:
1266:KĂĽchler, A. W.; Zonneveld, I. S. (2012-12-06).
225:tropics, where biodiversity is commonly high).
220:, Humboldt established a new science, dividing
1392:, vol. 1. The Hague: Dr. W. Junk BV. 258 pp.,
1014:(in German). Vol. 12. Berlin: F. DĂĽmmler.
1629:
1489:. Series 6, Ecology and Conservation, Paris,
1475:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1967
1370:Barbour, M. G. and W. D. Billings (editors).
1201:
932:Coutinho, L. M. (2006). O conceito de bioma.
520:forest"; and at the level of association as "
1064:Beard, J.S. (1978). Whittaker, R. H. (ed.).
885:"Essai élémentaire de géographie botanique"
123:and lawns; all are encompassed by the term
1636:
1622:
1430:Modern Approaches In Vegetation Monitoring
1256:. Syracuse University Press: Syracuse, NY.
193:Other concepts similar to vegetation are "
190:with the inclusion of the animal element.
1444:Plant strategies and vegetation processes
1421:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
955:
788:
786:
522:Arbutus menziesii-Lithocarpus dense flora
937:
882:
772:
541:
294:
161:
152:
36:
1506:The Natural Vegetation of North America
1480:Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology.
1478:Mueller-Dombois, D., and H. Ellenberg.
926:
797:Vol. 1. Viçosa: Editora UFV. p. 44-85.
732:
525:taxonomy and in general communication.
119:weed patches, wheat fields, cultivated
14:
2007:
1292:
1222:
1173:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
997:(in German). TĂĽbingen: Bey F.G. Cotta.
883:Candolle, Augustin Pyramus de (1820).
867:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
829:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
783:
726:
1617:
1558:USGS - NPS Vegetation Mapping Program
1501:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2004.
1372:North American Terrestrial Vegetation
1299:. Rastogi Publications. p. 140.
1208:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 20.
1090:
1063:
1057:
1423:Vegetation Ecology of Central Europe
1419:Vegetation ecology of central Europe
1403:New York: Springer Publishing, 2002.
537:
480:(FGDC), and originally developed by
325:Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest
1578:
1093:"How names are used for vegetation"
1067:Classification of Plant Communities
889:Dictionnare des Sciences Naturelles
625:
512:"; at the level of a formation as "
424:Tropical and subtropical dry forest
24:
1573:Spot-VEGETATION programme web page
1546:
1535:Vegetation Classification Standard
1446:. Wiley Interscience, New York NY.
1353:
290:
146:, an expression still used by the
25:
2041:
1517:
1512:
1473:The theory of Island Biogeography
1401:Walter's Vegetation of the Earth.
938:Coutinho, Leopoldo Magno (2006).
478:Federal Geographic Data Committee
157:Picture of Vegetative Environment
546:Vegetation types at the time of
516:"; at the level of alliance as "
283:and Mueller-Dombois (1967) (see
1609:WBCS Worldwide Climate Diagrams
1508:. Krieger Publishing Co., 1992.
1313:
1286:
1259:
1246:
1195:
1182:
1156:from the original on 2016-08-26
1131:
1084:
1041:
1018:
1001:
983:
957:10.1590/S0102-33062006000100002
850:from the original on 2016-08-27
812:from the original on 2016-09-24
739:. London: Unwin Hyman. p.
495:indicator or diagnostic species
299:Biomes classified by vegetation
240:, which is defined upon flora.
201:, 1805, 1807) and "formation" (
138:approximates that of ecologist
1900:Orthophyll, hyptiophyll leaves
1408:Processes of Vegetation Change
1051:. Dordrecht: Springer, p. 89,
965:
899:
876:
766:
757:
736:Processes of vegetation change
696:
684:Vegetation and slope stability
70:extent, or any other specific
13:
1:
1908:Aciculifolious, needle-leaved
1449:Kabat, P., et al. (editors).
1097:Journal of Vegetation Science
1024:Martius, C. F. P. von. 1824.
689:
510:Forest, canopy cover > 60%
1367:: Springer Publishing, 1994.
710:. 8 May 2018. Archived from
557:; these include things like
7:
1361:Ecology of World Vegetation
1252:de Laubenfels, D. J. 1975.
1091:Eiten, George (June 1992).
642:
528:
27:Assemblage of plant species
10:
2046:
1737:Scarcely vegetated areas,
1591:Climate Diagrams Explained
1582:
1380:Cambridge University Press
779:. Berne: Jent et Gassmann.
733:Burrows, Colin J. (1990).
456:
30:For the medical term, see
29:
1961:
1923:
1861:
1830:
1792:
1756:
1655:
1649:Vegetation classification
1137:Walter, B. M. T. (2006).
835:. Earlier version, 2003,
708:earthobservatory.nasa.gov
488:), the classification is
459:Vegetation classification
285:vegetation classification
148:Bureau of Land Management
66:, life forms, structure,
1436:: Akademiai Kiado, 2005.
1414:: Routledge Press, 1990.
895:. Flevrault, Strasbourg.
773:Thurmann, Jules (1849).
343:Subtropical moist forest
182:type) and "habitation" (
1329:bse.carnegiescience.edu
1296:Ecology And Environment
944:Acta Botanica Brasilica
1931:Terrestrial vegetation
1708:Herbaceous communities
1293:Sharma, P. D. (2012).
550:
486:The Nature Conservancy
454:
267:(1926), RĂĽbel (1930),
205:, 1838, derived from "
158:
84:. Perhaps the closest
48:
32:Vegetation (pathology)
18:Formation (vegetation)
2025:Botanical terminology
2015:Ecological succession
1583:Further information:
940:"O conceito de bioma"
659:Ecological succession
607:ecological succession
545:
298:
162:History of definition
156:
45:
1969:Biogeographic realms
1417:Ellenberg, H. 1988.
1188:Rizzini, C.T. 1997.
1047:Ebach, M.C. (2015).
548:Last Glacial Maximum
334:Temperate grasslands
176:Augustin de Candolle
54:is an assemblage of
1880:, semicaducifolious
1603:ClimateDiagrams.com
1109:1992JVegS...3..419E
1028:MĂĽnchen, Lindauer,
679:Tropical vegetation
474:current US standard
433:Tropical rainforest
82:species composition
1979:Floristic kingdoms
1936:Aquatic vegetation
1596:2018-09-28 at the
1499:Vegetation Ecology
1496:Van der Maarel, E.
1442:Grime, J.P. 1987.
1269:Vegetation mapping
1034:2016-10-12 at the
551:
455:
159:
140:Frederic Clements'
49:
2002:
2001:
1747:Barren vegetation
1739:desert vegetation
1388:Box, E. O. 1981.
1359:Archibold, O. W.
1306:978-81-7133-905-1
1279:978-94-009-3083-4
1234:www.atlassen.info
1215:978-1-118-96858-1
1077:978-94-009-9183-5
919:978-0-226-49236-0
538:Temporal dynamics
518:Arbutus menziesii
238:plant association
234:phytosociological
43:
16:(Redirected from
2037:
1989:Plant life-forms
1886:, perennifolious
1701:, dwarf-scrubs,
1638:
1631:
1624:
1615:
1614:
1579:Climate diagrams
1347:
1346:
1344:
1343:
1338:on July 17, 2010
1337:
1326:
1317:
1311:
1310:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1263:
1257:
1250:
1244:
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1240:
1226:
1220:
1219:
1199:
1193:
1186:
1180:
1178:
1172:
1164:
1162:
1161:
1155:
1148:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1088:
1082:
1081:
1061:
1055:
1045:
1039:
1022:
1016:
1015:
1005:
999:
998:
987:
981:
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961:
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923:
903:
897:
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849:
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834:
828:
820:
818:
817:
811:
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790:
781:
780:
770:
764:
761:
755:
754:
730:
724:
723:
721:
719:
700:
626:Spatial dynamics
476:(adopted by the
448:
439:
430:
421:
412:
403:
394:
385:
376:
367:
358:
349:
340:
331:
322:
313:
304:
228:The concept of "
218:Linnean taxonomy
197:of vegetation" (
184:botanical region
80:which refers to
58:species and the
44:
21:
2045:
2044:
2040:
2039:
2038:
2036:
2035:
2034:
2005:
2004:
2003:
1998:
1957:
1919:
1874:, caducifolious
1868:Loss of leaves
1857:
1826:
1794:
1788:
1752:
1695:Dwarf-shrubland
1651:
1642:
1598:Wayback Machine
1587:
1585:Climate diagram
1581:
1549:
1547:Mapping-related
1520:
1515:
1465:MacArthur, R.H.
1459:Springer-Verlag
1406:Burrows, C. J.
1356:
1354:Further reading
1351:
1350:
1341:
1339:
1335:
1324:
1318:
1314:
1307:
1291:
1287:
1280:
1264:
1260:
1251:
1247:
1238:
1236:
1228:
1227:
1223:
1216:
1200:
1196:
1187:
1183:
1166:
1165:
1159:
1157:
1153:
1146:
1144:"Archived copy"
1142:
1136:
1132:
1117:10.2307/3235768
1089:
1085:
1078:
1062:
1058:
1046:
1042:
1036:Wayback Machine
1023:
1019:
1006:
1002:
988:
984:
970:
966:
934:Acta Bot. Bras.
931:
927:
920:
904:
900:
881:
877:
860:
859:
853:
851:
847:
840:
838:"Archived copy"
836:
822:
821:
815:
813:
809:
802:
800:"Archived copy"
798:
791:
784:
771:
767:
762:
758:
751:
731:
727:
717:
715:
714:on 11 July 2017
702:
701:
697:
692:
645:
628:
540:
531:
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453:
446:
444:
437:
435:
428:
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419:
417:
410:
408:
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383:
381:
379:Xeric shrubland
374:
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329:
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291:Classifications
230:vegetation type
222:plant geography
216:Departing from
207:Vegetationsform
164:
132:vegetation type
98:redwood forests
90:plant community
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1897:, stiff leaves
1891:Leaf hardness
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1878:Semi-deciduous
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1513:External links
1511:
1510:
1509:
1504:Vankat, J. L.
1502:
1493:
1485:UNESCO. 1973.
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1399:Breckle, S-W.
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361:Monsoon forest
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172:Jules Thurmann
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1993:
1984:Plant habits
1913:broad-leaved
1723:
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1469:E. O. Wilson
1450:
1443:
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1360:
1340:. Retrieved
1333:the original
1328:
1315:
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1237:. Retrieved
1233:
1224:
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852:. Retrieved
814:. Retrieved
794:
775:
768:
759:
735:
728:
716:. Retrieved
712:the original
707:
698:
633:agricultural
629:
604:
600:fire ecology
555:disturbances
552:
532:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
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490:hierarchical
462:
415:Tree savanna
242:
227:
215:
206:
192:
165:
143:
135:
129:
124:
93:
75:
60:ground cover
51:
50:
1895:Sclerophyll
1769:Subtropical
1656:Physiognomy
674:Plant cover
649:Biocoenosis
620:final state
506:association
466:plant habit
397:Semi-desert
195:physiognomy
144:earth cover
113:soil crusts
2009:Categories
1994:Vegetation
1905:Leaf form
1843:Submontane
1712:grasslands
1690:fruticetum
1684:, scrubs,
1678:Shrublands
1455:Heidelberg
1342:2023-02-07
1239:2023-02-07
1160:2016-08-26
854:2016-08-25
816:2016-08-25
690:References
616:trajectory
575:avalanches
567:landslides
388:Dry steppe
269:Burtt Davy
136:vegetation
125:vegetation
100:, coastal
94:vegetation
52:Vegetation
1924:Substrate
1884:Evergreen
1872:Deciduous
1774:Temperate
1733:parklands
1672:arboretum
1667:woodlands
1376:Cambridge
950:: 13–23.
669:Ecosystem
664:Ecoregion
592:meristems
585:dynamic.
579:exogenous
559:wildfires
470:phenology
281:Ellenberg
249:von Sydow
213:, 1824).
203:Grisebach
72:botanical
1962:See also
1946:Mangrove
1941:Riparian
1831:Altitude
1817:Seasonal
1793:Climatic
1779:Subpolar
1764:Tropical
1757:Latitude
1729:Savannas
1724:herbetum
1720:prairies
1686:thickets
1594:Archived
1434:Budapest
1365:New York
1169:cite web
1151:Archived
1032:Archived
863:cite web
845:Archived
825:cite web
807:Archived
643:See also
611:nutrient
529:Dynamics
279:(1967),
271:(1938),
259:(1898),
257:Schimper
199:Humboldt
117:roadside
104:stands,
102:mangrove
2020:Habitat
1853:Coastal
1848:Lowland
1838:Montane
1822:Drought
1802:Pluvial
1716:steppes
1663:Forests
1382:, 1999.
1125:3235768
1105:Bibcode
561:, high
277:KĂĽchler
261:Tansley
253:Warming
211:Martius
180:habitat
121:gardens
86:synonym
68:spatial
1974:Biomes
1951:Swampy
1862:Leaves
1812:Cloudy
1795:regime
1743:Desert
1412:Oxford
1303:
1276:
1212:
1123:
1074:
916:
747:
583:system
571:floods
482:UNESCO
449:
447:
440:
438:
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429:
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370:Desert
368:
366:
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341:
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332:
330:
323:
321:
314:
312:
307:Tundra
305:
303:
247:&
245:Wagner
110:desert
92:, but
1806:rainy
1784:Polar
1682:heath
1537:(PDF)
1526:(PDF)
1461:2004.
1336:(PDF)
1325:(PDF)
1154:(PDF)
1147:(PDF)
1121:JSTOR
848:(PDF)
841:(PDF)
810:(PDF)
803:(PDF)
718:8 May
654:Biome
563:winds
316:Taiga
273:Beard
265:Chipp
188:biome
168:flora
142:term
77:flora
56:plant
1467:and
1301:ISBN
1274:ISBN
1210:ISBN
1175:link
1072:ISBN
994:sind
976:1803
914:ISBN
869:link
831:link
745:ISBN
720:2018
596:soil
587:Fire
484:and
263:and
130:The
64:taxa
1113:doi
952:doi
635:or
602:).
504:and
287:).
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