827:
509:
873:
421:, which is the angle formed by the neutral axis of the aircraft and the freestream flow. Since the local flow is coming in at a higher angle of attack due to the vortex, both the lift and drag forces are rotated such that lift force vector generates a forward thrust and the drag force vector generates an increase in lift. With this increase in lift force, the angle of attack may be reduced to maintain the target lift needed to maintain an altitude while cruising, which causes a reduction in induced drag since drag and lift are a function of
681:
660:
530:, the latter commonly known as echelon. The first study to attempt to quantify the energy saving of a large flock of birds was Lissaman & Schollenberger who provided the first, albeit notably flawed, estimate for a 25-member flock of birds. A most impressive 71% range extension relative to single bird flight was reported. These reported extensions are typically due to using a fixed wing approximation. Haffner (1977) experimented with birds flying in wind tunnels and calculated a range extension of a more conservative value of 22%.
723:
702:
575:
571:
whose positions are maintained by the wingmen to within 1 mi (1.6 km) laterally and 100 ft (30 m) vertically of the flight leader's aircraft. A nonstandard formation results when the flight leader has requested, and air traffic control has approved dimensions that do not conform with the stated boundaries; when operating within an authorized altitude reservation or under the provisions of a Letter of
Agreement; or when flight operations are being conducted in a specially-designated airspace.
765:
744:
598:) is the basic four-ship formation that resembles the position of the fingertips with the hand outstretched. The flight leader (#1) is piloting the foremost aircraft (middle fingertip), with the lead's wingman (#2) to the side and trailing (index fingertip); the section lead (#3) is opposite the lead's wingman on the opposite side (ring fingertip) while the section leader's wingman (#4) is trailing the section lead towards the same side (little fingertip). The fingertip formation is designated
807:
786:
20:
533:
Studies have been performed on the phase of flapping and found that birds that fly in V-shaped formations coordinate their flapping, while those in echelon do not. Willis et al (2007) found that optimal phasing of flaps accounts for 20% of power saving, suggesting that positioning is more important
570:
The smallest unit of a formation is called a section or element, consisting of two aircraft; these pilots are a leader and wingman. A division or flight consists of two sections or elements. Multiple divisions or flights are assembled into a formation. A standard fighter formation includes aircraft
272:
In juxtaposition, the drag reduction felt by trailing agents in formation flight may be thought more of as the trailing agents "surfing" on the vortices shed by wings of leading agents, reducing the amount of force needed to stay in the air. This force is known as lift and acts perpendicular to the
277:
and are formed by fluid flowing around the wingtips from the high-pressure region that is the bottom of the wing to the low-pressure region that is the top of the wing. The flow becomes separated from the airfoil and rotates about a low pressure wake that forms the core of the vortex. This vortex
115:
The drag reduction occurred in the drafting is due to a reduction in flow speed in the wake of a leading vehicle, reducing the amount the flow needs to accelerate to move around the body, reducing pressure in front of the trailing vehicle. This leads to a lesser pressure differential between the
859:
has been extensively investigated in the 21st century with aircraft and spacecraft systems. For aerial vehicles the advantages of performing formation flight include fuel saving, improved efficiency in air traffic control and cooperative task allocation. For space vehicles precise control of
556:
study of 10 midges by Kelley and
Ouellette (2013), the boundaries of the swarm are statistically consistent even though the flying of the insects within the swarm are virtually asynchronous. There is also some suggestion of clustering, implying there may be some self-organizing behavior.
902:. It is used to improve flying technique and also as a prestigious activity of old aviation organizations. It represents the more challenging skill of flying near another aircraft. Formation flying proposed to reduce fuel use by minimizing drag.
1003:
min
Toulouse-Montreal demonstration with an A350-900 and A350-1000 separated by 3 km (1.6 nmi), saving over 6 t (13,000 lb) of carbon dioxide: a potential of more than 5% fuel savings. Partly funded by the EU
864:, autonomous rendezvous and docking and robotic assembly of space structures. One of the simplest formations used is where autonomous aircraft maintain formation with a lead aircraft which may itself be autonomous.
345:
180:
988:
software. Comfort would not be affected and trials are limited to two aircraft to reduce complexity but the concept could be expanded to include more. Commercial operations could begin in 2025 with
749:
Flight leader's arm bent 90°, fist clenched; four fingers extend, then closes hand with thumb pointing rearward and motioning aft; #3 relays signal to #4; #3 signals thumbs-up to lead when complete
278:
acts to change the direction of the flow for trailing aircraft, increasing the lift over a segment of the wing and allowing for a reduction in induced drag by lowering its angle of attack.
847:
flying is the disciplined flight of two or more aircraft under the command of a flight leader. Military pilots use tactical formations for mutual defense and concentration of firepower.
826:
621:, should be used as the basic formation prior to flight operations. Formations should transition to and from the basic formation to facilitate the use of hand and plane signals.
493:
466:
399:
372:
207:
92:. It was found that pairs of aircraft were more combat effective than single aircraft, and therefore, military aircraft would always fly in formations of at least two. By
1720:
116:
frontal and rear projected surfaces of the body, and hence, less drag. This can also be understood somewhat tautologically through the common drag equation for a body
537:
Studies of birds have shown that the V formation can greatly enhance the overall aerodynamic efficiency by reducing the drag and thereby increasing the flight range.
439:
419:
1739:
227:
269: is the speed of the mean flow. It can be seen by inspection, that a decrease in mean velocity will generate less drag force, as is the case with drafting.
267:
247:
1523:
552:
that is an area of active research for the application of drones. The unique feature of insect swarms is their leaderless, yet organized flight. In a
610:
formation from left to right consists of the #2 (lead's wingman), #1 (flight leader), #3 (section lead), and #4 (section lead's wingman) aircraft.
508:
1422:
Thien, H. P.; Moelyadi, M. A.; Muhammad, H. (2008). "Effects of
Leaders Position and Shape on Aerodynamic Performances of V Flight Formation".
77:
have been known to receive performance benefits from formation flight for over a century, through aerodynamic theory of
Wieselsberger in 1914.
941:, had its fuel consumption reduced by 5–10% with the autopilot maintaining the 4,000 ft (1.2 km) separation based on ADS-B and
981:
1682:
1258:. Guidance, Navigation, and Control and Co-located Conferences. Reston, Virginia: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
689:#3 moves section out to give space for #2 to cross over to #1's left wing; #3 moves section back to lead's right wing once #2 is done
1701:
284:
119:
1406:
1281:
1234:
1151:
96:, pilots had discovered other strategic advantages to formation flight such as enhanced stability and optimal visibility.
1579:
MobiQuitous 2020 - 17th EAI International
Conference on Mobile and Ubiquitous Systems: Computing, Networking and Services
815:#2 moves forward to join on lead's inside wing; #3 and #4 join as an element, then take position on lead's outside wing.
964:
believes an aircraft can save 5–10% of fuel by flying 1.5–2 nmi (2.8–3.7 km) behind the preceding one. After
942:
1604:
1393:. Fluid Dynamics and Co-located Conferences. Reston, Virginia: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
1005:
968:
tests showing 12% savings, it launched its 'fello'fly' project in
November 2019 for test flights in 2020 with two
1550:
606:, depending on the side being flown by the section (#3 and #4) aircraft. For example, viewed from overhead, the
914:
833:
1763:
26:
1577:
Alkouz, Balsam; Bouguettaya, Athman (Dec 7–9, 2020). "Formation-based
Selection of Drone Swarm Services".
922:
66:
A multitude of studies have been performed on the performance benefits of aircraft flying in formation.
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109:
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Flight leader gently porpoises several times; each pilot signals lead verbally when in position
985:
424:
404:
1221:. AIAA SciTech Forum. Reston, Virginia: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
860:
formation flight may enable future large aperture space telescopes, variable baseline space
710:#3 moves section to #2's left wing, #4 crosses under #3 as the element is crossing under #2
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A350s for flight trials in 2025 to 2026, and will include Boeing for interoperability.
844:
252:
232:
1721:"A350s operate transatlantic formation flight to test potential for cutting fuel-burn"
1370:
1252:"Flight Test Techniques used to Evaluate Performance Benefits During Formation Flight"
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85:
1387:"A Computational Investigation of Bio-Inspired Formation Flight and Ground Effect"
1322:
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953:
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1215:"Operational Analysis for the Formation Flight for Aerodynamic Benefit Program"
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Flight leader's right arm bent 90°, fist clenched; #2 passes same signal to #3
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105:
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of multiple objects in coordination. Formation flying occurs in nature among
30:
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schedule adjustments, and other manufacturers' aircraft could be included.
806:
785:
229: is the density of the fluid medium through which the object travels,
93:
1740:"Airbus to continue fello'fly flight tests via SESAR-backed Geese project"
1338:
1250:
Ray, Ronald; Cobleigh, Brent; Vachon, M.; St. John, Clinton (2002-06-25).
731:#3 moves section to lead's right wing, #4 crosses over to #3's right wing
1386:
1251:
1214:
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957:
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249: is the cross-sectional area normal to the direction mean flow, and
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830:
1702:"Airbus Seeks Up To 10% Fuel Burn Savings By Aircraft Flying Together"
1469:
1138:, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 190–192,
794:#2 slides back and behind lead, followed by #3, then #4 in sequence
1587:
921:
for Energy project showed 10–15% in fuel savings, installed on two
895:
613:
The flight leader should decide and communicate which orientation,
60:
52:
1428:
812:
Flight leader rocks wings several times, then starts shallow turn
668:#3 moves section out and back, #2 crosses over to #1's right wing
1132:"Bericht des Prüfungsausschusses zur Beurteilung von Erfindungen"
1039:
989:
984:
in oceanic airspace, and the only modification required would be
884:
707:
Flight leader's right arm bent 90°, fist clenched, two arm pumps
512:
728:
Flight leader's left arm bent 90°, fist clenched, two arm pumps
281:
This can also be shown by the drag and analogous lift equation,
273:
freestream flow direction and drag. These vortices are known as
961:
910:
861:
340:{\textstyle F_{\text{L}}={\frac {1}{2}}C_{\text{L}}A\rho v^{2}}
175:{\textstyle F_{\text{D}}={\frac {1}{2}}C_{\text{D}}A\rho v^{2}}
44:
34:
19:
1385:
Willis, David; Peraire, Jaime; Breuer, Kenneth (2007-06-15).
1136:
16:
Flight of multiple objects in a coordinated shape or pattern
969:
906:
104:
It is a common misunderstanding to relate the reduction of
74:
1683:"Boeing, FedEx 777F Tests Confirm Wake Fuel Burn Benefit"
1443:
Kelley, Douglas H.; Ouellette, Nicholas T. (2013-01-15).
1249:
1213:
Flanzer, Tristan C.; Bieniawski, Stefan R. (2014-01-10).
925:. In 2017, NASA measured 8–10% lower fuel flow with two
1256:
AIAA Atmospheric Flight
Mechanics Conference and Exhibit
976:
trials with airlines in 2021. Certification for shorter
1297:
Lissaman, P. B. S.; Shollenberger, C. A. (1970-05-22).
1083:
Bajec, Iztok Lebar; Heppner, Frank H. (October 2009).
909:'s Autonomous Formation Flight program used a pair of
287:
122:
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474:
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112:. However, they are quite different mechanistically.
929:
aircraft on wake surfing test flights. In 2018, the
855:
The challenge of achieving safe formation flight by
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1629:"3 YF-22 UAV Formation Flight Control Experiment"
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1212:
665:Flight leader's left arm bent 90°, fist clenched
80:Formation flight in human aviation originated in
1755:
1552:Pilot's Manual for Basic Flying Training (TC-44)
1362:A Flapping Wing Model for Avian Formation Flight
209:is the experimentally obtained unitless number,
108:in organized flight to the reduction of drag in
1693:
1674:
1652:"Future Air Transportation and the Environment"
1445:"Emergent dynamics of laboratory insect swarms"
1442:
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534:than perfectly caching the oncoming vortex.
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1719:David Kaminski-Morrow (9 November 2021).
1586:
1486:
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1427:
1391:25th AIAA Applied Aerodynamics Conference
1369:
1271:
1008:air traffic management research, Airbus'
401: vary linearly with angle of attack
1558:. Royal Canadian Air Force. January 1962
995:On 9 November 2021, Airbus performed a 7
871:
825:
573:
507:
18:
1359:
1129:
522:Birds are typically observed to fly in
1756:
1531:(4th ed.). T-34 Association. 1996
1364:(Thesis). University of Rhode Island.
1192:10.1001/jama.279.17.1409-jbk0506-6-1
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13:
1738:Dominic Perry (16 February 2023).
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14:
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1371:10.23860/thesis-haffner-john-1977
1165:
1067:
894:formation flying is performed at
867:
770:Flight leader gently rocks wings
51:, and is also conducted in human
1649:
1639:from the original on 2021-12-12.
773:#4 moves from slot to #3's wing
1731:
1712:
1662:from the original on 2021-12-12
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1436:
1219:52nd Aerospace Sciences Meeting
1415:
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1206:
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1:
1700:Jens Flottau (Nov 18, 2019).
1323:10.1126/science.168.3934.1003
1101:10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.07.007
1060:
915:Air Force Research Laboratory
625:4-ship formation transitions
347:. The difference now is that
1144:10.1007/978-3-642-52151-5_17
923:Boeing C-17 Globemaster IIIs
488:{\displaystyle C_{\text{L}}}
461:{\displaystyle C_{\text{D}}}
394:{\displaystyle C_{\text{L}}}
367:{\displaystyle C_{\text{D}}}
202:{\displaystyle C_{\text{D}}}
7:
1681:Guy Norris (Dec 10, 2019).
1299:"Formation Flight of Birds"
1085:"Organized flight in birds"
1023:
821:
639:Description & sequence
608:fingertip four strong right
560:
100:Mechanism of drag reduction
10:
1780:
1045:Satellite formation flying
554:particle image velocimetry
550:collective animal behavior
540:
69:
49:flying and gliding animals
919:Surfing Aircraft Vortices
638:
635:
632:
629:
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441:through the coefficients
1186:(17): 1409. 1998-05-06.
857:unmanned aerial vehicles
851:Unmanned aerial vehicles
566:Terminology and examples
88:were assigned to escort
1658:. Stanford University.
1597:10.1145/3448891.3448899
1525:Formation Flight Manual
948:By taking advantage of
434:{\displaystyle \alpha }
414:{\displaystyle \alpha }
90:reconnaissance aircraft
24:United States Air Force
1360:Haffner, John (1977).
986:flight control systems
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843:In military aviation,
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222:{\displaystyle \rho }
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1656:Woods Energy Seminar
1581:. pp. 386–394.
974:transatlantic flight
905:In the early 2000s,
881:Fly Synthesis Texans
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1764:Aircraft operations
1461:2013NatSR...3E1073K
1399:10.2514/6.2007-4182
1315:1970Sci...168.1003L
1309:(3934): 1003–1005.
1264:10.2514/6.2002-4492
1227:10.2514/6.2014-1460
752:#4 moves into slot
626:
528:J-shaped formations
524:V-shaped formations
1449:Scientific Reports
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845:tactical formation
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1283:978-1-62410-107-6
1236:978-1-62410-256-1
1153:978-3-642-52141-6
838:echelon formation
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262:{\displaystyle v}
242:{\displaystyle A}
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57:military aviation
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1010:Geese initiative
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802:Fingertip right
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954:migrating birds
937:freighter from
931:ecoDemonstrator
913:. In 2013, the
870:
862:interferometers
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778:Fingertip right
736:Fingertip right
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652:Fingertip right
615:fingertip right
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1176:"Encyclopedia"
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1095:(4): 777–789.
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1061:References
1030:Aerobatics
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1014:Air France
978:separation
958:biomimicry
900:recreation
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