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about the environmental impacts of fracking as well as the government's failure to consult with them. Public protests began when the First
Nations people realized their voice was not being heard. Much of the media coverage on the protests has portrayed the First Nations people as violent and destructive. However, what most people do not know is that the land in question is legally First Nation land. The Peace and Friendship Treaties of 1760–1761 did not cede land or resources, the government of Canada does not own the land and therefore cannot legally permit SWN to use the land for fracking purposes. On 6 December, SWN announced it was stopping fracking for the year, leaving the job incomplete.
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966:(later called the FRAC Act) was introduced to end the exemption of hydraulic fracturing practices from the Clean Water Act. This measure was proposed first in 2009 and later in 2011, however failed to pass in Congress on both occasions. Lack of federal regulation for hydraulic fracturing has allowed U.S. States great latitude to decide their own policy, leading to varied regulations across the United States. State policies have been influenced by many factors, including local public opinions on fracking, natural gas reserves within the state, and industrial lobbying.
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basis for possible subsequent steps. This should be done in a transparent process. In a dialogue with all stakeholders – under the auspices of the scientific community – research results will be shared and discussed. The
Coalition will soon submit legal changes for a better protection of the drinking water in the Water Provision Act and new Regulations on the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for mining projects. A mandatory EIA and public participation will be required for the licensing of exploration and production of natural gas from unconventional deposits.
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at one site had produced toxic waste, the latter was reused and did not harm the environment, though critics said the study was carried out at the start of exploration in Poland and does not reflect dangers from a long-term activity. Large-scale fracking in Poland would relieve some of the EU's dependency on
Russian gas, but the Central European state is densely populated and has a large agricultural sector, meaning the massive amounts of water required for fracking have raised additional concerns.
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government is currently (2014) strongly campaigning for fracking to be rolled-out across much of the country to act as a "bridge-fuel" between coal and alternative fuels. However, recent studies show that the loss of methane to the environment during production, transportation, and power generation is considerable, potentially negating benefits. This means that a move to natural gas may have greater greenhouse gas effects than continuing with coal power in the short- and medium-term.
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The level of potential public opposition to hydraulic fracturing also creates uncertainty. Ukraine's shale gas reserves are deeper than those in the United States, and thus production is bound to be more expensive, which may make it cost-prohibitive, depending on the prevailing market prices for gas. Ukraine continues to vigorously pursue reforms designed to achieve energy independence, which portends well for hydraulic fracturing as a helpful option in that regard.
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3447:. "We want to create the right conditions for industry to explore and unlock that potential in a way that allows communities to share in the benefits. "This new tax regime, which I want to make the most generous for shale in the world, will contribute to that. I want Britain to be a leader of the shale gas revolution – because it has the potential to create thousands of jobs and keep energy bills low for millions of people
715:, particularly that of water safety. Following the announcement of the moratorium in April 2011, a task team appointed by Mineral Resources minister Susan Shabangu was appointed to investigate the feasibility and environmental impact on fracking. The moratorium was lifted on 7 September 2012, with the team's report not having been made public, and the task team having "met in total secrecy".
316:. Fracking has been physically blockaded and disrupted at a number of sites across Australia. An occupation involving thousands of people in 2014 led to the state government suspending miner Metagasco's licence to drill at Bentley, NSW. Communities in areas such as at Tara, Glenugie, Doubtful Creek and Fullerton Cove have also engaged in protest and direct action.
469:, has been granted two exploration licenses in collaboration with the Danish State's oil- and gas company, Nordsøfonden. The exploration license, which runs until 2016, covers the two areas Nordjylland and Nordsjælland, where the geological characteristics are expected to provide the best potential for shale gas.
736:, and made a series of well-publicised protests at the end of September 2012. Companies are allowed to proceed with the initial stages of exploration, including geological field mapping and other data gathering activities, until such time as an appropriate regulatory framework has been put in place. Actual
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But this growing industry presence is hampered by major obstacles. At least two companies have backed out of a deal to extract shale gas in
Eastern Ukraine due to the threat of military action in that area. There are also other challenges to hydraulic fracturing in Ukraine, such as a lack of a proper
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activities, essential during the later stages of exploration when determining the financial viability of a potential project, would for the time being remain prohibited until a legal framework has been completed. Initial exploration would go a long way towards confirming whether the Karoo indeed held
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We reject the use of environmentally toxic substances in the application of fracking technology for exploration and extraction of unconventional natural gas deposits. A request for approval can only be decided upon when the necessary data basis for evaluation exists and is clarified beyond doubt that
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Massive hydraulic fracturing of gas wells in tight sandstone began in
Germany in 1975, and became common during the period 1978–1985, when more wells received massive hydraulic fracs in Germany than in any other European country. Germany also had the largest hydraulic fracturing jobs in Europe, using
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However, local South
African campaigners argue that exploration represents the thin-edge of the corporate wedge, and should not go ahead because of concerns about air pollution, groundwater contamination, and health risks associated with fluid additives used for fracturing. Environmental campaigners
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village protested against hydraulic fracturing done by
Chevron. Two hundred gendarmes were sent to stop the protest. The land on which Chevron is trying to build the well belonged to the village council but was acquired by the mayor in a way contested by the villagers. The mayor is presumed to have
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Poland is aggressively developing its shale gas reserves, thought to be the largest in Europe, though the latest estimate is significantly lower than that previously provided by the U.S. Department of Energy. A Polish
Geological Institute study published in March 2012 concluded that, while fracking
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Constitutionally, Ukraine's natural resources belong to the people, with government acting as a trustee. Under
Ukraine's constitution, a private investor would need to execute a production-sharing agreement, but would not be entitled to 100% of its production as it has to be shared with the state.
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The
Coalition will work – with the involvement of federal states and science – in a collaborative process with the companies. The industry will need to explain the specific objectives of their explorations campaigns which specific findings to eliminate gaps in knowledge and to provide a sufficient
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Danish national media have so far covered both pros and cons of shale gas production and fracking, and a minor NGO has been formed to protest against shale gas. The acknowledged green think tank Concito has produced a report that states, that it will be both practically and technically feasible to
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During October 2013 public conflict began between the Elsipogtog First Nation in New Brunswick and the hydraulic fracturing company SWN. Fuelling the conflict were SWN's plans to use the land of the Elsipogtog Nation for fracking. The First Nations people of the area had previously raised concerns
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Currently around 77% of South Africa's energy generation comes from coal. By the time the last two coal-fired plants come on line, including the world's 4th largest coal-fired power plant, it is estimated that South Africa will be generating 94% of its domestic energy from coal. The South African
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Ukraine has a long history of hydraulic fracturing, since it has been used there since the 1950s. There has also been a strong recent interest of the hydraulic fracturing industry in Ukraine. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, Ukraine has third-largest shale gas reserves in
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The government's rationale for lifting the moratorium included the creation of up to 700 000 jobs, an injection into the economy of up to 200 billion rands ($ 19.56 billion) a year, and the reduction of reliance on coal energy. With an estimated 13.7 trillion cubic meters of recoverable gas, one
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any adverse change in water quality can be ruled out (precautionary principle of the Water Resources Act). The disposal of flowback from fracking operations with the use environmentally toxic chemicals in injection wells is currently not justifiable due to lack of knowledge of the risks involved.
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and microseismic 3-dimensional imaging supported by the Department of Energy and other federal agencies, Drilling into shale now accounts for 30 percent of US gas production. This method of well completion has become controversial in high-activity states like Texas, Pennsylvania, Arkansas, West
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The Scottish Government has implemented a moratorium to prevent fracking in Scotland. The block was imposed in January 2015 through the planning and environmental permitting systems, pending the devolution of full powers over fracking to the Scottish Government as per the Smith Commission. This
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Although hydraulic fracturing in the United Kingdom has been common in North Sea oil and gas fields since the late 1970s, and has been used in about 200 British onshore oil and gas wells since the early 1980s, the technique did not attract public attention until its use was proposed for onshore
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Never, ever did I think that there would be a debate in this arid country about which was more important – gas or water. We can survive without gas... We cannot live without water. If we damage our limited water supply – and fracking will do just that – we will have conflict again here in South
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Three companies have received permits to frack roughly 1/5th of the area of South Africa. Shell's portion covers roughly 90,000 km, Falcon's covers 32,000 km, and Challenger Energy's (Bundu) covers 3,200 km. Due to considerable public pressure, a temporary moratorium on hydraulic
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On 6 and 7 December 2013, protesters tried to stop MIF S.A., a contractor for Chevron, from starting the work at this site and the government brought three hundred gendarmes to keep the protesters away. Protesters clashed with the gendarmes and there were about 50 arrests made. Many protesters
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as well as the principal of preventive and corrective action of environmental hazards, using the best available techniques with an acceptable economic cost to insure the protection, the valuation, the restoration, management of spaces, resources and natural environments, of animal and vegetal
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Four out of Canada's 10 provinces currently have province-wide bans on fracking: the provinces of New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia and Quebec. In Newfoundland and Labrador this was achieved through the mobilisation of rural communities which engaged in protest activities.
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According to available studies on its environmental relevance, the fracking technology in unconventional natural gas production – particularly in shale gas production – is a technology with enormous potential risks. The effects on humans, nature and the environment are scientifically not yet
269:. This was limited to one, two, or sometimes zero ongoing fracturing operations. The vast majority of coal seam gas wells have not been hydraulically fractured as the wells presently being drilled are in coal seams that have good natural permeability. The NSW Government has banned
1690:"LOI n° 2011-835 du 13 juillet 2011 visant à interdire l'exploration et l'exploitation des mines d'hydrocarbures liquides ou gazeux par fracturation hydraulique et à abroger les permis exclusifs de recherches comportant des projets ayant recours à cette technique – Legifrance"
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Farah, Paolo Davide; Tremolada, Riccardo (2015). "Regulation and Prospects of the Shale Gas Market in China in Light of International Trade, Energy Law, Production-Sharing Agreements, Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development: A Comparison with the US Experience".
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A similar temporary moratorium was announced for Wales by the Welsh Government in February 2015. This policy was formalised in July 2018, and made permanent in December 2018, following the devolution of full powers over onshore petroleum exploration in October 2018.
977:, which unlike Vermont has significant gas reserves, banned the practice in December 2014. Maryland introduced a temporary fracking ban in 2015, which was made permanent in 2017. Washington joined these states by banning hydraulic fracturing in May 2019.
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published a report in June 2012 that covered all aspects of the technology, and this has informed extensive legislation with the many government licensing authorities, including the requirement that only non hazardous chemicals may be used (see
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until long-term damage to residents or the environment brought about by fracking can be ruled out or until alternative extraction methods become available that don't rely on the injection of toxic chemical additives in the fluid system.
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moratorium was extended in October 2017, and made 'indefinite' in October 2019. Several environmental groups and opposition parties in the Scottish Parliament stated that a moratorium was inadequate, and a full legal ban was required.
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said China's technically recoverable shale gas reserves were almost 50% higher than those of the number two nation, the United States. Regulation of the sector in the country, however, could change its characteristics in the future.
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In August 2011, a public forum was held at Kelvin Grove in Cape Town by Shell's environmental consultant, Golder Associates. Lewis Pugh delivered a speech which received a standing ovation from the attending public. He stated that:
537:. This policy was said to be motivated by fears that consistently high energy costs were harming German industry, facing competitors for example from the U.S. where energy prices had shrunk to less than 25% of German energy costs.
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point out that many of the jobs will go to foreign expertise, little of the money will end up in local hands, and that the natural gas which is made producible by fracturing is not a "bridge" fuel because it produces as much in
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claimed they were abused and injured by the government forces. The county police chief instituted a state of necessity barring citizens to travel in or out of that area, imposed a curfew and interdicted any public assembly.
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Shell also agreed to disclose the chemicals they would use in fracking, their water sources and waste disposal methodology. As of 2018, Shell's three exploration licence applications in Karoo have not been granted.
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A type of fracking technique called slickwater fracking was used in Texas in 1998 to complete natural gas wells in the Barnett Shale. This type of completion was made possible by a number of advances in
552:, large parts of the press and the general public. Within less than a month, the original plan was put on ice for the foreseeable future and a moratorium was declared. Ever since shale gas fracking has
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with further local groups. As of 2013 the government was optimistic about development of the shale gas industry and was offering favorable tax treatment at a time when local budgets are being slashed.
803:. Mohale was effectively silenced by his colleagues after ongoing derision at his statements from the public . Shell was also asked what would happen to the gas. A Shell representative replied that:
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in 2011. Other companies have exploration licenses. The process was unofficially suspended for nearly a year in the UK from June 2011 after safety concerns emerged from the occurrence of two small
3424:"George Osborne unveils 'most generous tax breaks in world' for fracking: Environmental groups furious as chancellor sets 30% rate for shale gas producers in bid to enhance UK energy security"
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Covering much of the roughly 800 miles between Johannesburg and Cape Town, this arid expanse—its name means "thirsty land"—sees less rain in some parts than the Mojave Desert.
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regulatory framework for its development, opposition of major EU partners to hydraulic fracturing which may seek to influence Ukraine (France for example has an outright ban).
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In November 2019 the UK government imposed a moratorium against fracking in England. In February 2022, with the moratorium in England still in effect, the UK Government's
428:, and the Nova Scotia government is currently reviewing the practice, with recommendations expected in March 2012. The practice has been temporarily suspended in parts of
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There is, as of September 2021, a 'presumption against fracking' in Northern Ireland. This is enforced through the planning system, and was introduced in September 2015.
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announced draft regulations that would allow for the exploitation of shale gas deposits using the same fracking techniques common in the U.S., with the exception only of
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In the Netherlands, over 200 wells have so far been hydraulically fractured. Between 2007 and 2011, 22 wells (9 onshore and 13 offshore) were hydraulically fractured.
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Douglas J. Cant and Valerie G. Ethier, "Lithology-dependent diagenetic control of reservoir properties of conglomerates, Falher member, Elmworth Field, Alberta,"
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as coal. The karoo, famous for the quality of its lamb, is an arid region that it is largely reliant on underground water for agriculture and drinking supplies.
139:
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659:, hydraulic fracturing is part of petroleum exploration and extraction on a small scale mainly in Taranaki and concerns have been raised by environmentalists.
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extraction in the country's northeast in 2011. After a nationwide protest in January 2012, the government decided to ban the hydraulic fracturing technology.
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caretakers of the land alike fear that rivers and water sources in the region could be polluted by the waste produced in the fracking process. In addition,
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Europe at 128 trillion cubic feet. Since 2011, approximately 22 domestic and foreign-owned companies have been engaged in hydraulic fracturing in Ukraine.
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has also helped form the Sustainable Alternatives to Fracking and Exploration (SAFE) Alliance. This alliance includes The Wilderness Foundation, TKAG, the
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Fracking is banned on the Irish Onshore and within its internal waters. This followed extensive campaigning and protests by farmers and environmentalists.
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up to 650 tonnes of proppant per well. Most German fracs used water- or oil-based gels. The most popular target formation for hydraulic fracturing was the
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exploitation projects and closing current ones by 2040 in all of its territories. France thus became the first country to programme the end of all
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In March 2019, the High Court found the UK government's policy was unlawful and failed to consider the climate impact of shale gas extraction.
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In February 2015 Chevron gave up on its fracking activities in Romania, with the company no longer pursuing shale gas exploration in Europe.
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establish shale gas production in Denmark without having to fear of contamination of drinking water or the release of methane from wells.
2457:"Romanian citizens of Pungesti backed by Greenpeace force Chevron to stop fracking operations, 2014 | Global Nonviolent Action Database"
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wells in 2007. As of Jan 2014, the only hydraulic fracturing job that has been performed for shale gas in the United Kingdom was by
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Shell doesn't expect the gas reserves to be very large, therefore they will be generating electricity and distributing it directly.
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In June 2016 German politicians passed a law banning fracking, with limited exceptions for scientific and non-commercial projects.
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been paid by Chevron in order to permit the building of a gas-well, and a referendum was held to force the mayor to resign.
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for 400 years. Despite these benefits, activists vehemently opposed the move by the government and the ruling party, the
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Unconventional (oil & gas) reservoir § Essential differences between conventional and unconventional reservoirs
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ordered the UK's only two shale gas wells, both located at a site in Lancashire, England, to be sealed and abandoned.
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chemicals as additives. As of September 2016, Victoria has permanently banned hydraulic fracturing and all forms of
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2421:"The referendum against the mayor of Pungesti, blocked by the county government in Vaslui « Frack Off Romania"
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2370:"Explorarea gazelor de şist de către Chevron, blocată de protestele sătenilor din Vaslui. Jandarmii au intervenit"
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In 2012, the first research for shale gas has begun in Denmark, where Total E&P Denmark B.V., a subsidiary of
534:
3834:"Seeds of distrust: conflicts over sustainable development in a local fracking policy network in New York State"
2658:"By The Time Natural Gas Has A Net Climate Benefit You'll Likely Be Dead And The Climate Ruined – ThinkProgress"
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China completed its first horizontal shale gas well in 2011 and 200 by 2014. A global shale gas study by the US
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1879:"Productivity of Frac Stimulations in the German Rotliegend: Theoretical Considerations and Practical Results"
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Up until the mid-2000s, hydraulic fracturing was generally limited to conventional oil and gas wells in the
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has become a contentious environmental and health issue with Tunisia and France banning the practice and a
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will not be pursued in the country under this government. Here is an excerpt from the coalition contract:
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Virginia, Oklahoma, and Ohio, because of the complaints about pollution, health effects and earthquakes.
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A temporary moratorium on fracking for shale gas was enacted in September 2013 pending further research.
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Sandstone. Hydraulically fractured wells are today the source of most of German natural gas production.
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3740:"Research Article: Who's Regulating Who? Analyzing Fracking Policy in Colorado, Wyoming, and Louisiana"
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2395:"Cererea de organizare a unui referendum de demitere a primarului din Pungesti, respinsa de Prefectura"
795:. After Pugh's speech, Bonang Mohale, Shell's representative, announced in reference to fracking that:
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species, of ecological diversity and equilibriums. The ban was upheld by an October 2013 ruling of the
888:, but an expert report in April 2012 concluded the practice could continue under stricter monitoring.
761:, CASABIO, The Home of Biodiversity, The Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa (WESSA),/ a
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820:. In the case of water boreholes it is often referred to as hydrofracturing. From 1990 to 1992, 170
606:, fracking operations generally need be authorized by the government, which has publicly declared a
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A number of protests occurred in Bulgaria after the government's decision to grant an approval for
83:
3233:"Shell, Chevron, pull out of fracking deals in Ukraine citing the war with Separatists and Russia"
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1400:"Toward an Anti-Fracking Mobilization Toolkit: Ten practices from Western Newfoundland's Campaign"
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1217:"Bulgaria says Chevron cannot use fracking to search for shale gas - Bulgaria - the Sofia Echo"
1163:"Enabling Emergence: The Bentley Blockade and the Struggle for a Gasfield Free Northern Rivers"
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Hydraulic fracturing was banned in France in 2011 after public pressure. It was based on the
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1192:"How to Beat the 'Fracking Frenzy: Lessons from the Campaign that ended Fracking in Ireland"
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2229:"Polish report: shale gas procedure produces toxic refuse but does not harm environment"
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the estimated technically recoverable resource of 485 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of gas.
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that make up just over 10% of German territory. The draft legislation had come from the
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844:, have sponsored a bill for the moratorium of hydraulic fracturing on 6 February 2014.
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Shale gas is a resource with huge potential to broaden the UK's energy mix," said the
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3169:"Ukraine's energy crisis may invite hydraulic fracturing and regulatory uncertainty"
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since at least the mid-1960s. Massive hydraulic fracturing has been widely used in
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which would be released by the fracking work, potentially jeopardising Australia's
309:
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3802:
3102:
Less, C.; Andersen, N. (1994). "Hydrofracture: State Of The Art In South Africa".
1924:"Promises of shale gas throw 'unexpected wrench' in Germany's green energy policy"
1136:"The gas field so big it could knock Australia off course from our climate target"
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Protest groups have emerged since April 2012, with a major nationwide group being
3787:"Let's make a deal: unraveling stakeholder influence on Colorado fracking policy"
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2715:
2077:"Northern Petroleum Geesbrug well fracturing programme is exceeding expectations"
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Hydraulic fracturing has regularly been used to improve the performance of water
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43:
3287:
The Unconventional Hydrocarbon Resources of Britain's Onshore Basins – Shale Gas
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sufficiently clarified. Drinking water and health have absolute priority for us.
533:, then headed by the party head of Merkel's coalition partner, the pro-business
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2980:"Wilderness Foundation South Africa - Influential NGOs unite to fight Fracking"
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Hydraulic fracturing was exempted from underground injection controls of the
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292:, has been opened up for fracking, but both pastoralists and the traditional
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Organisations in South Africa that oppose fracking include Earthlife Africa
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since the late 1970s to recover gas from low-permeability sandstones of the
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4118:"Hydraulic Fracturing and Tort Litigation: A Survey of Landowner Lawsuits"
3367:"Environment Agency - Unconventional gas - shale gas and coal bed methane"
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2103:"The Netherlands puts temporary ban on fracking ahead of further research"
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moratorium in place in Quebec (Canada), and some of the states of the US.
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1848:"La France devient le premier pays à programmer la fin des hydrocarbures"
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2716:"South Africa: International Groups Rally Against Fracking, TKAG Claims"
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1543:"News and information about shale gas | Total E&P Denmark B.V."
1083:"The battle for Beetaloo: The basin at the heart of the fracking debate"
18:
For further information on the reasons why fracking is carried out, see
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J.E.S. Milne and R.D. Howie, "Developments in eastern Canada in 1965,"
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619:
515:
466:
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1454:"China takes step towards tapping shale gas potential with first well"
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There is zero chance that there will be any contamination of the water
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region was imposed in July 2011, to examine concerns about safety and
3906:"Citing Health, Environment Concerns, New York Moves To Ban Fracking"
3148:"History of hydrofracking in Ukraine - Unconventional Gas in Ukraine"
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Michael Kahn; Braden Reddall; Gabriela Baczynska (9 February 2012).
1827:"France bans fracking and oil extraction in all of its territories "
4027:"Interview with Dan Steward, Former Mitchell Energy Vice President"
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1750:"France to Keep Fracking Ban to Protect Environment, Sarkozy Says"
420:, for a twenty-year term. Fracking has also received criticism in
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2533:"Chevron Exits Romanian Shale Gas – Breakbulk Events & Media"
1998:"German government agrees to ban fracking after years of dispute"
1571:"Alum shale may contain natural gas – Total E&P Denmark B.V."
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3674:"Fracking: UK's only shale gas wells to be sealed and abandoned"
3576:"Review of rules on oil and gas exploration in Northern Ireland"
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2423:. 9 February 2015. Archived from the original on 9 February 2015
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However these plans immediately drew massive critique both from
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2342:"Hunt for Gas Hits Fragile Soil, and South Africans Fear Risks"
1898:"Germany agrees on regulations to allow fracking for shale gas"
1522:"Does shale gas exist in Denmark? – Total E&P Denmark B.V."
1307:
429:
2559:"Chevron Dry Holes Rate Almost Doubles Amid Shift to Americas"
2640:"CO2 Scorecard – Shale Gas: Killing Coal without Cutting CO2"
2207:"Poland Says 22 Shale Gas Wells Under Way or Planned in 2012"
1664:"Concito: Danmark kan sagtens håndtere skifergas forsvarligt"
793:
I have no doubt, that in the end, good will triumph over evil
765:"Stop Fracking", and Treasure the Karoo Action Group (TKAG).
725:
708:
3612:"Government fracking policy declared unlawful by High Court"
1330:"N.B. fracking protests and the fight for aboriginal rights"
602:
explicitly prohibit only the use of hydraulic fracturing in
490:
following complaints by US-based company Schuepbach Energy.
4088:"New Jersey Senate Committee Again Passes Gas-Fracking Ban"
4060:
Michael Shellenberger and Ted Nordhaus (16 December 2011).
3692:"Regulation of Hydraulic Fracturing by the Office of Water"
3293:, Department of Energy & Climate Change, archived from
2882:
836:
Members of the Constituent Assembly belonging to president
797:
We will leave the Karoo better than it was when we found it
270:
3714:"Fracturing Responsibility and Awareness of Chemicals Act"
3550:"Written Statement: Petroleum Extraction Policy statement"
3532:"Fracking plans face cold shoulder under new Wales policy"
3130:"Bill for a moratorium of hydraulic fracturing in Tunisia"
3023:
1992:
1546:
622:
will now have to abandon their plans to frack in Germany.
556:
been banned in Germany and the stance of the newly formed
401:
Concerns about fracking began in late July 2011, when the
3280:
3058:
2907:
2869:"Anthropogenic Emissions of Methane in the United States"
2286:"Insight: Poland's shale gas play takes on Russian power"
733:
549:
3594:"Fracking banned in Northern Ireland for the first time"
2181:"Shale gas extraction given clean bill of health by MPs"
964:
Fracturing Responsibility and Awareness of Chemicals Act
3641:"Fracking halted in England in major government U-turn"
1780:"Code de l'environnement – Article L110-1 – Legifrance"
973:
became the first state to outlaw hydraulic fracturing;
718:
4001:"Governor signs prohibition on fracking in Washington"
2925:
1854:, 30 December 2017 (page visited on 30 December 2017).
1835:, 20 December 2017 (page visited on 30 December 2017).
1398:
Carter, Angela V.; Fusco, Leah M. (10 November 2021).
4142:
3460:"Block on fracking in Scotland announced by minister"
2031:"President Higgins signs Irish fracking ban into law"
560:
government expressed in the coalition treaty is that
358:. The method is currently used in development of the
3349:"Shale gas extraction: Final report – Royal Society"
2791:
South Africa: Man Reaches Exalted Grandmaster Status
3496:"Scottish government confirms 'no fracking' policy"
2335:
2333:
2198:
1896:Nicola, Stefan; Andersen, Tino (26 February 2013).
4127:. American Bar Association. September–October 2017
4079:
3163:
3161:
2697:"S.Africa imposes "fracking" moratorium in Karoo"
2277:
2260:"Polish Report: Shale Gas Extraction Not Harmful"
2257:
1304:"Northern B.C. fracking licence concerns critics"
1107:
777:(EWT), and the African Conservation Trust (ACT).
409:a long-term water licence to draw water from the
4190:
3417:
3253:Hydraulic Proppant Fracturing and Gravel Packing
2508:"Chevron exits shale gas exploration in Romania"
2441:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
2330:
2235:. Associated Press. 2 March 2012. Archived from
2204:
1865:Hydraulic Proppant Fracturing and Gravel Packing
1741:
1700:
1240:
1238:
1161:Ricketts, Aidan; Kia, Annie (2 September 2019).
1046:"Ban on use of BTEX compounds in CSG activities"
3832:Lee, Junesoo; Lee, Jeongyoon (2 January 2018).
3514:"Ministers promise to oppose fracking in Wales"
3158:
2303:
1889:
1445:
1110:"Campaigns that Changed the Northern Territory"
1064:"Victoria moves to ban coal seam gas, fracking"
521:In February 2013, the government of Chancellor
3311:
2221:
2172:
1895:
1772:
1682:
1478:
1451:
1011:Environmental impact of the petroleum industry
1006:Environmental impact of the oil shale industry
4085:
3411:
2622:"SA to move ahead with shale gas exploration"
2309:
1235:
220:
3791:Journal of Natural Resources Policy Research
3101:
2819:
2251:
1921:
1345:
1343:
1290:American Association of Petroleum Geologists
1274:American Association of Petroleum Geologists
1001:Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing
3880:"Vermont Becomes 1st State to Ban Fracking"
3478:"Scottish government backs ban on fracking"
2585:"Department of Minerals and Energy: Energy"
1397:
1160:
707:fracturing for shale gas in South Africa's
177:2012–14 Romanian protests against shale gas
2482:"9 countries or regions that ban fracking"
2339:
1747:
1706:
1246:"9 countries or regions that ban fracking"
1021:List of countries by recoverable shale gas
871:Hydraulic fracturing in the United Kingdom
227:
213:
2707:
1340:
942:Hydraulic fracturing in the United States
744:
3274:
2178:
1986:
945:
253:
3638:
2747:: IOL Business Report. 10 October 2013.
2312:"Poland's Shale Gas dilemma for Europe"
2152:
2126:
2100:
1423:
1031:
434:Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives
432:, pending an environmental review. The
346:Fracking has been in common use by the
4191:
4062:"A boom in shale gas? Credit the feds"
3831:
3391:
3317:
3217:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2822:"SA gives cautious 'yes' to shale gas"
2713:
2101:Bertini, Ilarioa (20 September 2013).
1978:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1620:"Skal vi afvise 250 års gasforsyning?"
1189:
1133:
1108:Commons Librarian (22 December 2023).
308:are very concerned about the level of
3249:
3079:"Debate Heats Up Over Shell Fracking"
2714:Hweshe, Francis (17 September 2012).
2155:"Concern as gas drilling intensifies"
1798:"Fracking ban upheld by French court"
1142:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation
1089:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation
544:parties and elements of Merkel's own
3973:
3922:
3784:
3737:
3639:Ambrose, Jillian (2 November 2019).
3006:"Wilderness Foundation South Africa"
2962:"Treasure Karoo Action Group - Home"
1876:
1592:"Denmark goes for controversial gas"
1568:
1519:
1185:
1183:
1080:
719:Rationale for lifting the moratorium
698:Hydraulic fracturing in South Africa
4125:Real Property, Trust and Estate Law
3785:Cook, Jeffrey J. (21 August 2015).
3392:Melley, James (28 September 2011).
2310:Mary Dejevsky (27 September 2011).
780:
651:Hydraulic fracturing in New Zealand
497:, France adopted a law banning new
493:In December 2017, to fight against
13:
4086:Terrence Dopp (13 February 2012).
4037:. 20 December 2011. Archived from
2982:. 22 February 2014. Archived from
2676:"Lowdown on Fracking in the Karoo"
2610:Fossil-fuel phase-out#cite note-34
2258:Monika Scislowska (2 March 2012).
2129:"Anti-frackers 'need to get real'"
1351:"Elsipogtog and Fracking protests"
950:Clean Energy March in Philadelphia
811:
676:On 17 October 2013, people in the
37:
14:
4210:
3954:Chesapeake Climate Action Network
3394:"New groups protest at shale gas"
3323:"Gas 'fracking' gets green light"
2760:South Africa ends fracking freeze
2205:Marek Strzelecki (2 March 2012).
1404:The Commons Social Change Library
1196:The Commons Social Change Library
1180:
1167:The Commons Social Change Library
1134:Bardon, Jane (29 February 2020).
1114:The Commons Social Change Library
864:
454:Energy Information Administration
328:to research the possibilities of
4176:
4164:
4152:
4110:
4053:
4019:
3993:
3967:
3950:"We Banned Fracking in Maryland"
3942:
3916:
3898:
3872:
3825:
3778:
3731:
3706:
3684:
3666:
3632:
3604:
3586:
3568:
3542:
3524:
3506:
3488:
3470:
2944:"Stop Fracking – Save the Karoo"
2741:"SA proposes rules for fracking"
2484:. Oil Patch Asia. Archived from
1452:Jonathan Watts (21 April 2011).
1424:Lee, Jaeah; West, James (2014).
1248:. Oil Patch Asia. Archived from
935:
728:could hold enough gas to supply
314:Paris emissions reduction target
4199:Hydraulic fracturing by country
3452:
3385:
3359:
3341:
3243:
3225:
3179:
3140:
3122:
3095:
3071:
3059:Independent Newspapers Online.
3052:
3034:
3016:
2998:
2972:
2954:
2936:
2918:
2900:
2875:
2861:
2847:"View of Fracking in Cape Town"
2839:
2813:
2782:
2751:
2733:
2689:
2668:
2650:
2632:
2614:
2603:
2577:
2551:
2525:
2500:
2474:
2449:
2413:
2387:
2362:
2340:Ian Urbina (30 December 2011).
2146:
2120:
2094:
2069:
2041:
2023:
1940:
1915:
1870:
1857:
1838:
1816:
1790:
1656:
1638:
1612:
1584:
1562:
1535:
1513:
1472:
1417:
1391:
1373:
1322:
1296:
1280:
1264:
1190:Gorman, Jamie (14 March 2023).
1081:Judd, Bridget (15 April 2018).
691:
531:Federal Department of Economics
3738:Cook, Jeffrey J. (June 2014).
3061:"No fracking way, we won't go"
2153:Maetzig, Rob (3 August 2011).
1709:"The French Public Says No to
1209:
1154:
1140:ABC News (Background Briefing)
1127:
1101:
1074:
1056:
1038:
902:Hydraulic Fracturing in the UK
644:
633:
403:Government of British Columbia
342:Hydraulic fracturing in Canada
1:
3974:Cama, Timothy (1 June 2015).
3923:Cama, Timothy (1 June 2015).
3882:. 17 May 2012. Archived from
3850:10.1080/14719037.2017.1293146
3803:10.1080/19390459.2015.1080899
2127:Maetzig, Rob (27 July 2011).
1867:, Elsevier, 1989, p.176, 178.
1748:Tara Patel (4 October 2011).
1293:, Aug. 1984, v.68 n.8 p.1044.
1277:, Jun. 1966, v.50 n.6 p.1298.
259:September 2019 climate strike
3042:"African Conservation Trust"
2537:Breakbulk Events & Media
1707:Tara Patel (31 March 2011).
893:Royal Academy of Engineering
436:has also expressed concern.
348:petroleum industry in Canada
249:
42:Shale gas drilling rig near
7:
3442:Chancellor of the Exchequer
3024:"Endangered Wildlife Trust"
989:
824:had been hydrofractured in
791:. His final statement was:
319:
140:U.S. federal law exemptions
10:
4215:
3010:Wildernessfoundation.co.za
2035:Shale Gas Bulletin Ireland
1994:Agence France-Presse (AFP)
1050:NSW Trade & Investment
969:In May 2012, the state of
939:
868:
847:
831:
695:
671:
648:
625:
604:designated water preserves
508:
460:
339:
17:
3756:10.1017/S1466046614000027
3282:British Geological Survey
2883:"Earth Life – Earth Life"
2820:Janse van Vuuren, André.
2461:Nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu
2049:"FOCUS ON DUTCH GAS 2012"
1426:"The Great Frack Forward"
960:Energy Policy Act of 2005
842:Congress For the Republic
775:Endangered Wildlife Trust
713:environmental degradation
662:
476:
335:
302:Indigenous Protected Area
3976:"Maryland bans fracking"
3925:"Maryland bans fracking"
3838:Public Management Review
3694:. US EPA. 6 October 2011
2179:Tim Webb (24 May 2011).
1381:"List of Bans Worldwide"
895:under the banner of the
548:, as well as from major
447:
2107:Blue and Green Tomorrow
1852:Radio télévision suisse
956:Safe Drinking Water Act
904:for complete details).
483:precautionary principle
4035:Breakthrough Institute
3744:Environmental Practice
3250:Mader, Detlef (1989).
2966:Treasurethekaroo.co.za
1646:"Skifergas – Nej Tak!"
1501:Cite journal requires
1016:ExxonMobil Electrofrac
951:
745:Opposition to fracking
724:study claims that the
488:Constitutional Council
356:Spirit River Formation
262:
182:Anti-fracking movement
46:
3116:10.1007/s100400050050
949:
930:Oil and Gas Authority
598:Although German laws
257:
161:Uses of radioactivity
41:
3600:. 28 September 2015.
3582:. 27 September 2021.
3104:Hydrogeology Journal
3091:on 22 February 2014.
1823:Agence France-Presse
1559:Shale gas in Denmark
1387:. 14 September 2012.
1385:Keeptapwatersafe.org
1032:Notes and references
1026:Shale gas by country
996:Directional drilling
983:directional drilling
752:greenhouse emissions
261:in Darwin, Australia
108:Environmental impact
4098:on 15 February 2012
4066:The Washington Post
3912:. 18 December 2014.
3680:. 10 February 2022.
3418:Macalister, Terry;
3373:on 28 February 2014
3199:on 24 December 2016
2986:on 22 February 2014
2871:. 25 November 2013.
2159:Taranaki Daily News
2133:Taranaki Daily News
1960:on 28 December 2013
1531:on 31 October 2013.
1223:on 22 February 2012
1052:. 6 September 2014.
882:Cuadrilla Resources
326:Chevron Corporation
300:working in the new
4005:Sen. Jesse Salomon
3556:. 10 December 2018
3520:. 4 February 2015.
3466:. 28 January 2015.
3065:Independent Online
2771:, 7 September 2012
2591:on 2 December 2009
2565:. 20 February 2015
2539:. 23 February 2015
2346:The New York Times
2233:WashingtonPost.com
1922:Michael Birnbaum.
1784:Legifrance.gouv.fr
1694:Legifrance.gouv.fr
1650:Skifergasnejtak.dk
1580:on 3 October 2013.
952:
298:Indigenous rangers
290:Northern Territory
275:unconventional gas
263:
47:
4031:Breakthrough blog
3886:on 31 August 2013
3598:Belfast Telegraph
3502:. 3 October 2019.
3484:. 3 October 2017.
3321:(17 April 2012).
3267:978-0-08-086884-4
3046:Projectafrica.com
2926:"WESSA – Welcome"
2849:. 9 February 2014
2662:ThinkProgress.org
2488:on 2 January 2014
1804:. 11 October 2013
1760:on 8 October 2011
1670:. 4 February 2013
1549:on 3 October 2013
1252:on 2 January 2014
1070:. 30 August 2016.
237:
236:
4206:
4181:
4180:
4169:
4168:
4157:
4156:
4155:
4148:
4137:
4136:
4134:
4132:
4122:
4114:
4108:
4107:
4105:
4103:
4094:. Archived from
4083:
4077:
4076:
4074:
4072:
4057:
4051:
4050:
4048:
4046:
4023:
4017:
4016:
4014:
4012:
3997:
3991:
3990:
3988:
3986:
3971:
3965:
3964:
3962:
3960:
3946:
3940:
3939:
3937:
3935:
3920:
3914:
3913:
3902:
3896:
3895:
3893:
3891:
3876:
3870:
3869:
3829:
3823:
3822:
3782:
3776:
3775:
3735:
3729:
3728:
3726:
3724:
3710:
3704:
3703:
3701:
3699:
3688:
3682:
3681:
3670:
3664:
3663:
3661:
3659:
3636:
3630:
3629:
3627:
3625:
3608:
3602:
3601:
3590:
3584:
3583:
3572:
3566:
3565:
3563:
3561:
3554:Welsh Government
3546:
3540:
3539:
3528:
3522:
3521:
3510:
3504:
3503:
3492:
3486:
3485:
3474:
3468:
3467:
3456:
3450:
3449:
3437:
3435:
3422:(19 July 2013).
3415:
3409:
3408:
3406:
3404:
3389:
3383:
3382:
3380:
3378:
3369:. Archived from
3363:
3357:
3356:
3353:Royalsociety.org
3345:
3339:
3338:
3336:
3334:
3315:
3309:
3308:
3307:
3305:
3299:
3292:
3278:
3272:
3271:
3247:
3241:
3240:
3237:Longtailpipe.com
3229:
3223:
3222:
3216:
3208:
3206:
3204:
3198:
3192:. Archived from
3191:
3183:
3177:
3176:
3165:
3156:
3155:
3144:
3138:
3137:
3126:
3120:
3119:
3099:
3093:
3092:
3090:
3084:. Archived from
3083:
3075:
3069:
3068:
3056:
3050:
3049:
3038:
3032:
3031:
3020:
3014:
3013:
3002:
2996:
2995:
2993:
2991:
2976:
2970:
2969:
2958:
2952:
2951:
2940:
2934:
2933:
2922:
2916:
2915:
2908:"CASABIO – Home"
2904:
2898:
2897:
2895:
2893:
2887:Earthlife.org.za
2879:
2873:
2872:
2865:
2859:
2858:
2856:
2854:
2843:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2832:
2817:
2811:
2810:
2809:
2807:
2786:
2780:
2779:
2778:
2776:
2755:
2749:
2748:
2737:
2731:
2730:
2728:
2726:
2711:
2705:
2704:
2703:. 21 April 2011.
2693:
2687:
2686:
2684:
2682:
2672:
2666:
2665:
2654:
2648:
2647:
2644:Co2scorecard.org
2636:
2630:
2629:
2618:
2612:
2607:
2601:
2600:
2598:
2596:
2587:. Archived from
2581:
2575:
2574:
2572:
2570:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2544:
2529:
2523:
2522:
2520:
2518:
2504:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2493:
2478:
2472:
2471:
2469:
2467:
2453:
2447:
2446:
2440:
2432:
2430:
2428:
2417:
2411:
2410:
2408:
2406:
2391:
2385:
2384:
2382:
2380:
2366:
2360:
2359:
2354:
2352:
2337:
2328:
2327:
2325:
2323:
2307:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2296:
2281:
2275:
2274:
2272:
2270:
2255:
2249:
2248:
2246:
2244:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2214:
2202:
2196:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2185:The Sunday Times
2176:
2170:
2169:
2167:
2165:
2150:
2144:
2143:
2141:
2139:
2124:
2118:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2098:
2092:
2091:
2089:
2087:
2081:Energy-pedia.com
2073:
2067:
2066:
2064:
2062:
2053:
2045:
2039:
2038:
2027:
2021:
2020:
2018:
2016:
1996:(24 July 2016).
1990:
1984:
1983:
1977:
1969:
1967:
1965:
1959:
1953:. Archived from
1952:
1944:
1938:
1937:
1932:. Archived from
1919:
1913:
1912:
1910:
1908:
1893:
1887:
1886:
1874:
1868:
1861:
1855:
1846:
1842:
1836:
1820:
1814:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1794:
1788:
1787:
1776:
1770:
1769:
1767:
1765:
1756:. Archived from
1745:
1739:
1738:
1736:
1734:
1725:. Archived from
1718:
1712:
1704:
1698:
1697:
1686:
1680:
1679:
1677:
1675:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1642:
1636:
1635:
1633:
1631:
1626:. 19 August 2013
1616:
1610:
1609:
1607:
1605:
1588:
1582:
1581:
1576:. Archived from
1566:
1560:
1558:
1556:
1554:
1539:
1533:
1532:
1527:. Archived from
1517:
1511:
1510:
1504:
1499:
1497:
1489:
1476:
1470:
1469:
1467:
1465:
1449:
1443:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1421:
1415:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1395:
1389:
1388:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1361:on 31 March 2014
1357:. Archived from
1347:
1338:
1337:
1336:. 13 April 2014.
1326:
1320:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1300:
1294:
1288:Bulletin of the
1284:
1278:
1272:Bulletin of the
1268:
1262:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1242:
1233:
1232:
1230:
1228:
1219:. Archived from
1213:
1207:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1187:
1178:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1158:
1152:
1151:
1149:
1147:
1131:
1125:
1124:
1122:
1120:
1105:
1099:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1078:
1072:
1071:
1060:
1054:
1053:
1042:
781:Notable meetings
396:British Columbia
310:greenhouse gases
229:
222:
215:
27:
26:
4214:
4213:
4209:
4208:
4207:
4205:
4204:
4203:
4189:
4188:
4187:
4175:
4163:
4153:
4151:
4143:
4141:
4140:
4130:
4128:
4120:
4116:
4115:
4111:
4101:
4099:
4084:
4080:
4070:
4068:
4058:
4054:
4044:
4042:
4041:on 7 March 2012
4025:
4024:
4020:
4010:
4008:
3999:
3998:
3994:
3984:
3982:
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3623:
3621:
3617:The Independent
3610:
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3332:
3330:
3316:
3312:
3303:
3301:
3300:on 20 June 2013
3297:
3290:
3279:
3275:
3268:
3260:. p. 174.
3248:
3244:
3239:. 11 June 2015.
3231:
3230:
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3210:
3209:
3202:
3200:
3196:
3189:
3187:"Archived copy"
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3173:Americanbar.org
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2316:The Independent
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2256:
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2240:
2239:on 6 March 2019
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2029:
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2014:
2012:
1991:
1987:
1971:
1970:
1963:
1961:
1957:
1950:
1948:"Archived copy"
1946:
1945:
1941:
1936:on 3 June 2013.
1929:Washington Post
1920:
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1906:
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1732:
1730:
1729:on 4 April 2011
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1092:
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1079:
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1062:
1061:
1057:
1044:
1043:
1039:
1034:
992:
944:
938:
873:
867:
850:
838:Moncef Marzouki
834:
814:
812:Water boreholes
783:
747:
721:
700:
694:
674:
665:
653:
647:
636:
628:
562:gas exploration
558:Grand Coalition
511:
479:
463:
450:
407:Talisman Energy
344:
338:
322:
252:
233:
59:
57:Alvarado, Texas
44:Alvarado, Texas
23:
12:
11:
5:
4212:
4202:
4201:
4186:
4185:
4173:
4161:
4159:Earth sciences
4139:
4138:
4109:
4078:
4052:
4018:
3992:
3966:
3941:
3915:
3897:
3871:
3844:(1): 108–135.
3824:
3797:(4): 267–285.
3777:
3750:(2): 102–112.
3730:
3705:
3683:
3665:
3631:
3620:. 6 March 2019
3603:
3585:
3567:
3541:
3538:. 3 July 2018.
3523:
3505:
3487:
3469:
3451:
3445:George Osborne
3410:
3384:
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3152:Shalegas.in.ua
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2720:West Cape News
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2004:. London, UK.
1985:
1939:
1914:
1888:
1869:
1856:
1837:
1815:
1789:
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1600:. 23 July 2011
1583:
1561:
1545:Archived from
1534:
1512:
1503:|journal=
1471:
1458:Guardian.co.uk
1444:
1416:
1390:
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1310:. 29 July 2011
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940:Main article:
937:
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869:Main article:
866:
865:United Kingdom
863:
849:
846:
840:'s party, the
833:
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763:Facebook group
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571:
535:free Democrats
510:
507:
505:exploitation.
495:global warming
478:
475:
462:
459:
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415:Williston Lake
340:Main article:
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3420:Harvey, Fiona
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3320:
3319:Harvey, Fiona
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897:Royal Society
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767:Jonathan Deal
764:
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527:wetland areas
524:
523:Angela Merkel
519:
517:
506:
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491:
489:
484:
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455:
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441:
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422:New Brunswick
419:
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129:
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122:United States
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99:United States
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4129:. Retrieved
4124:
4112:
4100:. Retrieved
4096:the original
4092:Businessweek
4091:
4081:
4069:. Retrieved
4065:
4055:
4043:. Retrieved
4039:the original
4030:
4021:
4009:. Retrieved
4007:. 8 May 2019
4004:
3995:
3983:. Retrieved
3979:
3969:
3957:. Retrieved
3953:
3944:
3932:. Retrieved
3928:
3918:
3909:
3900:
3888:. Retrieved
3884:the original
3874:
3841:
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3827:
3794:
3790:
3780:
3747:
3743:
3733:
3721:. Retrieved
3717:
3708:
3696:. Retrieved
3686:
3677:
3668:
3656:. Retrieved
3645:The Guardian
3644:
3634:
3622:. Retrieved
3615:
3606:
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3588:
3579:
3570:
3558:. Retrieved
3553:
3544:
3535:
3526:
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3508:
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3490:
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3454:
3439:
3432:. Retrieved
3428:The Guardian
3427:
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3401:. Retrieved
3397:
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3375:. Retrieved
3371:the original
3361:
3352:
3343:
3331:. Retrieved
3327:The Guardian
3326:
3313:
3302:, retrieved
3295:the original
3286:
3276:
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3245:
3236:
3227:
3201:. Retrieved
3194:the original
3181:
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3142:
3134:Facebook.com
3133:
3124:
3110:(2): 59–63.
3107:
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3097:
3086:the original
3073:
3064:
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3045:
3036:
3027:
3018:
3009:
3000:
2988:. Retrieved
2984:the original
2974:
2965:
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2948:Facebook.com
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