542:. Although Ørsted published his findings on the isolation of aluminium in the form of small particles, no other investigators successfully replicated his findings until 1936. Ørsted is now credited with discovering aluminium. Ørsted's findings on aluminium preparation were developed further by Wöhler, with Ørsted's permission. Wöhler modified Ørsted's methods, substituting potassium metal for potassium amalgam for the reduction of aluminium chloride. Using this improved method, Wöhler isolated aluminium powder in pure form on 22 October 1827. He showed that the aluminium powder could convert to solid balls of pure metallic aluminium in 1845. For this work, Wöhler is credited with the first isolation of aluminium in pure form.
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761:, the hypothesis that living things are alive because of some special "vital force". It was the beginning of the end for one popular vitalist hypothesis, the idea that "organic" compounds could be made only by living things. In responding to Wöhler, Jöns Jakob Berzelius acknowledged that Wöhler's results were highly significant for the understanding of organic chemistry, calling the findings a "jewel" for Wöhler's "laurel wreath". Both scientists also recognized the work's importance to the study of
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776:(in four volumes, 1843–1847). He emphasized the importance of Wöhler's research as a refutation of vitalism but ignored its importance in understanding chemical isomerism, setting a tone for subsequent writers. The notion that Wöhler single-handedly overturned vitalism also gained popularity after it appeared in a popular history of chemistry published in 1931, which, "ignoring all pretense of historical accuracy, turned Wöhler into a crusader".
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446:, Sweden. Wöhler's time in Stockholm with Berzelius marked the beginning of a long personal and professional relationship between the two scientists. Wöhler translated many of Berzelius's scientific writings into German for international publication. In his lifetime, Wöhler wrote about 275 books, editions, and papers.
723:. These two compounds have the same chemical composition yet are chemically different. Silver fulminate is explosive, while silver cyanate is a stable compound. Liebig and Wöhler recognized these as examples of structural isomerism, which was a significant advance in understanding chemical isomerism.
792:, students traveled from around the world to be instructed by him. Wöhler saw particular success in his students after giving them hands-on experience in the lab. This practice was later adopted around the world, becoming the chemistry lab co-requisite that is required at most universities today.
910:
Wöhler's first marriage was in 1828, to his cousin
Franziska Maria Wöhler (1811–1832). The couple had two children, a son (August) and a daughter (Sophie). After Franziska's death, he married Julie Pfeiffer (1813–1886) in 1834, with whom he had four daughters: Fanny, Helene, Emilie, and Pauline.
399:. His synthesis of the organic compound urea in the laboratory from inorganic substances contradicted the belief that organic compounds could only be produced by living organisms due to a "life force". However, the exact extent of Wöhler's role in diminishing the belief in
779:
Contrary to what was thought in Wöhler's time, cyanate is not a purely inorganic anion, as it is formed in various metabolic pathways. Thus the conversion of ammonium cyanate into urea was not an example of production of an organic compound from an inorganic precursor.
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supplement for 1882 stated that "for two or three of his researches he deserves the highest honor a scientific man can obtain, but the sum of his work is overwhelming. Had he never lived, the aspect of chemistry would be very different from that it is now".
795:
Wöhler also allowed his students to participate and aid him in his research, which was not typical at the time. This practice became nearly universal, normalizing the undergraduate and graduate-level research that is a requirement for numerous degrees today.
477:, where he occupied the chair of chemistry for 46 years, until his death in 1882. During his time at Göttingen approximately 8000 research students were trained in his laboratory. In 1834, he was elected a foreign member of the
1646:. Translated from original: "Ich kann, so zu sagen, mein chemisches Wasser nicht halten und muss ihnen sagen, daß ich Harnstoff machen kann, ohne dazu Nieren oder überhaupt ein Thier, sey es Mensch oder Hund, nöthig zu haben."
640:
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O can be thought of as a single functional group, which came to be known as a benzoyl radical. In this way, the investigations of Wöhler and Liebig established a new concept in organic chemistry referred to as
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742:". Urea and ammonium cyanate are further examples of structural isomers of chemical compounds. Heating ammonium cyanate converts it into urea, which is its isomer. In a letter to Swedish chemist
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the same year, he wrote, 'In a manner of speaking, I can no longer hold my chemical water. I must tell you that I can make urea without the use of kidneys of any animal, be it man or dog.'
812:
Wöhler's discoveries had a significant influence on the theoretical basis of chemistry. The journals of every year from 1820 to 1881 contain his original scientific contributions. The
423:
was at the
Frankfurt Gymnasium. During his time at the gymnasium, Wöhler began chemical experimentation in a home laboratory provided by his father. He began his higher education at
1249:
1913:
Ramberg, Peter, "Myth 7. That
Friedrich Wöhler's Synthesis of Urea in 1828 Destroyed Vitalism and Gave Rise to Organic Chemistry" eds. Numbers, Ronald L., and Kostas Kampourakis,
683:, and be exchanged for other atoms in chemical compounds. Specifically, their research on the oil of bitter almonds showed that a group of elements with the chemical composition C
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On the 100th anniversary of Wöhler's death, the West German government issued a stamp depicting the structure of urea with its synthesis formula listed directly below.
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in a crystalline form. Crystalline forms of these two elements were previously unknown. In 1856, working with
Heinrich Buff, Wöhler prepared the inorganic compound
233:
1700:
Ramberg, Peter J. (2000). "The Death of
Vitalism and the Birth of Organic Chemistry: Wohler's Urea Synthesis and the Disciplinary Identity of Organic Chemistry".
638:. He showed that some meteoric stones contain organic matter. He analyzed meteorites, and for many years wrote the digest on the literature of meteorites in the
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664:. Through their detailed analysis of the chemical composition of this oil, they proved by their experiments that a group of
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438:. Gmelin encouraged him to focus on chemistry and arranged for Wöhler to conduct research under the direction of chemist
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Wöhler's role in overturning vitalism is said to have become exaggerated over time. This tendency can be traced back to
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in pure metallic form. He achieved these preparations by heating the anhydrous chlorides of beryllium and yttrium with
1895:
Uray, Johannes (2010). "Die Wöhlersche
Harnstoffsynhtese und das Wissenschaftliche Weltbild – Analyse eines Mythos".
478:
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Kauffman, George B.; Chooljian, Steven H. (2001). "Friedrich Wöhler (1800–1882), on the
Bicentennial of His Birth".
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Chemie heute, Schroedel Verlag, Klasse 9/10. Chapter 3: Chemie der
Kohlenwasserstoffe. Excursus pg. 64,
715:. Aspects of chemical isomerism originated in the research of Berzelius. Liebig and Wöhler investigated
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On 2 September 1823, Wöhler passed his examinations as a Doctor of
Medicine, Surgery, and Obstetrics at
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can behave chemically as if it were the equivalent of a single atom, take the place of an atom in a
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McKie, Douglas (1944). "Wöhler's syntethic Urea and the rejection of
Vitalism: a chemical Legend".
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287:
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Mooshammer, Maria; Wanek, Wolfgang; Jones, Stephen H.; Richter, Andreas; Wagner, Michael (2021).
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Wöhler synthesis of urea by heating ammonium cyanate. The Δ sign indicates the addition of heat.
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261:
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1274:
Hoppe, Brigitte (March 2007). "Robin Keen: The Life and Work of Friedrich Wöhler (1800–1882)".
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883:(2005) by Robin Keen is considered to be "the first detailed scientific biography" of Wöhler.
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644:. Wöhler accumulated the best private collection of meteoric stones and irons that existed.
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Brooke, John H. (1968). "Wöhler's Urea and its Vital Force – a verdict from the Chemists".
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in pure metallic form. He was the first to prepare several inorganic compounds, including
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laboratory. In that year, Wöhler and Liebig published an investigation of the oil of
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could be different substances because of different arrangements of the atoms in the
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Esteban, Soledad (2008). "Liebig–Wöhler Controversy and the Concept of Isomerism".
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German postal stamp honoring Friedrich Wöhler on the 100th anniversary of his death
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2274:. Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft Stuttgart ("Grosse Naturforscher" 7) 1949.
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were later identified by subsequent investigators with wide utility in chemistry.
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Wöhler's demonstration of urea synthesis has become regarded as a refutation of
419:. As a boy, he showed interest in mineral collecting, drawing, and science. His
2927:
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2013:
Goddard, Nicholas (2004). "Voelcker, (John Christopher) Augustus (1822–1884)".
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was the first to separate the element aluminium in 1825, using a reduction of
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In 1832, lacking his own laboratory facilities at Kassel, Wöhler worked with
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In 1850, Wöhler determined that what was believed until then to be metallic
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1929:"Cyanate is a low abundance but actively cycled nitrogen compound in soil"
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62:
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The Quiet Revolution: Hermann Kolbe and the Science of Organic Chemistry
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American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston. Proceedings (1846-1906)
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as a result of his 1828 demonstration of the laboratory synthesis of
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369:
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1883:
Die Wöhlersche Harnstoffsynthese und das wissenschaftliche Weltbild
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758:
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400:
2201:
1506:
Deville, H.; Wohler, F. (1857). "Erstmalige Erwähnung von Si3N4".
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Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
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604:
554:
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The first edition of this text is available at Wikisource:
553:). In the same year, he became the first to isolate the element
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353:(31 July 1800 – 23 September 1882) was a German
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2090:(Volume 27 ed.). Royal Society of Edinburgh. p. xvi.
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Rocke, Alan J. (1993). University of California Press (ed.).
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Wöhler has also been regarded as a pioneering researcher in
1926:
731:
676:
396:
350:
1153:(6th ed.). Easton, PA: Journal of Chemical Education.
1119:
Jaffe, Bernard (1942). "Wohler-Urea Without a Kidney".
738:, in a chemical reaction that came to be known as the "
3009:
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
707:, the idea that two chemical compounds with identical
634:
Wöhler had an interest in the chemical composition of
549:
in pure metallic form (also independently isolated by
2887:
2080:
1355:"Aluminum Discovery and Extraction – A Brief History"
822:
Wöhler's notable research students included chemists
627:. He also developed a method for the preparation of
603:
in a crystalline form. He also isolated the element
545:
In 1828 Wöhler was the first to isolate the element
1855:Uray, Johannes (2009). "Mythos Harnstoffsynthese".
2001:Scientific American Supplement No. 362, 9 Dec 1882
1326:
449:From 1826 to 1831, Wöhler taught chemistry at the
387:Wöhler is also known for seminal contributions in
2468:
2260:The Life and Work of Friedrich Wöhler (1800–1882)
2207:Sächsische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig
2128:"Early German Physician First To Synthesize Urea"
1201:
1083:The Life and Work of Friedrich Wöhler (1800–1882)
906:Friedrich-Wöhler-Gymnasium in Singen-Haupteingang
881:The Life and Work of Friedrich Wöhler (1800–1882)
2984:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
2935:
1977:"Friedrich Wöhler | German chemist | Britannica"
2351:"Biographical Sketch of Frederick Wöhler"
1308:. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. 14 October 2019
641:Jahresberichte über die Fortschritte der Chemie
522:August Anton Wöhler, father of Friedrich Wöhler
2994:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
2088:Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
873:. In 1862, Wöhler was elected a member of the
434:, having studied in the laboratory of chemist
2974:Academic staff of the University of Göttingen
2454:
2257:Keen, Robin (2005). Buttner, Johannes (ed.).
1915:Newton's apple and other myths about science.
1505:
1080:Keen, Robin (2005). Buttner, Johannes (ed.).
484:
2054:
2019:(online ed.). Oxford University Press.
1822:Studies in History and Philosophy of Science
1172:
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1162:
1160:
971:Praktische Übungen in der Chemischen Analyse
2233:Hessian Regional History Information System
2050:. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900.
2041:"Voelcker, John Christopher Augustus"
2461:
2447:
2125:
2003:. Fullbooks.com. Retrieved on 28 May 2014.
1685:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1559:
1553:
1294:
1176:
703:Liebig and Wöhler explored the concept of
526:Wöhler investigated more than twenty‐five
403:is considered by some to be questionable.
31:
2143:
2126:Shampo, Marc A.; Kyle, Robert A. (1985).
1952:
1593:"Ueber künstliche Bildung des Harnstoffs"
1157:
457:. From 1831 until 1836, he taught at the
1812:
1806:
1654:
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1474:
1448:
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1055:"Justus von Liebig and Friedrich Wöhler"
901:
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803:
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517:
509:
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2016:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
2012:
2006:
1907:
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1136:
1122:Crucibles-The Stories of Great Chemists
958:University and State Library Düsseldorf
506:A sample of beryllium in elemental form
465:. In the spring of 1836, Wöhler became
161: 1828; died 1832)
2936:
2755:Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz
2229:"Hessian Biography: Wöhler, Friedrich"
1933:Communications Earth & Environment
1917:Harvard university press, 2015, 59–66.
1785:
1590:
1327:Quentin R. Skrabec (6 February 2017).
1061:. Science History Institute. June 2016
788:Once Wöhler became a professor at the
489:
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1273:
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1049:
1047:
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340:
3004:Foreign members of the Royal Society
2256:
1894:
1854:
1584:
1454:
1264:
1133:
1079:
647:
615:). He prepared the first samples of
595:Wöhler, working with French chemist
514:Samples of yttrium in elemental form
2344:
1815:"The notion of nature in chemistry"
1073:
783:
13:
2430:Works by or about Friedrich Wöhler
2250:
1177:Partington, James Riddick (1964).
1042:
937:Grundriss der Anorganischen Chemie
14:
3030:
3019:Recipients of the Cothenius Medal
2285:
479:Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
365:, being the first to isolate the
2954:Discoverers of chemical elements
2921:
2909:
2897:
2047:Dictionary of National Biography
1099:
984:Early Recollections of a Chemist
964:Grundriss der Organischen Chemie
914:
415:, Germany, and was the son of a
2221:
2194:
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2119:
2094:
1994:
1969:
1920:
1888:
1875:
1848:
1779:
1736:
1632:
1499:
1423:
1398:
1250:American Periodicals Series III
1181:. Macmillan. pp. 320–331.
176:
158:
2979:Recipients of the Copley Medal
2409:. Vol. 24 (9th ed.).
2389:New International Encyclopedia
2062:"Portrait of Frederick Wohler"
1330:Aluminum in America: A History
1230:
1112:
1093:
875:American Philosophical Society
1:
2279:Der Chemiker Friedrich Wöhler
2145:10.1016/s0025-6196(12)60740-x
1842:10.1016/s0039-3681(03)00050-5
1598:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
1527:Journal of Chemical Education
1359:The Aluminum Smelting Process
1333:. McFarland. pp. 10–11.
1150:The discovery of the elements
1035:
411:Friedrich Wöhler was born in
38:
2969:Heidelberg University alumni
2964:University of Marburg alumni
2959:19th-century German chemists
2335:Resources in other libraries
2311:Resources in other libraries
2033:UK public library membership
1623:— Available in English at:
1179:History of Chemistry, vol. 4
1127:The World Publishing Company
954:Vol.1&2 Digital edition
836:Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe
406:
280:Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe
67:Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel
7:
1897:Mensch, Wissenschaft, Magie
1665:. Berkeley. pp. 239–.
1560:Rabinovich, Daniel (2007).
1147:Weeks, Mary Elvira (1956).
998:
919:Further works from Wöhler:
568:was a mixture of titanium,
357:known for his work in both
310:Other notable students
10:
3035:
2699:Jean-Baptiste Boussingault
2675:August Wilhelm von Hofmann
1954:10.1038/s43247-021-00235-2
1857:Nachrichten aus der Chemie
1813:Schummer, Joachim (2003).
1800:10.1179/000269868791519757
1591:Wöhler, Friedrich (1828).
1486:Royal Society of Chemistry
1435:Royal Society of Chemistry
1410:Royal Society of Chemistry
1102:"Urea and the Wohler Myth"
871:Royal Society of Edinburgh
765:, a new area of research.
485:Contributions to chemistry
16:German chemist (1800–1882)
2999:Scientists from Frankfurt
2477:
2416:"Wöhler, Friedrich"
2400:"Wöhler, Friedrich"
2397:Dittmar, William (1888).
2383:"Wöhler, Friedrich"
2367:"Wöhler, Friedrich"
2330:Resources in your library
2306:Resources in your library
1714:10.1179/amb.2000.47.3.170
926:, Dresden, 1825, 4 vols,
898:Grave of Friedrich Wöhler
889:
327:
309:
267:
251:
229:
215:
208:
197:
189:
139:
113:
103:
95:
73:
48:
30:
23:
1619:10.1002/andp.18280880206
2643:Julius Robert von Mayer
2422:The American Cyclopædia
2406:Encyclopædia Britannica
2373:Encyclopædia Britannica
2357:Popular Science Monthly
2180:Encyclopædia Britannica
2132:Mayo Clinic Proceedings
1566:Chemistry International
1306:Encyclopædia Britannica
863:Royal Society of London
790:University of Göttingen
599:, isolated the element
580:.) He also developed a
475:University of Göttingen
246:University of Göttingen
2715:James Joseph Sylvester
2531:Michel Eugène Chevreul
2491:Alexander von Humboldt
2376:(11th ed.). 1911.
2025:10.1093/ref:odnb/28345
1869:10.1002/nadc.200966159
1562:"Wöhler's Masterpiece"
907:
899:
809:
754:
523:
515:
507:
499:
234:Berliner Gewerbeschule
148:Franziska Maria Wöhler
3014:Rare earth scientists
2819:George Gabriel Stokes
2723:Charles Adolphe Wurtz
2659:Hermann von Helmholtz
2627:Henri Victor Regnault
2507:Johannes Peter Müller
2499:Heinrich Wilhelm Dove
1885:. Graz, Leykam, 2009.
1216:10.1007/s00897010444a
1204:The Chemical Educator
1020:Hilaire Marin Rouelle
993:, 1855-1868 Vol. 1-28
905:
897:
857:Wöhler was elected a
807:
800:Final days and legacy
752:
709:chemical compositions
597:Sainte Claire Deville
532:Hans Christian Ørsted
521:
513:
505:
498:A sample of aluminium
497:
467:Friedrich Stromeyer's
432:Heidelberg University
391:, in particular, the
108:Heidelberg University
2803:Stanislao Cannizzaro
2771:Joseph Dalton Hooker
2635:James Prescott Joule
2547:Wilhelm Eduard Weber
2106:search.amphilsoc.org
2102:"APS Member History"
1455:Saltzman, Martin D.
1010:History of aluminium
1005:Benzoin condensation
952:, Berlin, 1837–1858
950:Grundriss der Chemie
774:History of Chemistry
744:Jöns Jacob Berzelius
619:by melting together
473:of Chemistry at the
459:Höhere Gewerbeschule
262:Jöns Jakob Berzelius
238:Höhere Gewerbeschule
2875:Marcellin Berthelot
2867:John William Strutt
2851:Albert von Kölliker
2779:Thomas Henry Huxley
2763:Franz Ernst Neumann
2611:Karl Ernst von Baer
2523:Henri Milne-Edwards
2319:By Friedrich Wöhler
2270:Johannes Valentin:
2202:"Wöhler, Friedrich"
2068:. The Royal Society
1945:2021ComEE...2..161M
1834:2003SHPSA..34..705S
1757:1944Natur.153..608M
1611:1828AnP....88..253W
1539:2008JChEd..85.1201E
1457:"Wöhler, Friedrich"
1384:All about aluminium
1380:"ALUMINIUM HISTORY"
1129:. pp. 175–198.
924:Lehrbuch der Chemie
865:in 1854. He was an
824:Georg Ludwig Carius
815:Scientific American
530:during his career.
490:Inorganic chemistry
421:secondary education
363:inorganic chemistry
284:Georg Ludwig Carius
2619:Charles Wheatstone
2175:"Friedrich Wöhler"
1981:www.britannica.com
1547:10.1021/ed085p1201
1238:"Friedrich Wohler"
1059:sciencehistory.org
908:
900:
828:Heinrich Limpricht
810:
755:
713:chemical structure
705:chemical isomerism
582:chemical synthesis
536:aluminium chloride
524:
516:
508:
500:
471:Ordinary Professor
425:Marburg University
322:James Curtis Booth
272:Heinrich Limpricht
37:Friedrich Wöhler,
2885:
2884:
2691:James Dwight Dana
2470:Copley Medallists
2292:Library resources
2281:. Hischymia 2000.
2031:(Subscription or
1751:(3890): 608–610.
1644:978-3-507-86192-3
1508:Liebigs Ann. Chem
1340:978-1-4766-2564-5
1030:Structural Isomer
852:Augustus Voelcker
728:organic chemistry
698:functional groups
694:compound radicals
681:chemical compound
648:Organic chemistry
625:potassium cyanide
578:Matthew A. Hunter
540:potassium amalgam
528:chemical elements
389:organic chemistry
367:chemical elements
331:
330:
314:Augustus Voelcker
268:Doctoral students
220:Organic chemistry
210:Scientific career
118:Organic chemistry
77:23 September 1882
3026:
2926:
2925:
2924:
2914:
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2902:
2901:
2900:
2893:
2878:
2870:
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2846:
2838:
2835:Karl Weierstrass
2830:
2827:Edward Frankland
2822:
2814:
2806:
2798:
2790:
2782:
2774:
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2758:
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2742:
2734:
2726:
2718:
2710:
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2694:
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2662:
2654:
2651:Friedrich Wöhler
2646:
2638:
2630:
2622:
2614:
2606:
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2434:Internet Archive
2426:
2418:
2410:
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2297:Friedrich Wöhler
2272:Friedrich Wöhler
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2066:royalsociety.org
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1461:encyclopedia.com
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1077:
1071:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1051:
973:, Berlin, 1854,
939:, Berlin, 1830,
784:Education reform
740:Wöhler synthesis
736:ammonium cyanate
717:silver fulminate
469:successor as an
393:Wöhler synthesis
344:
342:[ˈvøːlɐ]
339:
334:Friedrich Wöhler
300:Bernhard Tollens
253:Doctoral advisor
180:
178:
162:
160:
130:Wöhler synthesis
80:
58:
56:
43:
40:
35:
25:Friedrich Wöhler
21:
20:
3034:
3033:
3029:
3028:
3027:
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2932:
2922:
2920:
2910:
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2898:
2896:
2888:
2886:
2881:
2873:
2865:
2859:William Huggins
2857:
2849:
2841:
2833:
2825:
2817:
2809:
2801:
2793:
2785:
2777:
2769:
2761:
2753:
2745:
2739:William Thomson
2737:
2729:
2721:
2713:
2707:Rudolf Clausius
2705:
2697:
2689:
2681:
2673:
2665:
2657:
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2633:
2625:
2617:
2609:
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2593:
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2577:
2569:
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2521:
2513:
2505:
2497:
2489:
2481:
2473:
2467:
2413:
2380:
2364:
2360:. Vol. 17.
2348:(August 1880).
2346:Joy, Charles A.
2341:
2340:
2339:
2316:
2315:
2300:
2299:
2295:
2288:
2277:Georg Schwedt:
2263:
2253:
2251:Further reading
2248:
2247:
2237:
2235:
2227:
2226:
2222:
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2210:
2200:
2199:
2195:
2185:
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2110:
2108:
2100:
2099:
2095:
2086:
2085:
2081:
2071:
2069:
2060:
2059:
2055:
2038:
2030:
2011:
2007:
1999:
1995:
1985:
1983:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1925:
1921:
1912:
1908:
1893:
1889:
1881:Johannes Uray:
1880:
1876:
1853:
1849:
1817:
1811:
1807:
1784:
1780:
1741:
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1189:
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1117:
1113:
1098:
1094:
1086:
1078:
1074:
1064:
1062:
1053:
1052:
1043:
1038:
1001:
917:
892:
867:Honorary Fellow
844:Vojtěch Šafařík
802:
786:
690:
686:
650:
629:calcium carbide
614:
590:silicon nitride
586:calcium carbide
492:
487:
440:Jacob Berzelius
409:
382:silicon nitride
337:
320:
316:
302:
298:
294:
292:Vojtěch Šafařík
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
260:
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185:
182:
179: 1834)
174:
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2931:
2930:
2918:
2906:
2883:
2882:
2880:
2879:
2871:
2863:
2855:
2847:
2843:Carl Gegenbaur
2839:
2831:
2823:
2815:
2811:Rudolf Virchow
2807:
2799:
2791:
2783:
2775:
2767:
2759:
2751:
2743:
2735:
2727:
2719:
2711:
2703:
2695:
2687:
2683:Claude Bernard
2679:
2671:
2663:
2655:
2647:
2639:
2631:
2623:
2615:
2607:
2603:Julius Plücker
2599:
2595:Michel Chasles
2591:
2587:Charles Darwin
2583:
2575:
2567:
2559:
2551:
2543:
2535:
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2519:
2511:
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2286:External links
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1887:
1874:
1863:(9): 943–944.
1847:
1828:(4): 705–736.
1805:
1778:
1735:
1708:(3): 170–195.
1692:
1672:978-0520081109
1671:
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1631:
1605:(2): 253–256.
1583:
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1288:10.1086/519116
1282:(1): 195–196.
1263:
1229:
1210:(2): 121–133.
1194:
1188:978-1888262131
1187:
1156:
1132:
1111:
1100:Ball, Philip.
1092:
1072:
1040:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1033:
1032:
1027:
1022:
1017:
1015:Stanley Miller
1012:
1007:
1000:
997:
996:
995:
987:
981:
968:
967:, Berlin, 1840
960:
947:
934:
916:
913:
891:
888:
840:Albert Niemann
832:Rudolph Fittig
801:
798:
785:
782:
721:silver cyanate
688:
684:
662:bitter almonds
649:
646:
612:
491:
488:
486:
483:
436:Leopold Gmelin
408:
405:
329:
328:
325:
324:
311:
307:
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304:Theodor Zincke
288:Albert Niemann
276:Rudolph Fittig
269:
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258:Leopold Gmelin
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169:Julie Pfeiffer
168:
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136:
134:Wöhler process
115:
114:Known for
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83:
81:(aged 82)
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2795:Simon Newcomb
2792:
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2787:George Salmon
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2731:Arthur Cayley
2728:
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2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
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2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2667:Louis Pasteur
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2579:Adam Sedgwick
2576:
2572:
2571:Thomas Graham
2568:
2564:
2563:Louis Agassiz
2560:
2556:
2555:Robert Bunsen
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2539:Charles Lyell
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2515:Léon Foucault
2512:
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2504:
2500:
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2269:
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2224:
2209:
2208:
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2197:
2182:
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2176:
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2155:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2137:
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2129:
2122:
2107:
2103:
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2083:
2067:
2063:
2057:
2049:
2048:
2042:
2034:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2017:
2009:
2002:
1997:
1982:
1978:
1972:
1964:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1923:
1916:
1910:
1902:
1898:
1891:
1884:
1878:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1851:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1816:
1809:
1801:
1797:
1794:(2): 84–114.
1793:
1789:
1782:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1739:
1731:
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1521:
1513:
1509:
1502:
1487:
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1458:
1451:
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1432:
1426:
1411:
1407:
1401:
1385:
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1375:
1360:
1356:
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1342:
1336:
1332:
1331:
1323:
1307:
1303:
1297:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1270:
1268:
1259:
1255:
1252:: 1–3. 1882.
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1233:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1198:
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1128:
1124:
1123:
1115:
1107:
1103:
1096:
1085:
1084:
1076:
1060:
1056:
1050:
1048:
1046:
1041:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1021:
1018:
1016:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1002:
994:
992:
991:Nuovo Cimento
988:
985:
982:
980:
976:
972:
969:
966:
965:
961:
959:
955:
951:
948:
946:
942:
938:
935:
933:
929:
925:
922:
921:
920:
915:Further works
912:
904:
896:
887:
884:
882:
878:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
855:
853:
849:
848:Wilhelm Kühne
845:
841:
837:
833:
829:
825:
820:
817:
816:
806:
797:
793:
791:
781:
777:
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766:
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747:
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741:
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733:
729:
724:
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714:
710:
706:
701:
699:
695:
682:
678:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
654:Justus Liebig
645:
643:
642:
637:
632:
630:
626:
622:
618:
617:boron nitride
610:
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602:
598:
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591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
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560:
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551:Antoine Bussy
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451:Gewerbeschule
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335:
326:
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319:
318:Wilhelm Kühne
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89:German Empire
86:
76:
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68:
64:
51:
47:
34:
29:
22:
19:
2650:
2483:Richard Owen
2420:
2404:
2387:
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2325:Online books
2318:
2296:
2278:
2271:
2259:
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1482:"Titanium"
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