448:"In all the Spanish towns of New Mexico there exists a class of Indians called genízaros. These are made up of captive Comanches, Apaches, etc. who were taken as youngsters and raised among us, and who have married in the province ... They are forced to live among the Spaniards, without lands or other means to subsist except the bow and arrow which serves them when they go into the back country to hunt deer for food ... They are fine soldiers, very warlike ... Expecting the genízaros to work for daily wages is a folly because of the abuses they have experienced, especially from the
47:, shepherds, and laborers. They occupied the lowest rung of status-conscious Spanish society in New Mexico but slowly assimilated and intermarried into Spanish and later Mexican (1821-1846) and American (1846-present day) society. The descendants of genízaros are also called genízaros and the word has become a term of pride for the descendants of the original Indian captives and slaves. In 1793, genízaros were estimated to have comprised up to one-third of the 29,041 people living under Spanish rule in New Mexico.
826:
376:), often a child, was usually 10 to 20 years of service to the person paying the ransom. Young women were especially prized. The experience of most ransomed Native Americans was "bondage on a continuum that ranged from near slavery to familial incorporation, but few shed the stigma of servility". Descendants of
38:
and neighboring regions of the
American southwest. Genízaros were usually women and children who had been captured in war by the Spanish or purchased from Indian tribes who had held them captive as slaves. To circumvent Spanish laws forbidding slavery, the purchaser (or rescuer) of a genízaro had the
401:
complained of mistreatment by the
Spanish. Based on a policy established by the Governors of New Mexico, they were settled in land grants on the periphery of Spanish settlements. These settlements became buffer communities for larger Spanish towns in case of an attack by enemy tribes surrounding the
533:
were of Navajo ancestry. During negotiations with the United States military, Navajo spokesmen raised the issue of
Navajos being held as servants in Spanish/Mexican households. When asked how many Navajos were among the Mexicans, they responded: "over half the tribe." Most of the captives never
432:. It sometimes happens that the Indians are not well treated in this servitude, no thought being given to the hardships of their captivity, and still less to the fact that they are neophytes, and should be cared for and treated with kindness. For this reason many desert and become apostates.
56:
were to be convicted and sentenced to servitude for a specific period, after which they earned freedom. They were even encouraged to become landowners through
Spanish government land grants or join the regional militia. In 1810, there was a growing movement to abolish slavery during
645:, after the community of Chimayó in northern New Mexico, which was home to José Ángel González and many other mixed-blood indigenous peoples. The Chimayoso revolt was one of many actions against the Mexican government by indigenous groups during this period, including the
350:
were typically indigenous people who had been captured and enslaved by other Indian tribes and whom
Franciscan monks were legally obligated to rescue by paying a ransom. The former slaves were made indentured servants to repay such debt, typically for some years.
428:, a nation so bellicose and so brave that it dominates all those of the interior country...They sell people of all these nations to the Spaniards of the kingdom, by whom they are held in servitude, the adults being instructed by the fathers and the children
421:"This is a new settlement, composed of various nations , who are kept in peace, union, and charity by the special providence of God and the efforts of the missionaries,... the Indians are of the various nations that have been taken captive by the
360:
comprised a significant proportion of the population of what is now the southwest United States. They founded a number of localities, such as Belén, Tomé, Valencia, Carnué, Los Lentes, Las
Trampas, Socorro and San Miguel del Vado. There were also
827:"Mr. Hidalgo's side abolishing slavery; repealing the laws regarding taxes; imposing alcabala for national and foreign effects; prohibiting the use of sealed paper, and extinguishing the tobacco, gunpowder, colors and other tobacco shops"
526:
By the mid-18th century, the
Comanche dominated the weaker tribes in the eastern plains and sold children that they kidnapped from these tribes to the Spanish villagers. By the Mexican and early American period (1821–1880), almost all
391:
The
Comanche and other tribes brought their captives to trade fairs and offered them for sale. In 1770, a female captive from 12 to 20 years old sold for two good horses and some small items; a male was worth only one-half as much.
76:
1346:
990:(They are also accompanied by Genízaro Indians, that is, children from one tribe stolen by another and that the Franciscans had the obligation to rescue by buying them.)
1232:
Gallegos, Bernardo (2010). "Dancing the
Comanches, The Santo Niño, La Virgen (of Guadalupe) and the Genizaro Indians of New Mexico". In Martin, Kathleen J. (ed.).
985:
También les acompañan indios genízaros, es decir, niños de una tribu robados por otra y que los franciscanos tenían la obligación de rescatar comprándolos.
534:
returned to the Navajo nation but remained as the lower classes in the
Hispanic villages. Members of different tribes intermarried in these communities.
408:
in the frontier communities acted as mediators between the often-hostile Indian tribes surrounding the Spanish settlements and the Spanish authorities.
945:
1717:
775:
50:
From 1543, New Spain implemented a ban on indigenous slavery, except for those captured during wartime. The restrictions of slavery also meant that
1722:
1680:
461:
According to DNA studies, Hispanos of New Mexico have significant proportions of Amerindian genes (between 30 and 40% of the Nuevomexicano
1424:
Ebright, Malcolm (1996). "Breaking New Ground: A Reappraisal of Governors Vélez Cachupín and Mendinueta and their Land Grant Policies".
495:, who had been purchased at a young age and worked as domestic servants and sheepherders. Throughout the Spanish and Mexican period,
631:(the Governor of New Mexico) and killed all of the Mexican troops in Santa Fe. They formed a new government and elected as governor
411:
The following description from the 1740s of the Tome-Valencia settlements by a Spanish religious official, Fray Menchero, describes
1592:
Magnaghi, Russell M. (1994). "The Genízaro Experience in Spanish New Mexico". In Vigil, Ralph; Kaye, Frances; Wunder, John (eds.).
1366:
Brooks, James F. (1996). "This Evil Extends Especially to the Feminine Sex...Negotiating Captivity in the New Mexico Borderlands".
1355:
1532:
The social and political organization of the Genízaros of Plaza de Nuestra Señora de los Dolores de Belén, New Mexico, 1740-1812
1495:
1061:
101:
to fight for New Mexico's secession from the centralist Republic of Mexico. The rebellion was led by José Gonzales, who was a
1727:
1465:
602:
was officially discontinued for church and government documents. In practice, however, Mexico was far from egalitarian. Many
388:. But, as in the case of the rest of colonial Mexico, this classification was not an absolute impediment to social mobility.
128:
31:
1767:
1757:
1742:
1737:
1702:
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and Pueblo natives were often treated as second-class citizens, although they were protected by the Laws of the Indies.
1652:
1633:
1601:
1565:
1484:
1446:
1414:
1293:
1241:
1205:
1307:. Vol. 1. collected by Adolph Bandelier & Fanny Bandelier. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institute. p. 395.
1186:
699:
674:
573:, enacted by Mexico, decreed that indigenous tribes within its borders were citizens of Mexico. During Spanish rule,
1181:. Chapel Hill, N.C.: Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture; University of North Carolina Press.
553:
in the South Valley of Albuquerque, and significant portions of the population of Las Vegas in Eastern New Mexico.
1331:
Identifying and Capturing Identity: Narratives of American Indian Servitude, Colorado and New Mexico, 1750-1930
1575:
Lafayette. "Statement of Mr. Head of Abiquiú in Regard of the Buying and Selling of Payutahs, 30 April 1852".
84:
1752:
848:
452:
mayores in the past ... In two places, Belen and Tome, some sixty families of genizaros have congregated."
1216:
71:
1234:
Indigenous Symbols and Practices in the Catholic Church: Visual Culture, Missionization and Appropriation
642:
302:). The term became more widely used after 1692 when the Spanish regained control of New Mexico after the
98:
632:
737:
546:
94:
1458:
Postcolonial Indigenous Performances: Coyote Musings on Genizaros, Hybridity, Education, and Slavery
1284:
When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away, Marriage, Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, 1500-1846
1594:
Spain and the Plains: Myths and Realities of Spanish Exploration and Settlement on the Great Plains
582:
The newly independent Mexican government proclaimed social equality for all ethnic groups, and the
265:
596:(villagers of mainly mixed racial backgrounds) and Pueblo neighbors. During this period, the term
1747:
1200:(3rd ed.). Window Rock, Arizona: Research Section, Parks and Recreation Dept. Navajo Tribe.
1176:
154:
66:
1552:
The Trial of Don Pedro Leon Luján: The Attack Against Indian Slavery and Mexican Traders in Utah
217:
941:
611:
Economic and social conditions during the Mexican period were so bad that in 1837, the Pueblo,
205:
158:
80:
1557:
1550:
801:
208:. During the early 21st century, they comprised much of the population of the South Valley of
1762:
1663:
1507:
Horvath, Steven M. (1977). "The Genízaro of Eighteenth-Century New Mexico: A Reexamination".
321:
militia and scouts were important in defending New Mexico from raiding Comanche, Apache, and
229:
441:
337:
Troop, commanded by a corporal from their ranks and with a supply system dedicated to them.
1475:
Gandert, Miguel; Lamadrid, Enrique; Gutiérrez, Ramón; Lippard, Lucy; Wilson, Chris (2000).
566:
562:
225:
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58:
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who raided and enslaved members of tribes allied with the Spaniards, such as the Apaches.
8:
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144:
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in towns such as Albuquerque, Atrisco, Santa Fe, Chimayó, Taos, Abiquiú and Las Vegas.
255:
251:
44:
1011:
Magnaghi, Russell M. (1990), "Plains Indians in New Mexico: The Genizaro Experience,"
1648:
1629:
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1388:
1317:
1289:
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1201:
1182:
695:
670:
201:
120:
1439:
The Witches of Abiquiú: The Governor, the Priest, the Genízaro Indians and the Devil
1178:
Captives & Cousins: Slavery, Kinship, and Community in the Southwest Borderlands
288:
in New Mexico was in the early 1660s when a politician was accused of mistreating a
1732:
1383:
1375:
1260:
1162:
Archibald, Robert (1978). "Acculturation and Assimilation in Colonial New Mexico".
221:
170:
124:
1305:
Historical Documents Relating to New Mexico, Nueva Vizcaya, and Approaches Thereto
900:, "Genizaros, In Recognition," 2007 New Mexico State Legislature, Regular Session.
888:, "Genízaros, In Recognition," 2007 New Mexico State Legislature, Regular Session.
738:"Indian Slavery Once Thrived in New Mexico. Latinos Are Finding Family Ties to It"
1611:
1149:
492:
1530:
299:
275:
62:
1628:. Vol. Series I. Sunstone Press. pp. 85, 183, 494, 780, 1208, 1258.
1251:
Gonzales, Moises (2014). "The Genizaro Land Grant Settlements of New Mexico".
1062:
Familias de Nuevo México descubren que sus antepasados eran esclavos indígenas
1711:
910:
520:
476:
472:
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were, or their ancestors had been, slaves of Indian tribes, particularly the
178:
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of Taos Pueblo and Pawnee ancestry. The revolt was often referred to as the
274:. This Turkish word referred to slaves who were trained as soldiers for the
1540:
1321:
1316:. translated and edited by Marc Simmons. Historical Society of New Mexico.
776:"Descendants Of Native American Slaves In New Mexico Emerge From Obscurity"
628:
484:
40:
28:
1264:
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209:
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settled in several New Mexican villages such as Belén, Tomé, Valencia,
213:
116:
35:
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remained culturally and economically marginal in New Mexican society.
516:
174:
488:
279:
188:
1647:. Vol. Series II. Sunstone Press. pp. 477, 523, 555, 573.
1379:
429:
422:
233:
1691:(3). Quarterly Journal of the Museum of New Mexico: 19–20, 42–49.
550:
449:
295:
77:
Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America
34:(Indians) from the 17th to 19th century in the Spanish colony of
1374:(2). Williamsburg: University of North Carolina Press: 279–309.
1516:
Horvath, Steven M. (1978). "Indian Slaves for Spanish Horses".
1474:
1198:
Navajos in the Catholic Church Records of New Mexico, 1694-1875
794:
591:
480:
465:) due to the interbreeding between Spanish and genízaros. Most
462:
425:
322:
294:
servant whose father was a Pueblo and whose mother was Apache-
917:(in Spanish) (22nd ed.). Madrid: Real Academia Española.
667:
Contesting the Borderlands: Interviews on the Early Southwest
515:
also lived in Albuquerque, Atrisco, Santa Fe, Chimayó, Taos,
1477:
Nuevo Mexico Profundo: Rituals of an Indo-Hispanic Homeland
1348:
Into the Den of Evils: The Genízaros in Colonial New Mexico
1620:, Santa Fe, 24 May 1766; PE 55:3, 1790 Census for Abiquiú.
1115:
1113:
1407:
The Unredeemed Captive: A Family Story from Early America
993:
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revolted against the Mexican government. Rebels beheaded
61:, and the practice of slavery began to lose favor in the
1110:
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of Spain, and New Mexico became a territory within the
212:
and significant portions of the population of northern
727:
278:. (The Turkish word was also adopted into English as "
200:
and their contemporary descendants were recognized as
1556:. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. pp.
1130:
1128:
1098:
1076:
1074:
1018:
921:
65:. The support for abolishing slavery increased after
1596:. Niwot: University Press of Colorado. p. 118.
1493:
1479:. Santa Fe: Museum of New Mexico Press. p. 58.
1086:
708:
1030:
1549:
1535:(PhD thesis). Brown University. pp. 130–133.
1354:(MA thesis). University of Montana. Archived from
1281:
1125:
1071:
849:"Colonization, Political Conflict & Rebellion"
1042:
692:Civil War in the Southwest Borderlands, 1861–1867
436:The settlements of Tomé and Belén, just south of
1709:
1436:
664:
1460:. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publisher.
1441:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
541:descendants comprise much of the population of
841:
1587:. San Marino, California: Huntington Library.
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694:. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 311.
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1494:Himmerich y Valencia, Robert (August 2020).
669:. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 67.
1328:
1119:
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588:were officially considered equals to their
315:also had a military meaning in New Mexico.
1437:Ebright, Malcolm; Hendricks, Rick (2006).
1314:Account of Disorders in New Mexico in 1778
370:The debt of a ransomed Native American (a
1681:"They Settled by Little Bubbling Springs"
1642:
1623:
1426:Colonial Latin American Historical Review
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1279:
1161:
1104:
973:"Cuando España (casi) conquistó el Oeste"
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665:Lawrence, Deborah; Lawrence, Jon (2016).
43:and Spanish customs. Genízaros worked as
1718:Multiracial affairs in the United States
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1250:
1236:. Ashgate Publishers. pp. 203–208.
1231:
1092:
933:
873:
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1664:"Tlascalans on the Spanish Borderlands"
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1643:Twitchell, Ralph Emerson, ed. (2008) .
1624:Twitchell, Ralph Emerson, ed. (2008) .
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331:were organized formally in 1808 into a
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1645:SANM (Spanish Archives of New Mexico)
1626:SANM (Spanish Archives of New Mexico)
1618:Governor Tomás Vélez Cachupín, Decree
1574:
1547:
1518:The Museum of the Fur Trade Quarterly
1511:. School of American Research: 25–40.
1404:
1344:
1333:(PhD thesis). University of Michigan.
1311:
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417:and their settlement on land grants:
939:
282:"). The first known use of the word
903:
13:
1338:
1217:"Jose Gonzales, Genizaro Governor"
829:. 500 años de México en documentos
14:
1779:
1696:
1303:Hackett, Charles W., ed. (1923).
971:Fuente, Ulises (15 August 2016).
915:Diccionario de la lengua Española
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75:of 1813. It became law after the
1060:Simon Romero (February 1, 2018)
952:. University of Nebraska–Lincoln
950:Encyclopedia of the Great Plains
806:Encyclopedia of the Great Plains
39:obligation to introduce them to
1585:Papers Pertaining to New Mexico
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1005:
891:
879:
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382:typically were also considered
1679:Swadesh, Frances Leon (1978).
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95:citizen-soldiers of New Mexico
69:officially included it in the
1:
1329:Rael-Galvéz, Estévan (2002).
1312:Morfi, Juan Agustin (1977) .
1155:
264:, which was adopted from the
1728:Indigenous peoples in Mexico
1668:New Mexico Historical Review
1280:Gutiérrez, Ramon A. (1991).
1221:New Mexico Historical Review
1164:New Mexico Historical Review
7:
1768:Ethno-cultural designations
1758:Indigenous Mexican American
1743:Latin American caste system
1738:Slavery of Native Americans
1529:Horvath, Steven M. (1979).
1405:Demos, John Putnam (1994).
1345:Avery, Doris Swann (2008).
1143:
505:, Los Lentes, Socorro, and
10:
1784:
690:Masich, Andrew E. (2018).
340:
1389:2027/spo.0499697.0022.204
1196:Brugge, David M. (1968).
1175:Brooks, James F. (2002).
898:Senate Memorial 59 (SM59)
72:Sentimientos de la Nación
1253:Journal of the Southwest
886:House Memorial 40 (HM40)
652:
1013:Great Plains Quarterly,
561:In 1821, Mexico became
254:word borrowed from the
239:
1662:Simmons, Marc (1964).
1548:Jones, Sondra (2000).
1215:Chavez, Fr A. (1955).
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981:(in Spanish). Madrid.
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81:First Mexican Republic
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1456:Gallegos, B. (2017).
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940:Magnaghi, Russell M.
446:
419:
1703:Indio-Hispano Legacy
567:First Mexican Empire
444:as follows in 1778:
440:, were described by
59:Mexican independence
1753:Colonial New Mexico
1409:. Alfred A. Knopf.
1002:, pp. 123–132.
782:. December 29, 2016
507:San Miguel del Vado
145:San Miguel del Vado
115:settled in several
85:centralist Republic
45:indentured servants
27:) was the name for
1120:Rael-Galvéz (2002)
1066:The New York Times
942:"Tropade Genízaro"
744:. January 28, 2018
742:The New York Times
442:Juan Agustín Morfi
119:villages, such as
67:José María Morelos
1467:978-94-6351-036-3
946:Wishart, David J.
571:Treaty of Córdoba
202:indigenous people
99:Chimayó Rebellion
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1748:Mexican slaves
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1697:External links
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1654:978-0865346482
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1635:978-0865346475
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911:"genízaro, ra"
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855:. May 21, 2018
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457:Tribal origins
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276:Ottoman Empire
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153:also lived in
135:, Los Lentes,
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954:. Retrieved
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857:. Retrieved
852:
843:
831:. Retrieved
821:
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805:
796:
784:. Retrieved
779:
770:
758:
746:. Retrieved
741:
691:
685:
666:
660:
649:in Yucatán.
647:Mayan revolt
629:Albino Perez
618:
610:
581:
560:
557:19th century
538:
536:
525:
485:Kiowa Apache
460:
447:
435:
420:
410:
395:Many of the
394:
390:
369:
353:
344:
308:
243:
216:, including
193:
109:
70:
49:
41:Christianity
29:detribalized
24:
16:
15:
859:October 17,
811:October 17,
802:"GENÍZAROS"
786:October 17,
748:October 17,
563:independent
537:Presently,
438:Albuquerque
261:giannizzero
210:Albuquerque
161:, Atrisco,
155:Albuquerque
137:Las Trampas
117:New Mexican
97:during the
87:. In 1837,
1712:Categories
1685:El Palacio
1614:Collection
1496:"Genízaro"
1156:References
1015:414, p. 87
853:myText CNM
833:October 5,
214:New Mexico
159:Bernalillo
36:New Mexico
1509:Discovery
1273:110030860
614:genízaros
605:genízaros
585:genízaros
576:genízaros
539:genízaros
530:genízaros
512:Genízaros
498:Genízaros
468:genízaros
414:genízaros
405:genízaros
398:genízaros
385:genízaros
379:genízaros
364:genízaros
357:genízaros
347:Genízaros
328:genízaros
309:The word
280:janissary
244:The term
230:Las Vegas
197:genízaros
194:In 2007,
184:genízaros
150:Genízaros
112:Genízaros
90:Genízaros
53:genízaros
25:Genizaros
19:Genízaros
1144:See also
978:La Razón
956:4 August
638:genízaro
599:genízaro
547:Pajarito
450:alcaldes
430:baptized
423:Comanche
373:genízaro
334:genízaro
318:Genízaro
312:genízaro
291:genízara
285:genízaro
271:yeniçeri
247:genízaro
234:Colorado
226:Santa Fe
218:Española
163:Santa Fe
129:Valencia
104:genízaro
1733:Mestizo
1541:7263672
1524:(4): 5.
1398:3178414
1322:3502950
948:(ed.).
780:NPR.org
624:vecinos
619:coyotes
551:Barelas
543:Atrisco
517:Abiquiú
503:Carnuel
426:Apaches
341:History
300:Wichita
296:Quivira
256:Italian
252:Spanish
204:by the
181:. Most
175:Abiquiú
167:Chimayó
141:Socorro
133:Carnuel
79:of the
1651:
1632:
1612:Pinart
1600:
1564:
1558:132–33
1539:
1483:
1464:
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1413:
1396:
1320:
1292:
1271:
1240:
1204:
1185:
698:
673:
621:, and
592:vecino
569:. The
549:, and
519:, and
493:Paiute
481:Apache
477:Pawnee
473:Navajo
463:genome
323:Navajo
177:, and
143:, and
1394:JSTOR
1359:(PDF)
1352:(PDF)
1269:S2CID
944:. In
653:Notes
471:were
268:word
258:word
250:is a
121:Belén
1649:ISBN
1630:ISBN
1598:ISBN
1562:ISBN
1537:OCLC
1481:ISBN
1462:ISBN
1443:ISBN
1411:ISBN
1318:OCLC
1290:ISBN
1238:ISBN
1202:ISBN
1183:ISBN
1170:(3).
958:2020
861:2021
835:2015
813:2021
788:2021
750:2021
696:ISBN
671:ISBN
635:, a
240:Name
222:Taos
171:Taos
125:Tomé
23:(or
1583:of
1384:hdl
1376:doi
1261:doi
489:Ute
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298:(
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