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76:
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2653:. Each paradigm has its own distinct questions, aims, and interpretations. The choice between paradigms involves setting two or more "portraits" against the world and deciding which likeness is most promising. A paradigm shift occurs when a significant number of observational anomalies arise in the old paradigm and a new paradigm makes sense of them. That is, the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations, even though those observations are made against the background of the old paradigm. For Kuhn, acceptance or rejection of a paradigm is a social process as much as a logical process. Kuhn's position, however, is not one of
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2974:, often in pursuance of other national policy goals such as technological innovation to promote commercial product development, weapons development, health care, and environmental monitoring. Science policy sometimes refers to the act of applying scientific knowledge and consensus to the development of public policies. In accordance with public policy being concerned about the well-being of its citizens, science policy's goal is to consider how science and technology can best serve the public. Public policy can directly affect the funding of
2304:
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2395:, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behaviour of certain natural events. A theory typically describes the behaviour of much broader sets of observations than a hypothesis; commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be logically bound together by a single theory. Thus, a theory is a hypothesis explaining various other hypotheses. In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses. Scientists may generate a
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expression had overtaken the traditional label "natural philosophy". The persistence of "natural philosophy" in the twentieth century is owing largely to historical references to a past practice (see figure 11). As should now be apparent, this was not simply the substitution of one term by another, but involved the jettisoning of a range of personal qualities relating to the conduct of philosophy and the living of the philosophical life.
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2608:. Popper rejected the way that empiricism describes the connection between theory and observation. He claimed that theories are not generated by observation, but that observation is made in the light of theories, and that the only way theory A can be affected by observation is after theory A were to conflict with observation, but theory B were to survive the observation. Popper proposed replacing verifiability with
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13557:
2531:" for cases in which researchers believe, and at a glance, look like they are doing science but lack the honesty to allow their results to be rigorously evaluated. Various types of commercial advertising, ranging from hype to fraud, may fall into these categories. Science has been described as "the most important tool" for separating valid claims from invalid ones.
2162:. The formal sciences share similarities with the other two branches by relying on objective, careful, and systematic study of an area of knowledge. They are, however, different from the empirical sciences as they rely exclusively on deductive reasoning, without the need for empirical evidence, to verify their abstract concepts. The formal sciences are therefore
1564:"scientist"; an increased professionalisation of those studying nature; scientists gaining cultural authority over many dimensions of society; the industrialisation of numerous countries; the thriving of popular science writings; and the emergence of science journals. During the late 19th century, psychology emerged as a separate discipline from philosophy when
2627:, emphasises the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena. It views scientific theories as black boxes, with only their input (initial conditions) and output (predictions) being relevant. Consequences, theoretical entities, and logical structure are claimed to be things that should be ignored. Close to instrumentalism is
835:. Although the words and concepts of "science" and "nature" were not part of the conceptual landscape at the time, the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians made contributions that would later find a place in Greek and medieval science: mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. From the 3rd millennium BCE, the ancient Egyptians developed a
3362:...modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by mathematics; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions.
949:, the same words tend to be used to describe the natural "way" in which a plant grows, and the "way" in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason, it is claimed that these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and the first to clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention".
3162:
Anti-science attitudes often seem to be caused by fear of rejection in social groups. For instance, climate change is perceived as a threat by only 22% of
Americans on the right side of the political spectrum, but by 85% on the left. That is, if someone on the left would not consider climate change
2872:
are usually given to individuals or organisations that have made significant contributions to a discipline. They are often given by prestigious institutions; thus, it is considered a great honour for a scientist receiving them. Since the early
Renaissance, scientists have often been awarded medals,
1023:
method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. The
Socratic method searches for general commonly-held truths that shape beliefs and scrutinises them for consistency. Socrates criticised the older type of study
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Abbott, B.P.; Abbott, R.; Abbott, T.D.; Acernese, F.; Ackley, K.; Adams, C.; Adams, T.; Addesso, P.; Adhikari, R.X.; Adya, V.B.; Affeldt, C.; Afrough, M.; Agarwal, B.; Agathos, M.; Agatsuma, K.; Aggarwal, N.; Aguiar, O.D.; Aiello, L.; Ain, A.; Ajith, P.; Allen, B.; Allen, G.; Allocca, A.; Altin,
6254:
See p. 464: "Schramm sums up achievement in the development of scientific method.", p. 465: "Schramm has demonstrated .. beyond any dispute that Ibn al-Haytham is a major figure in the
Islamic scientific tradition, particularly in the creation of experimental techniques." p. 465: "only when the
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process of the experimental results and conclusions. After the results of an experiment are announced or published, it is normal practice for independent researchers to double-check how the research was performed, and to follow up by performing similar experiments to determine how dependable the
4110:
The changing character of those engaged in scientific endeavors was matched by a new nomenclature for their endeavors. The most conspicuous marker of this change was the replacement of "natural philosophy" by "natural science". In 1800 few had spoken of the "natural sciences" but by 1880 this
2211:
and knowledge to attain practical goals and includes a broad range of disciplines such as engineering and medicine. Engineering is the use of scientific principles to invent, design and build machines, structures and technologies. Science may contribute to the development of new technologies.
2769:
faced considerable discrimination in science, much as they did in other areas of male-dominated societies. For example, women were frequently passed over for job opportunities and denied credit for their work. The achievements of women in science have been attributed to the defiance of their
2534:
There can also be an element of political or ideological bias on all sides of scientific debates. Sometimes, research may be characterised as "bad science", research that may be well-intended but is incorrect, obsolete, incomplete, or over-simplified expositions of scientific ideas. The term
1563:
During the nineteenth century many distinguishing characteristics of contemporary modern science began to take shape. These included the transformation of the life and physical sciences; the frequent use of precision instruments; the emergence of terms such as "biologist", "physicist", and
5305:
4924:
The Nile occupied an important position in
Egyptian culture; it influenced the development of mathematics, geography, and the calendar; Egyptian geometry advanced due to the practice of land measurement "because the overflow of the Nile caused the boundary of each person's land to
1235:
in western Europe flourished, with experiments done by observing, describing, and classifying subjects in nature. In the 13th century, medical teachers and students at
Bologna began opening human bodies, leading to the first anatomy textbook based on human dissection by
2743:
Scientists exhibit a strong curiosity about reality and a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of health, nations, the environment, or industries. Other motivations include recognition by their peers and prestige. In modern times, many scientists have
935:, there is no real ancient analogue of a modern scientist. Instead, well-educated, usually upper-class, and almost universally male individuals performed various investigations into nature whenever they could afford the time. Before the invention or discovery of the
1372:
published philosophical arguments in favour of a new type of non-Aristotelian science. Bacon emphasised the importance of experiment over contemplation, questioned the
Aristotelian concepts of formal and final cause, promoted the idea that science should study the
2294:
is the search for solutions to practical problems using this knowledge. Most understanding comes from basic research, though sometimes applied research targets specific practical problems. This leads to technological advances that were not previously imaginable.
1344:
and others challenged the notion that the only function of the eye is perception, and shifted the main focus in optics from the eye to the propagation of light. Kepler is best known, however, for improving
Copernicus' heliocentric model through the discovery of
2919:
through a competitive process in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. Such processes, which are run by government, corporations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds. Total research funding in most
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way. This implied a shift in the view of objects: objects were now considered as having no innate goals. Leibniz assumed that different types of things all work according to the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes.
510:
New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems. Contemporary scientific research is highly collaborative and is usually done by teams in academic and
2932:
in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10%, respectively, by universities and government. The government funding proportion in certain fields is higher, and it dominates research in social science and the
6759:
Although it was just one of the many factors in the
Enlightenment, the success of Newtonian physics in providing a mathematical description of an ordered world clearly played a big part in the flowering of this movement in the eighteenth
3857:
The great era of all that is deemed classical in Indian literature, art and science was now dawning. It was this crescendo of creativity and scholarship, as much as ... political achievements of the Guptas, which would make their age so
3061:
The mass media face pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give different sides in a
2258:
and various forms of prediction. However, machines alone rarely advance knowledge as they require human guidance and capacity to reason; and they can introduce bias against certain social groups or sometimes underperform against humans.
3194:, perceived threats to religious beliefs, and fear for business interests. Politicization of science is usually accomplished when scientific information is presented in a way that emphasises the uncertainty associated with the
795:
Science has no single origin. Rather, systematic methods emerged gradually over the course of tens of thousands of years, taking different forms around the world, and few details are known about the very earliest developments.
2672:. Naturalists maintain that a difference should be made between natural and supernatural, and science should be restricted to natural explanations. Methodological naturalism maintains that science requires strict adherence to
3094:
cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research. The science fiction genre, primarily
1462:, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were the backbones of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the
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A "formal science" is an area of study that uses formal systems to generate knowledge such as in
Mathematics and Computer Science. Formal sciences are important subjects because all of quantitative science depends on
6255:
influence of Ibn al-Haytham and others on the mainstream of later medieval physical writings has been seriously investigated can Schramm's claim that Ibn al-Haytham was the true founder of modern physics be evaluated."
4218:
2719:
Scientists are individuals who conduct scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of interest. In modern times, many professional scientists are trained in an academic setting and, upon completion, attain an
5171:
The word φύσις, while first used in connection with a plant in Homer, occurs early in Greek philosophy, and in several senses. Generally, these senses match rather well the current senses in which the English word
2802:, or group of related disciplines. Membership may either be open to all, require possession of scientific credentials, or conferred by election. Most scientific societies are nonprofit organisations, and many are
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for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed since the Renaissance. Many scientists belong to a learned society that promotes their respective scientific discipline,
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2469:, began publication in 1665. Since that time the total number of active periodicals has steadily increased. In 1981, one estimate for the number of scientific and technical journals in publication was 11,500.
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3121:
While the scientific method is broadly accepted in the scientific community, some fractions of society reject certain scientific positions or are sceptical about science. Examples are the common notion that
2065:, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and other biotic beings. Today, "natural history" suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences.
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3394:
3099:, can transmit the ideas and methods of science to the general public. Recent efforts to intensify or develop links between science and non-scientific disciplines, such as literature or poetry, include the
1001:
731:
In the past, science was a synonym for "knowledge" or "study", in keeping with its Latin origin. A person who conducted scientific research was called a "natural philosopher" or "man of science". In 1834,
3264:
Book I, . pages 372 and 408 disputed Claudius Ptolemy's extramission theory of vision; "Hence, the extramission of rays is superfluous and useless". —A.Mark Smith's translation of the Latin version of
3058:, the curriculum becomes more in depth. Traditional subjects usually included in the curriculum are natural and formal sciences, although recent movements include social and applied science as well.
2964:
in Spain. In commercial research and development, all but the most research-orientated corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialisation possibilities than research driven by curiosity.
2373:
predictions, which are typically posted before being tested by experimentation. Disproof of a prediction is evidence of progress. Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish
1451:", and he discouraged scientists from pursuing intangible philosophical or spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed little to human happiness beyond "the fume of subtle, sublime or pleasing ".
2115:
in sociology. Due to the limitations of conducting controlled experiments involving large groups of individuals or complex situations, social scientists may adopt other research methods such as the
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2504:. The crisis has long-standing roots; the phrase was coined in the early 2010s as part of a growing awareness of the problem. The replication crisis represents an important body of research in
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communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions, serving as an archival record of science. The first scientific journals,
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as a threat, this person may face contempt and be rejected in that social group. In fact, people may rather deny a scientifically accepted fact than lose or jeopardise their social status.
1046:
of the universe, with the Sun at the centre and all the planets orbiting it. Aristarchus's model was widely rejected because it was believed to violate the laws of physics, while Ptolemy's
996:
would develop a full natural cosmology based on atomism, and would adopt a "canon" (ruler, standard) which established physical criteria or standards of scientific truth. The Greek doctor
4282:
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But he's not a scientist, he's never done scientific research. My definition of a scientist is that you can complete the following sentence: 'he or she has shown that...'," Wilson says.
2399:, an attempt to describe or depict an observation in terms of a logical, physical or mathematical representation, and to generate new hypotheses that can be tested by experimentation.
2581:, a position that explains how general theories can be made from the finite amount of empirical evidence available. Many versions of empiricism exist, with the predominant ones being
11744:
1357:
had made significant contributions to astronomy, physics and engineering. However, he became persecuted after Pope Urban VIII sentenced him for writing about the heliocentric model.
2873:
money, and titles. The Nobel Prize, a widely regarded prestigious award, is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of medicine, physics, and
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While performing experiments to test hypotheses, scientists may have a preference for one outcome over another. Eliminating the bias can be achieved through transparency, careful
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have been used to gain more attention for views that have been undermined by scientific evidence. Examples of issues that have involved the politicisation of science include the
3130:
is not a major threat to the US (also held by 40% of Americans, in late 2019 and early 2020). Psychologists have pointed to four factors driving rejection of scientific results:
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disciplines and because of this, there is disagreement on whether they constitute a science. Nevertheless, the formal sciences play an important role in the empirical sciences.
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2476:. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and ambitions of scientists to a wider population.
808:" to label activities in the past that resemble modern science in some but not all features; however, this label has also been criticised as denigrating, or too suggestive of
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4202:
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Carruthers, Peter (2 May 2002). Carruthers, Peter; Stich, Stephen; Siegal, Michael (eds.). "The roots of scientific reasoning: infancy, modularity and the art of tracking".
5808:
2539:" refers to situations such as where researchers have intentionally misrepresented their published data or have purposely given credit for a discovery to the wrong person.
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An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an attempt to claim legitimacy that it would not otherwise be able to achieve is sometimes referred to as
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A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence, making a hypothesis and testing it, to gain and share understanding and knowledge.
8806:
Mujumdar, Anshu Gupta; Singh, Tejinder (2016). "Cognitive science and the connection between physics and mathematics". In Aguirre, Anthony; Foster, Brendan (eds.).
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2692:, through discussion and debate within journals and conferences, scientists maintain the quality of research methodology and objectivity when interpreting results.
2127:. Moreover, if quantitative information is available, social scientists may rely on statistical approaches to better understand social relationships and processes.
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The amazing point is that for the first time since the discovery of mathematics, a method has been introduced, the results of which have an intersubjective value!
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and the improvement of all human life. Descartes emphasised individual thought and argued that mathematics rather than geometry should be used to study nature.
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as the empirical method. Popper further claimed that there is actually only one universal method, not specific to science: the negative method of criticism,
1011:' example of applying philosophy to the study of human matters, including human nature, the nature of political communities, and human knowledge itself. The
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Abraham, Reem Rachel (2004). "Clinically oriented physiology teaching: strategy for developing critical-thinking skills in undergraduate medical students".
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Budd, Paul; Taylor, Timothy (1995). "The Faerie Smith Meets the Bronze Industry: Magic Versus Science in the Interpretation of Prehistoric Metal-Making".
2577:, which holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation; scientific theories generalise observations. Empiricism generally encompasses
1497:
as a discipline. Ideas on human nature, society, and economics evolved during the Enlightenment. Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed
13598:
3014:(for example, YouTube and Khan Academy), museums, and science magazines and blogs. Scientific literacy is chiefly concerned with an understanding of the
2688:
is a network of interacting scientists who conduct scientific research. The community consists of smaller groups working in scientific fields. By having
2472:
Most scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a
2411:
results might be. Taken in its entirety, the scientific method allows for highly creative problem solving while minimising the effects of subjective and
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When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory it is modified or discarded. If the hypothesis survives testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a
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2099:, psychology, and sociology. In the social sciences, there are many competing theoretical perspectives, many of which are extended through competing
1519:, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of
14734:
14729:
12419:
6877:
11454:"The French Academy of Sciences, 1666–91: A reassessment of the French Académie royale des sciences under Colbert (1666–83) and Louvois (1683–91)"
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emerged as the first university in Europe. As such, demand for Latin translation of ancient and scientific texts grew, a major contributor to the
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Grant, Edward (2007). "Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century".
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906:. They seem to have studied scientific subjects which had practical or religious applications and had little interest in satisfying curiosity.
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1397:
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2009:. These two branches may be further divided into more specialised disciplines. For example, physical science can be subdivided into physics,
456:) scholarship flourished again. Some Greek manuscripts lost in Western Europe were preserved and expanded upon in the Middle East during the
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who are knowledgeable about certain scientific issues may be ignorant about other scientific issues that they are suddenly asked to cover.
1080:
for representing numbers likely emerged between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE along Indian trade routes. This numeral system made efficient
8587:
6180:
Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's
2631:, according to which the main criterion for the success of a scientific theory is whether what it says about observable entities is true.
694:
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of science among an increasingly literate population. Enlightenment philosophers turned to a few of their scientific predecessors –
1439:
During this time the declared purpose and value of science became producing wealth and inventions that would improve human lives, in the
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1138:. His criticism served as an inspiration to medieval scholars and Galileo Galilei, who extensively cited his works ten centuries later.
393:
spans the majority of the historical record, with the earliest written records of identifiable predecessors to modern science dating to
362:
and rules, are sometimes described as being sciences as well; however, they are often regarded as a separate field because they rely on
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8929:
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2432:
2369: – fitting with other accepted facts related to an observation or scientific question. This tentative explanation is used to make
1220:, a medical encyclopaedia, is considered to be one of the most important publications in medicine and was used until the 18th century.
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in 1858, which explained how different plants and animals originated and evolved. Their theory was set out in detail in Darwin's book
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The century saw fundamental changes within science disciplines. Evolution became a unified theory in the early 20th-century when the
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real-world situations, enabling a better understanding of scientific problems than formal mathematics alone can achieve. The use of
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1933:
1173:, these Arabic translations were later improved and developed by Arabic scientists. By the 6th and 7th centuries, the neighbouring
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way. Scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are needed to justify the scientific method: there is an
1862:. The need for mass systematisation of long, intertwined causal chains and large amounts of data led to the rise of the fields of
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13015:
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7805:
Furner, Jonathan (1 June 2003). "Little Book, Big Book: Before and After Little Science, Big Science: A Review Article, Part I".
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Lehoux, Daryn (2011). "2. Natural Knowledge in the Classical World". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.).
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of the planets are longer as their orbs are farther from the centre of motion, which he found not to agree with Ptolemy's model.
12256:"Majority in U.S. Says Public Health Benefits of COVID-19 Restrictions Worth the Costs, Even as Large Shares Also See Downsides"
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de Ridder, Jeroen (2020). "How many scientists does it take to have knowledge?". In McCain, Kevin; Kampourakis, Kostas (eds.).
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and intellectual infrastructure for industrial research by providing tax incentives to those organisations that fund research.
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2354:. Statistics is used to summarise and analyse data, which allows scientists to assess the reliability of experimental results.
2087:
is the study of human behaviour and the functioning of societies. It has many disciplines that include, but are not limited to
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have been known to use legal and economic pressure to influence scientific researchers. Many factors can act as facets of the
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11879:"En espera de una "revolucionaria" noticia sobre Sagitario A*, el agujero negro supermasivo en el corazón de nuestra galaxia"
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2724:, with the highest degree being a doctorate such as a Doctor of Philosophy or PhD. Many scientists pursue careers in various
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greatly increased the number of women scientists, but large gender disparities remained in some fields. The discovery of the
480:
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The professionalisation of science, begun in the 19th century, was partly enabled by the creation of national distinguished
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Brugger, E. Christian (2004). "Casebeer, William D. Natural Ethical Facts: Evolution, Connectionism, and Moral Cognition".
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The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context
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The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context
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The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context
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The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context
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The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context
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The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context
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1978:. Each of these branches comprises various specialised yet overlapping scientific disciplines that often possess their own
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1181:, which is considered by Greek, Syriac, and Persian physicians as the most important medical center of the ancient world.
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that began in the 16th century as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions. The
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8393:"Media Advisory: First Results from the Event Horizon Telescope to be Presented on April 10th | Event Horizon Telescope"
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was widely used to publish scholarly arguments, including some that disagreed widely with contemporary ideas of nature.
1319:
by the artists of the Renaissance. This theory uses only three of Aristotle's four causes: formal, material, and final.
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6158:
5753:
5212:
4875:
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2419:, the ability to reach a consensus and reproduce results, is fundamental to the creation of all scientific knowledge.
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developed a complex number philosophy and contributed significantly to the development of mathematical science. The
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13815:
13733:
13728:
12633:
9559:
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2818:, regulating the activities of their members in the public interest, or the collective interest of the membership.
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2937:. In less developed nations, the government provides the bulk of the funds for their basic scientific research.
75:
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7650:
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1679:. The new theory raised questions that could not easily be answered using Newton's framework. The discovery of
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features of science began to take shape, along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural science".
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ideas on perception, as well as by contributing to the improvement and development of technology such as the
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14102:
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A century of X-rays and radioactivity in medicine: with emphasis on photographic records of the early years
7396:"Gregor Mendel's principles of inheritance form the cornerstone of modern genetics. So just what are they?"
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3207:
2909:
2842:
2787:
2586:
2381:, though in some sciences such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might be more appropriate.
2159:
1504:
641:
351:
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2278:. The concept has existed since the ancient Greek period and it became popular again in the 20th century.
1149:, natural phenomena were mainly examined via the Aristotelian approach. The approach includes Aristotle's
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2641:"portrait" of the world that is consistent with observations made from its framing. He characterised
2163:
1512:
1424:
969:
924:
515:, government agencies, and companies. The practical impact of their work has led to the emergence of
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is not a major health threat to the US (held by 39% of Americans in August 2021) or the belief that
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8180:"Human genetics and genomics a decade after the release of the draft sequence of the human genome"
5981:
3316:
3282:, is an open question. The 2nd law of thermodynamics, and the 3rd law of thermodynamics imply the
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as the process of observation and "puzzle solving", which takes place within a paradigm, whereas
2628:
2604:
is a contrasting 20th-century approach to science, first defined by Austrian-British philosopher
2243:
1937:
1893:
1712:
1660:
1542:
1070:
496:
445:
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8023:
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From natural philosophy to the sciences : writing the history of nineteenth-century science
2620:, covering all products of the human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, and art.
2350:, and laws, because it is used extensively in quantitative modelling, observing, and collecting
2212:
Medicine is the practice of caring for patients by maintaining and restoring health through the
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2846:
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in physics. Natural and social sciences that rely heavily on mathematical applications include
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2057:, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science. Systematic data collection, including
1652:
1613:
1201:
1178:
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10607:
10571:
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10368:
Why people believe weird things: pseudoscience, superstition, and other confusions of our time
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9325:"Integrating Computer Prediction Methods in Social Science: A Comment on Hofman et al. (2021)"
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Reading the Principia: The Debate on Newton's Methods for Natural Philosophy from 1687 to 1736
6803:
6609:
6599:
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2500:. In subsequent investigations, the results of many scientific studies have been proven to be
2458:
1153:: material, formal, moving, and final cause. Many Greek classical texts were preserved by the
543:
since the 14th century in the sense of "the state of knowing". The word was borrowed from the
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2428:
2403:
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2002:
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1529:
1478:, and Newton principally – as the guides to every physical and social field of the day.
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where the planets and the Sun revolve around the Earth. This was based on a theorem that the
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11841:"How a Prestigious Scientific Organization Came Under Suspicion of Treating Women Unequally"
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1349:. Kepler did not reject Aristotelian metaphysics and described his work as a search for the
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is concerned with policies that affect the conduct of the scientific enterprise, including
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operations more accessible and would eventually become standard for mathematics worldwide.
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about the world. Modern science is typically divided into two or three major branches: the
215:
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Perhaps even as early as 1088 (the date officially set for the founding of the University)
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of a scientific message may not be appropriately targeted to a recipient's learning style.
847:. Their healing therapies involved drug treatments and the supernatural, such as prayers,
8:
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for the presentation and discussion of new research results and publishing or sponsoring
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1963:
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is becoming a central feature of computational contributions to science, for example in
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12583:"Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs): Science and the Politics of Doubt"
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4834:
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3717:
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hold anti-science attitudes, in part because these groups have often been exploited in
2991:
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2916:
2637:
argued that the process of observation and evaluation takes place within a paradigm, a
2528:
2485:
2452:
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2143:
2022:
1987:
1929:
1925:
1847:
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1130:
resisted attacks from invaders, they were able to preserve and improve prior learning.
1123:
1103:
828:
788:
759:
690:, meaning "to not know, be unfamiliar with", which may derive from Proto-Indo-European
586:
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457:
424:
based on natural causes, while further advancements, including the introduction of the
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led to a revolution in information technology and the rise of the global internet and
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Many governments have dedicated agencies to support scientific research, such as the
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2508:, which aims to improve the quality of all scientific research while reducing waste.
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or to another form of energy. This realisation led to the development of the laws of
1580:
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1330:
of the Solar System, stating that the planets revolve around the Sun, instead of the
1146:
1135:
1056:, was accepted through the early Renaissance instead. The inventor and mathematician
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for the general public is embedded in the school curriculum, and is supplemented by
2748:
in an area of science and pursue careers in various sectors of the economy, such as
2600:, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect, not by observation.
2034:
1792:. Substantial international collaborations were also made, despite armed conflicts.
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9155:
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8201:
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7642:
7549:
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7346:
7243:
7231:
7176:
7060:
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3699:
3632:
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3509:
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3138:
3084:
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2473:
2443:
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2239:
2173:
2100:
1855:
1672:
1331:
1258:
1237:
1205:
1162:
1154:
1127:
1098:
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14639:
14484:
14462:
14231:
14146:
14131:
13896:
13522:
13482:
13404:
13359:
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3819:
3812:
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A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century
2794:
2745:
2721:
2624:
2617:
2524:
2501:
2437:
2389:
2204:
2092:
2062:
2030:
1998:
1967:
1889:
1827:
1742:
1688:
1664:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1341:
1308:
1185:
1174:
1131:
1122:
deteriorated in Western Europe. During the period, Latin encyclopaedists such as
1065:
1012:
879:
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Scientific authorities are sometimes seen as inexpert, untrustworthy, or biased.
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1632:
there was an increased understanding that not all forms of energy have the same
14763:
14697:
14649:
14604:
14397:
14333:
14246:
14206:
14046:
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13573:
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12941:
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6530:
5285:
4812:
4727:
4702:
3343:
3266:
3260:
3183:
3151:
Messages from scientists may contradict deeply held existing beliefs or morals.
3127:
2967:
2905:
2771:
2765:
Science has historically been a male-dominated field, with notable exceptions.
2733:
2650:
2609:
2516:
2493:
2489:
2287:
2271:
2155:
2135:
2112:
2084:
2054:
2026:
1975:
1971:
1945:
1921:
1863:
1754:
1750:
1717:
1676:
1641:
1633:
1572:
1556:
1361:
1335:
1280:
1209:
1142:
1025:
977:
679:
540:
516:
343:
319:
230:
183:
161:
99:
12498:"Revealed: 60% of Americans say oil firms are to blame for the climate crisis"
12470:
12029:
11319:"The Environmental Studies Association of Canada – What is a Learned Society?"
10873:
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8703:
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7646:
7553:
7530:"Bounded energy exchange as an alternative to the third law of thermodynamics"
7049:"Taxonomy: what's in a name? Doesn't a rose by any other name smell as sweet?"
5716:
5661:
5150:
4441:
4422:
3613:"Thinking and acting scientifically: Indispensable basis of medical education"
3493:
2049:
and more experimental in a methodical way. Still, philosophical perspectives,
2001:
is the study of the physical world. It can be divided into two main branches:
1223:
By the eleventh century most of Europe had become Christian, and in 1088, the
1126:
preserved the majority of general ancient knowledge. In contrast, because the
378:
are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as
14891:
14509:
14479:
14417:
14218:
14166:
14161:
14071:
13492:
13427:
13399:
13327:
13056:
12971:
12351:
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9445:
9405:
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8994:
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7909:
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7247:
7235:
6892:
6605:
6293:
6178:
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1590:
1565:
1508:
1486:
1444:
1365:
1327:
1312:
1232:
1212:, better known as Alhazen, used controlled experiments in his optical study.
1166:
1043:
820:
420:, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the
397:
355:
235:
12342:
10086:
9988:
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Direct evidence for scientific processes becomes clearer with the advent of
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14469:
14328:
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14001:
13537:
13517:
13472:
13447:
13437:
13409:
13339:
13297:
13171:
13125:
13096:
13076:
12678:
12660:
12452:
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6265:
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5429:
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5040:
4679:
4552:
3646:
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3027:
2561:
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2497:
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2327:
2088:
2042:
1979:
1916:
and turn into any cell type found in the body. With the affirmation of the
1905:
1773:
1699:. In the next year came the discovery of the first subatomic particle, the
1625:
1475:
1410:
1374:
1304:
1296:
1053:
1035:
973:
927:, made between 100 BCE to 79 AD, shows many Greek philosophers and scholars
867:
805:
780:
523:
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11506:
10094:
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14201:
14171:
14156:
14021:
14016:
13619:
13527:
13512:
13497:
13477:
13394:
13322:
13139:
13129:
13116:
13081:
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2407:
2370:
2366:
2339:
2335:
2286:
Scientific research can be labelled as either basic or applied research.
2255:
2224:
of injury or disease. The applied sciences are often contrasted with the
1917:
1904:
was completed in 2003 by identifying and mapping all of the genes of the
1781:
1769:
1765:
1730:
1696:
1692:
1601:
1288:
1276:
1272:
1150:
1000:
established the tradition of systematic medical science and is known as "
997:
961:
855:
848:
824:
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14861:
12708:
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In the late 20th century active recruitment of women and elimination of
836:
703:
572:
14437:
14432:
14377:
14041:
14011:
13993:
13414:
13143:
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1941:
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1785:
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3628:
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1303:
upon a causal chain beginning with sensation, perception, and finally
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was a Roman writer and polymath, who wrote the seminal encyclopaedia
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New developments in optics played a role in the inception of the
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11769:"Australia to Lay Off Leading Scientist on Sea Levels"
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2660:
Finally, another approach often cited in debates of
2338:; these laws were discovered by means of systematic
2172:, for example, was initially invented to understand
1982:
and expertise. Both natural and social sciences are
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Modern science is commonly divided into three major
1729:
In the first half of the century the development of
1655:
was established in the 19th century by the works of
1024:
of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in
722:
710:
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11507:"The founding of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (1911)"
11293:"Chronicle for Societies Founded from 1323 to 1599"
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1737:improved human living standards globally. Harmful
1579:independently proposed the theory of evolution by
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12069:"Science journalism must keep a critical edge"
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11187:"Flexible working: Science in the gig economy"
11039:"Flexible working: Science in the gig economy"
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14714:
14689:
13567:
13555:
12603:10.1111/j.1475-682X.2008.00219.x
12552:
12515:
12489:
12442:
12411:
12376:
12309:
12285:Kennedy, Brian (16 April 2020).
12278:
12247:
12220:
12186:
12123:Australian Studies in Journalism
12110:
12079:
12060:
11968:
11901:
11889:from the original on 13 May 2022
11871:
11859:from the original on 29 May 2022
11832:
11800:
11759:
11747:from the original on 16 May 2022
11729:
11674:from the original on 25 May 2022
11555:
11525:
11499:
11472:
11445:
11401:"Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei"
11393:
11363:
11311:
11284:
11259:
10853:Kornfeld, W; Hewitt, CE (1981).
10827:
10720:
10705:
10672:
10657:
10417:
10386:
10354:
10321:
10262:
10213:
10164:
10101:
10055:
10004:"What is the scientific method?"
9962:
9927:
9894:
9871:
9838:
9650:
9558:Dawkins, Richard (10 May 2006).
9551:
9507:
9480:
9369:
9316:
9191:Davis, Bernard D. (March 2000).
9125:
9100:
9043:
8983:Advances in Physiology Education
8944:
8922:"What is financial mathematics?"
8913:
8887:
8856:
8824:
8733:
8683:
8668:
8636:
8620:from the original on 14 May 2021
8586:. Princeton University WordNet.
8411:
8385:
8362:
8278:O'Luanaigh, C. (14 March 2013).
8222:
8171:
8144:
8111:
8086:
8074:from the original on 31 May 2022
8014:
7953:
7935:Rosser, Sue V. (12 March 2012).
7928:
7881:
7863:
7833:
7798:
7780:Environment & Society Portal
7767:
7706:
7665:
7572:
7367:
7169:The British Journal of Sociology
7160:
7110:
7081:
7008:
6994:(11th ed.). Prentice Hall.
6971:from the original on 18 May 2019
6953:
6921:
6868:
6834:
6795:
6365:from the original on 27 May 2022
5733:from the original on 30 May 2022
5678:from the original on 30 May 2022
5221:from the original on 31 May 2022
4914:from the original on 31 May 2022
4423:"Scientist: The story of a word"
4402:from the original on 31 May 2022
3813:Building Bridges Among the BRICs
3611:Fischer, M.R.; Fabry, G (2014).
3451:. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
2290:is the search for knowledge and
1307:of the individual and universal
1275:, both by challenging long-held
764:
434:fall of the Western Roman Empire
93:
74:
13755:Cellular and molecular biology
11788:from the original on 7 May 2021
11766:Innis, Michelle (17 May 2016).
11478:
11295:. Scholarly Societies Project.
10956:"Our definition of a scientist"
10148:. National Science Foundation.
9903:Peer Review: A Critical Inquiry
8837:Journal of Mathematical Physics
8395:. 20 April 2019. Archived from
7694:from the original on 5 May 2021
6992:Brock Biology of Microorganisms
6875:van Horn Melton, James (2001).
6851:Encyclopedia of the Renaissance
6773:"Gottfried Leibniz – Biography"
6765:
6736:
6717:
6692:
6657:
6503:
6410:
6330:
6286:
6143:; Leaman, Oliver, eds. (2001).
6133:
6103:
6081:. Cambridge: University Press.
6070:
6002:
5973:
5901:
5862:
5823:
5572:
5546:
5520:
5497:From Witchcraft to World Health
5487:
5415:
5359:
5312:
5190:
5063:
5007:
4938:"Telling Time in Ancient Egypt"
4930:
4884:
4855:
4827:
4792:
4751:
4694:
4651:
4618:
4583:
4559:
4449:
4367:
4331:
4221:from the original on 5 May 2021
4182:from the original on 5 May 2021
4143:from the original on 5 May 2021
4126:Scientific Research as a Career
4084:
3938:
3806:
3397:from the original on 5 May 2021
3103:resource developed through the
2740:, and nonprofit organisations.
2573:. The most popular position is
1873:
1706:
1536:
1229:Renaissance of the 12th century
454:Renaissance of the 12th century
13928:Science and technology studies
12759:Analytic–synthetic distinction
12397:10.1080/00380237.2008.10571338
11816:(in French). 20 October 2021.
11682:– via oecd-ilibrary.org.
11658:10.1787/sti_scoreboard-2015-en
11291:Parrott, Jim (9 August 2007).
10146:"Science the Endless Frontier"
9329:Social Science Computer Review
9027:. Cambridge University Press.
8895:"What is mathematical biology"
8425:. 7 March 2007. Archived from
7875:Thinking about the Unthinkable
6197:American Philosophical Society
5830:Murphy, Trevor Morgan (2004).
5585:(H. Rackham ed.). 1139b.
4492:The Cognitive Basis of Science
3229:List of scientific occupations
1892:made by separate teams in the
1243:
1120:Greek conceptions of the world
1087:
916:Science in classical antiquity
804:. Some scholars use the term "
601:There are many hypotheses for
553:, which was borrowed from the
13:
1:
12152:Webb, Sarah (December 2013).
11741:International Science Council
11253:Women's History as Scientists
10687:. London: Routledge. p.
8614:Washington and Lee University
8523:Scientific Method in Practice
8448:Bunge, Mario Augusto (1998).
6510:Goldstein, Bernard R (2016).
6146:History of Islamic Philosophy
6079:The Cambridge history of Iran
5697:Hoffmann, Susanne M. (2017).
4604:10.1080/00438243.1995.9980297
3293:
2855:International Science Council
2760:, and nonprofit environments.
2695:
2479:
2417:Intersubjective verifiability
1888:Four predicted images of the
1200:, where the Islamic study of
521:ethical and moral development
440:(400 to 1000 CE), but in the
14475:Normalization process theory
14032:Philosophy of social science
12094:. Vol. 43, no. 4.
11935:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002712
11270:. Indiana University Press.
11138:"Education: The PhD factory"
10990:"Education: The PhD factory"
10288:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002264
10144:Bush, Vannevar (July 1945).
9940:. Rowman & Littlefield.
9905:. Rowman & Littlefield.
9071:10.1016/0048-7333(94)01001-3
7985:10.1126/science.205.4406.549
6745:Science: A History 1543–2001
6686:10.1016/0083-6656(75)90061-6
5908:Conner, Clifford D. (2005).
5205:Wayne State University Press
4701:Fleck, Robert (March 2021).
4500:10.1017/cbo9780511613517.005
4165:Research Methods for Science
3529:(2019). "Robots and souls".
3208:health effects of pesticides
2910:United States federal budget
2843:National Academy of Sciences
2788:Prussian Academy of Sciences
2587:hypothetico-deductive method
2441:Cover of the first issue of
2160:theoretical computer science
1780:led to competitions between
1571:During the mid-19th century
892:intense interest in medicine
819:in early civilisations like
642:Proto-Indo-European language
530:
352:theoretical computer science
7:
13092:Hypothetico-deductive model
13067:Deductive-nomological model
13052:Constructivist epistemology
11885:(in Spanish). 12 May 2022.
11652:. OECD. 2015. p. 156.
11537:Chinese Academy of Sciences
11509:. Max-Planck-Gesellschaft.
10766:University of Chicago Press
10679:Newton-Smith, W.H. (1994).
10330:"Science and Pseudoscience"
9255:10.1128/MMBR.64.1.1-12.2000
9209:10.1128/MMBR.64.1.1-12.2000
9109:Oxford textbook of medicine
8517:Gauch, Hugh G. Jr. (2003).
8126:. Pergamon Press. pp.
8097:. Reading: Addison–Wesley.
6747:. Allen Lane. p. 241.
6337:Russell, Josiah C. (1959).
5791:Lawson, Russell M. (2004).
5185:History of Greek Philosophy
5117:The Greek Concept of Nature
4894:; Gershoni, Israel (2000).
4635:10.1007/978-94-009-3779-6_4
4627:Rational Changes in Science
3754:Lindberg, David C. (2007).
3704:10.1007/978-94-010-2182-1_2
3217:
3166:
2988:Public awareness of science
2942:National Science Foundation
2851:Chinese Academy of Sciences
2236:computing power to simulate
1951:
1801:cosmic microwave background
1766:larger in scale and funding
1299:each built up a scholastic
1042:was the first to propose a
791:, written in about 1800 BCE
666:, meaning "to incise". The
622:may have its origin in the
426:Hindu–Arabic numeral system
374:as their main methodology.
37:. For a topical guide, see
10:
14924:
14098:construction of technology
13856:Probability and statistics
12536:(5): 34–39. Archived from
12092:Columbia Journalism Review
11914:PLOS Computational Biology
11483:. .nationalacademies.org.
11251:Whaley, Leigh Ann (2003).
10988:; Yahia, Mohammed (2011).
10926:. E.O. Wilson Foundation.
10683:The Rationality of Science
9438:10.1038/s41586-021-03659-0
9193:"Limited scope of science"
9132:Saunders, J. (June 2000).
8248:10.1016/j.jhep.2012.10.026
8093:Miller, Arthur I. (1981).
7782:. RCC Perspectives no. 2.
7579:Mould, Richard F. (1995).
7327:"Darwin's enduring legacy"
7088:Darrigol, Olivier (2000).
6885:Cambridge University Press
6531:10.1177/002182860203300301
6050:Cambridge University Press
6013:. In Zalta, Edward (ed.).
5752:Edwards, C.H. Jr. (1979).
5422:Margotta, Roberto (1968).
5125:"What does 'nature' mean?"
4868:Greenwood Publishing Group
4813:10.1177/007327531205000203
4728:10.1007/s00016-020-00269-7
4041:Cahan, David, ed. (2003).
3948:. Retrieved 6 October 2023
3284:heat death of the universe
3204:global warming controversy
3114:
3012:online pedagogical content
2985:
2944:in the United States, the
2884:
2880:
2839:French Academy of Sciences
2466:Philosophical Transactions
2426:
1955:
1877:
1710:
1683:inspired the discovery of
1600:Early in the 19th century
1540:
1500:A Treatise of Human Nature
1384:
1254:Science in the Renaissance
1247:
1091:
913:
768:
757:
753:
723:
711:
693:
657:
647:
29:
14685:
14630:Politicization of science
14590:
14376:
14145:
14080:
13992:
13957:
13934:
13626:
13546:
13378:
13280:
13210:
13153:Semantic view of theories
13072:Epistemological anarchism
13024:
13009:dependent and independent
12746:
12522:Goldberg, Jeanne (2017).
12030:10.1007/s10734-009-9265-2
11375:Impact of Social Sciences
10874:10.1109/TSMC.1981.4308575
10836:The Review of Metaphysics
10393:Feynman, Richard (1974).
9934:Krimsky, Sheldon (2003).
9342:10.1177/08944393211049776
9286:McCormick, James (2001).
8971:. Retrieved 1 April 2008.
8316:The Astrophysical Journal
8197:10.1186/1479-7364-5-6-577
8025:Gravitation and Cosmology
7843:; James Schefter (2001).
7681:The Surgical Technologist
7672:Goyotte, Dolores (2017).
7647:10.1080/14786449708621070
7616:(in Polish). p. 113.
7554:10.1016/j.aop.2016.07.031
7134:"Review of James Buchan,
7015:Guicciardini, N. (1999).
6730:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
6346:The Mississippi Quarterly
5717:10.1007/978-3-658-18683-8
5662:10.1007/978-1-4612-4468-4
5319:Pullman, Bernard (1998).
5176:is used, as confirmed by
5151:10.1057/s41599-020-0390-y
4862:Krebs, Robert E. (2004).
4464:Oxford English Dictionary
4442:10.1080/00033796200202722
3660:Sinclair, Marius (1993).
3212:health effects of tobacco
3188:politicisation of science
2962:National Research Council
2864:
2861:for science advancement.
2859:international cooperation
2804:professional associations
2670:methodological naturalism
2268:Interdisciplinary science
2263:Interdisciplinary science
1852:communications satellites
1489:; a new understanding of
1425:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
1413:formed the foundation of
1322:In the sixteenth century
1110:, made in the 6th century
947:pre-Socratic philosophers
404:from around 3000 to 1200
14037:Philosophy of technology
12895:Intertheoretic reduction
12884:Ignoramus et ignorabimus
12861:Functional contextualism
12565:Journal of Communication
10758:Kuhn, Thomas S. (1970).
10239:10.1177/1745691612465253
10171:Schooler, J. W. (2014).
9845:van Gelder, Tim (1999).
8995:10.1152/advan.00001.2004
8675:Tomalin, Marcus (2006).
8519:"Science in perspective"
8347:10.3847/2041-8213/aa91c9
7962:"The origin of elements"
7819:10.1177/0961000603352006
7053:Croatian Medical Journal
6893:10.1017/CBO9780511819421
6417:Numbers, Ronald (2009).
6011:"Aristotle on Causality"
3785:"Ancient Egypt to Plato"
3245:
3234:List of years in science
3101:Creative Writing Science
3050:, ecology, geology, and
3000:Dinosaur exhibit in the
2930:research and development
2365:and is expected to seek
2142:. A formal system is an
1721:A computer graph of the
1618:conservation of momentum
1586:On the Origin of Species
1551:The first diagram of an
1431:, now used in a new non-
1427:incorporated terms from
1177:established the medical
837:decimal numbering system
525:environmental protection
462:Byzantine Greek scholars
294:in the form of testable
43:Science (disambiguation)
13651:Artificial intelligence
13380:Philosophers of science
13158:Scientific essentialism
13107:Model-dependent realism
13042:Constructive empiricism
12935:Evidence-based practice
12455:. : Portfolio/Penguin.
12449:McRaney, David (2022).
12343:10.1073/pnas.2120755119
11977:Science policy up close
11565:. UNESCO. 5 July 2018.
10464:: 11–18. Archived from
10087:10.1126/science.7367863
9693:Wilson, Edward (1999).
9670:Oxford University Press
9543:Ausburg, Tanya (2006).
9237:"The scientist's world"
8704:10.1023/a:1020887832028
8649:Encyclopædia Britannica
8379:10.1126/science.aar2149
7960:Penzias, A. A. (2006).
6699:Zagorin, Perez (1998).
6633:van Helden, Al (1995).
6177:Smith, A. Mark (2001).
6115:Encyclopædia Britannica
6009:Falcon, Andrea (2019).
5700:Hipparchs Himmelsglobus
5650:Graßhoff, Gerd (1990).
5133:Palgrave Communications
5115:Naddaf, Gerard (2006).
4768:10.2307/j.ctv11g96cc.16
4469:Oxford University Press
3494:10.1023/A:1020887832028
3449:Encyclopedia Britannica
3018:, units and methods of
2982:Education and awareness
2928:, around two-thirds of
2629:constructive empiricism
2244:artificial intelligence
1938:Event Horizon Telescope
1932:a century before, were
1894:Event Horizon Telescope
1834:and the development of
1713:20th century in science
1543:19th century in science
972:without relying on the
866:, glass, soap, metals,
831:in around 3000 to 1200
636:
629:
549:
446:Carolingian Renaissance
428:, were made during the
14110:Sociology of knowledge
13881:Structural engineering
13821:Mechanical engineering
13794:Western and South Asia
13463:Alfred North Whitehead
13453:Charles Sanders Peirce
12661:10.1002/gch2.201600008
11185:Kwok, Roberta (2017).
11037:Kwok, Roberta (2017).
9754:Aldrich, John (1995).
9410:Vespignani, Alessandro
9323:Breznau, Nate (2022).
9230:& "Technology" in
9025:"Cambridge Dictionary"
8122:The Old Quantum Theory
7888:Shrum, Wesley (2007).
7634:Philosophical Magazine
7627:Thomson, J.J. (1897).
7503:Rao, Y. V. C. (1997).
7325:Padian, Kevin (2008).
6842:Goddard Bergin, Thomas
6743:Gribbin, John (2002).
5941:Grant, Edward (1996).
5187:), Cambridge UP, 1965.
5041:10.1098/rsta.1974.0007
4707:Physics in Perspective
4576:The Dawn of Everything
3782:Grant, Edward (2007).
3179:
3111:Anti-science attitudes
3004:
2913:
2847:Kaiser Wilhelm Society
2841:in 1666, the American
2827:
2791:
2726:sectors of the economy
2716:
2566:
2457:
2448:
2322:explain the events of
2311:
2125:cross-cultural studies
2091:, economics, history,
2081:
1988:empirical observations
1897:
1866:and computer-assisted
1735:artificial fertilisers
1726:
1653:electromagnetic theory
1614:conservation of energy
1593:presented his paper, "
1560:
1402:
1351:Harmony of the Spheres
1268:
1216:'s compilation of the
1179:Academy of Gondeshapur
1111:
1058:Archimedes of Syracuse
1002:The Father of Medicine
928:
925:Plato's Academy mosaic
792:
702:
684:
674:
618:
591:
579:
571:
559:
41:. For other uses, see
14677:Transition management
14667:Technology assessment
14635:Regulation of science
14610:Evidence-based policy
14495:Sociotechnical system
14344:Traditional knowledge
14224:Psychology of science
14197:Mapping controversies
14103:shaping of technology
14062:Social constructivism
14027:Philosophy of science
13984:History of technology
13746:Environmental science
13631:Aerospace engineering
13562:Philosophy portal
13313:Hard and soft science
13308:Faith and rationality
13177:Scientific skepticism
12957:Scientific Revolution
12740:Philosophy of science
10664:Popper, Karl (1972).
10029:Ziman, John (1978c).
9901:Shatz, David (2004).
9773:10.1214/ss/1177009870
9697:. New York: Vintage.
9398:Mullainathan, Sendhil
8740:Bishop, Alan (1991).
8235:Journal of Hepatology
8118:ter Haar, D. (1967).
8021:Weinberg, S. (1972).
7528:Heidrich, M. (2016).
7443:10.1353/sor.2005.0003
7202:Fry, Michael (1992).
6304:. Springer. pp.
5425:The Story of Medicine
4660:Renaissance Quarterly
4421:Ross, Sydney (1962).
4374:Cahan, David (2003).
3818:18 April 2023 at the
3280:shape of the universe
3174:
3146:unethical experiments
2999:
2904:
2887:Science & Society
2833:in 1603, the British
2823:academies of sciences
2785:
2703:
2662:scientific scepticism
2647:revolutionary science
2571:philosophy of science
2563:Copernican Revolution
2552:
2543:Philosophy of science
2537:scientific misconduct
2440:
2429:Scientific literature
2423:Scientific literature
2306:
2232:Computational science
2076:
1887:
1759:environmental studies
1720:
1657:Hans Christian Ørsted
1630:Industrial Revolution
1604:suggested the modern
1577:Alfred Russel Wallace
1550:
1530:The Wealth of Nations
1394:
1317:exploited and studied
1261:
1250:Scientific Revolution
1225:University of Bologna
1208:in the 13th century.
1204:flourished until the
1101:
923:
896:medical prescriptions
778:
624:Proto-Italic language
612:, Dutch linguist and
598:, meaning "to know".
545:Anglo-Norman language
513:research institutions
489:Scientific Revolution
442:Medieval renaissances
30:For the journal, see
14582:Women in engineering
14428:Financial technology
14408:Digital anthropology
14177:Criticism of science
14090:Actor–network theory
14052:Religion and science
13944:Economics of science
13288:Criticism of science
13163:Scientific formalism
13047:Constructive realism
12952:Scientific pluralism
12925:Problem of induction
12590:Sociological Inquiry
11636:on 15 February 2010.
11403:(in Italian). 2006.
10471:on 28 September 2007
10462:The COPE Report 1999
10395:"Cargo Cult Science"
10031:"Common observation"
9402:Salganik, Matthew J.
9386:Griffiths, Thomas L.
8967:25 June 2006 at the
8901:on 23 September 2018
7394:Miko, Ilona (2008).
7375:Henig, Robin Marantz
6153:. pp. 165–167.
6141:Hossein Nasr, Seyyed
5869:Doody, Aude (2010).
5241:O'Grady, Patricia F.
3224:Criticism of science
3200:scientific consensus
3192:anti-intellectualism
3040:aggregate statistics
2897:Funding and policies
2845:in 1863, the German
2829:Accademia dei Lincei
2825:such as the Italian
2686:scientific community
2680:Scientific community
2639:logically consistent
2602:Critical rationalism
2565:was a paradigm shift
2375:causal relationships
2363:parsimony principles
2178:mathematical physics
1902:Human Genome Project
1868:scientific modelling
1846:. Widespread use of
1832:theory of relativity
1739:environmental issues
1622:conservation of mass
1456:scientific societies
1429:Aristotelian physics
1407:Age of Enlightenment
1405:At the start of the
1381:Age of Enlightenment
1040:Aristarchus of Samos
736:introduced the term
450:Ottonian Renaissance
324:behavioural sciences
14908:Main topic articles
14423:Engineering studies
14393:Cyborg anthropology
14182:Demarcation problem
14067:Social epistemology
13355:Rhetoric of science
13293:Descriptive science
13037:Confirmation holism
12930:Scientific evidence
12890:Inductive reasoning
12819:Demarcation problem
12653:2017GloCh...100008V
12334:2022PNAS..11920755P
12328:(30): e2120755119.
12291:Pew Research Center
12196:(21 January 2016).
12171:10.1038/nj7478-177a
11926:2012PLSCB...8E2712F
11237:10.1038/nj7677-549a
11204:10.1038/nj7677-549a
11154:2011Natur.472..276C
11122:10.1038/nj7677-549a
11089:10.1038/nj7677-549a
11056:10.1038/nj7677-549a
11006:2011Natur.472..276C
10958:. Science Council.
10921:"Eusocial climbers"
10712:Votsis, I. (2004).
10666:Objective Knowledge
10455:"Coping with fraud"
10189:2014Natur.515....9S
10079:1980Sci...208..369Z
9760:Statistical Science
9662:Chetwynd, Amanda G.
9430:2021Natur.595..181H
8832:"About the Journal"
8338:2017ApJ...848L..12A
7794:on 21 January 2022.
7733:2008NatGe...1..636E
7608:Estreicher, Tadeusz
7546:2016AnPhy.373..665H
7383:. pp. 134–138.
7343:2008Natur.451..632P
6678:1975VA.....17..201G
6666:Vistas in Astronomy
6639:The Galileo Project
6314:2008ehst.book.....S
5709:2017hihi.book.....H
5500:. London, England:
5331:1998ahht.book.....P
5033:1974RSPTA.276...21A
4835:Rochberg, Francesca
4719:2021PhP....23...25F
4467:(Online ed.).
3196:scientific evidence
3105:Royal Literary Fund
3097:speculative fiction
3091:Scientific American
2922:developed countries
2816:professional bodies
2459:Journal des sçavans
2453:Scientific journals
2404:experimental design
2379:correlation fallacy
2282:Scientific research
2146:used for inferring
1958:Branches of science
1926:gravitational waves
1848:integrated circuits
1747:ocean acidification
1669:James Clerk Maxwell
1415:classical mechanics
1324:Nicolaus Copernicus
1188:was established in
1078:Positional notation
933:classical antiquity
910:Classical antiquity
904:Third Dynasty of Ur
789:Pythagorean triples
781:Plimpton 322 tablet
430:Golden Age of India
418:classical antiquity
364:deductive reasoning
350:, mathematics, and
342:and societies. The
318:), which study the
14703:History of science
14620:Funding of science
14490:Skunkworks project
14187:Double hermeneutic
13972:History of science
13574:Science portal
13503:Carl Gustav Hempel
13458:Wilhelm Windelband
13345:Questionable cause
13168:Scientific realism
12989:Underdetermination
12824:Empirical evidence
12814:Creative synthesis
12561:Druckman, James N.
12529:Skeptical Inquirer
12385:Sociological Focus
11774:The New York Times
11460:on 18 January 2012
9566:on 19 January 2012
9151:10.1136/mh.26.1.18
8429:on 1 November 2016
6887:. pp. 82–83.
5582:Nicomachean Ethics
4801:History of Science
4537:10.4436/JASS.95006
3180:
3178:by political party
3005:
2992:Science journalism
2958:Max Planck Society
2914:
2792:
2717:
2623:Another approach,
2567:
2557:, the addition of
2529:cargo cult science
2486:replication crisis
2449:
2359:thought experiment
2312:
2276:cognitive sciences
2207:is the use of the
2144:abstract structure
2109:conflict theorists
2082:
2023:natural philosophy
1984:empirical sciences
1930:general relativity
1898:
1824:classical genetics
1797:sex discrimination
1727:
1661:André-Marie Ampère
1561:
1403:
1328:heliocentric model
1269:
1124:Isidore of Seville
1112:
1104:Vienna Dioscurides
1102:The first page of
1044:heliocentric model
1019:'s dialogues is a
954:Greek philosophers
929:
843:, and developed a
829:history of science
793:
760:History of science
728:meaning "to cut".
587:present participle
485:natural philosophy
458:Islamic Golden Age
414:natural philosophy
391:history of science
372:empirical evidence
100:Science portal
39:Outline of science
14745:
14744:
14672:Technology policy
14403:Dematerialization
14212:black swan events
13894:
13893:
13876:Scientific naming
13866:Quantum computing
13696:Computer hardware
13691:Clinical research
13686:Civil engineering
13581:
13580:
13423:
13422:
13335:Normative science
13192:Uniformitarianism
12947:Scientific method
12841:Explanatory power
12641:Global Challenges
12540:on 16 August 2018
12462:978-0-593-19029-6
12235:on 6 January 2009
12227:Petrucci, Mario.
11986:978-0-674-41709-0
11277:978-0-253-20968-9
11230:(7677): 549–552.
11148:(7343): 276–279.
10820:978-0-226-30062-7
10775:978-0-226-45804-5
10698:978-0-7100-0913-5
10650:978-0-226-30062-7
10617:978-0-226-30062-7
10581:978-0-226-30062-7
10548:978-0-226-30062-7
10515:978-0-226-30062-7
10379:978-0-7167-3090-3
10119:978-0-8247-8297-9
10048:978-0-521-22087-3
9980:978-0-521-00886-0
9947:978-0-7425-1479-9
9912:978-0-7425-1434-8
9831:978-1-4020-3769-6
9806:978-1-4020-3769-6
9740:978-0-19-922689-4
9704:978-0-679-76867-8
9672:. pp. 1, 2.
9635:978-0-415-27844-7
9599:978-0-521-29925-1
9529:978-0-471-32788-2
9424:(7866): 181–188.
9376:Hofman, Jake M.;
9118:978-0-19-874669-0
8876:978-0-19-049459-9
8844:on 3 October 2006
8817:978-3-319-27494-2
8792:978-0-7658-0413-6
8755:978-0-7923-1270-3
8584:"Natural History"
8569:978-0-226-62088-6
8532:978-0-521-01708-4
8495:978-0-415-27844-7
8459:978-0-7658-0413-6
8282:(Press release).
8137:978-0-08-012101-7
8104:978-0-201-04679-3
8040:978-0-471-92567-5
7946:978-0-8147-7645-2
7901:978-0-262-28358-8
7720:Nature Geoscience
7590:978-0-7503-0224-1
7534:Annals of Physics
7514:978-81-7371-048-3
7482:. Edward Arnold.
7337:(7179): 632–634.
7311:978-1-138-65242-2
7286:978-0-226-31783-0
7261:978-0-415-06164-3
7224:James M. Buchanan
7220:Franco Modigliani
6815:978-1-4020-9604-4
6754:978-0-7139-9503-9
6728:. Cambridge, MA:
6710:978-0-691-00966-7
6635:"Pope Urban VIII"
6581:978-90-8964-239-4
6430:978-0-674-03327-6
6323:978-1-4020-4559-2
6279:978-90-8964-239-4
6206:978-0-87169-914-5
6088:978-0-521-20093-6
6063:978-0-521-68957-1
5954:978-0-521-56762-6
5882:978-1-139-48453-4
5843:978-0-19-926288-5
5804:978-1-85109-539-1
5765:978-0-387-94313-8
5726:978-3-658-18682-1
5671:978-1-4612-8788-9
5624:978-1-4214-1776-9
5468:978-0-415-96930-7
5428:. New York City:
5407:(fl. 1st c. BCE)
5379:978-0-08-101107-2
5340:978-0-19-515040-7
5301:978-0-674-53918-1
5256:978-0-7546-0533-1
5183:(volume 2 of his
5100:978-0-226-31783-0
4988:978-1-57607-966-9
4973:McIntosh, Jane R.
4907:978-1-55587-672-2
4848:978-0-226-31783-0
4777:978-0-8223-4936-5
4644:978-94-010-8181-8
4592:World Archaeology
4509:978-0-521-81229-0
4475:(Subscription or
4428:Annals of Science
4360:978-90-04-16797-1
4278:978-1-138-40741-1
4251:978-0-226-48205-7
4214:978-1-138-57016-0
4175:978-0-521-14584-8
4136:978-1-4398-6965-9
4105:978-0-226-18451-7
4077:978-0-226-31783-0
4052:978-0-226-08928-7
4027:978-0-521-68957-1
3994:978-0-226-48205-7
3969:978-0-19-956741-6
3931:978-0-226-48205-7
3906:978-0-226-48205-7
3881:978-0-226-48205-7
3852:978-0-87113-800-2
3799:978-0-521-68957-1
3713:978-94-010-2184-5
3629:10.3205/zma000916
3582:978-1-4438-1946-6
3542:978-0-691-19138-6
3390:978-0-367-56298-4
3357:978-0-19-511229-0
3326:978-0-679-76867-8
3258:Ibn al-Haytham's
3085:Science & Vie
3074:Science magazines
3064:scientific debate
3016:scientific method
3008:Science education
2976:capital equipment
2908:as percentage of
2857:, are devoted to
2849:in 1911, and the
2812:academic journals
2795:Learned societies
2778:Learned societies
2527:coined the term "
2447:, 4 November 1869
2413:confirmation bias
2406:, and a thorough
2386:scientific theory
2332:objective reality
2318:, which seeks to
2316:scientific method
2299:Scientific method
2209:scientific method
2117:historical method
2101:research programs
2097:political science
2078:Supply and demand
2059:discovery science
1836:quantum mechanics
1807:in favour of the
1790:nuclear arms race
1581:natural selection
1553:evolutionary tree
1517:William Robertson
1218:Canon of Medicine
1147:early Middle Ages
1136:theory of impetus
1015:as documented by
970:natural phenomena
958:Thales of Miletus
945:or nature by the
894:and the earliest
872:animal physiology
802:religious rituals
539:has been used in
499:that many of the
493:scientific method
481:Islamic inquiries
438:Early Middle Ages
368:scientific method
279:
278:
16:(Redirected from
14915:
14883:
14875:
14874:
14873:
14866:
14865:from Wikiversity
14858:
14857:
14856:
14849:
14841:
14840:
14839:
14832:
14824:
14823:
14822:
14815:
14807:
14806:
14805:
14798:
14790:
14789:
14788:
14778:
14762:
14761:
14753:
14718:
14717:
14693:
14645:Right to science
14625:Horizon scanning
14600:Academic freedom
14500:Technical change
14361:Women in science
14356:Unity of science
14137:Strong programme
13921:
13914:
13907:
13898:
13897:
13701:Computer science
13608:
13601:
13594:
13585:
13584:
13572:
13571:
13560:
13559:
13558:
13533:Bas van Fraassen
13488:Hans Reichenbach
13468:Bertrand Russell
13385:
13384:
13211:Philosophy of...
12994:Unity of science
12787:Commensurability
12733:
12726:
12719:
12710:
12709:
12698:
12697:
12695:
12693:
12687:
12672:
12638:
12629:
12623:
12622:
12620:
12618:
12612:
12605:
12587:
12578:
12569:
12568:
12556:
12550:
12549:
12547:
12545:
12519:
12513:
12512:
12493:
12487:
12486:
12484:
12482:
12446:
12440:
12439:
12437:
12435:
12415:
12409:
12408:
12380:
12374:
12373:
12363:
12345:
12313:
12307:
12306:
12304:
12302:
12282:
12276:
12275:
12273:
12271:
12251:
12245:
12244:
12242:
12240:
12231:. Archived from
12224:
12218:
12217:
12215:
12213:
12190:
12184:
12183:
12173:
12149:
12143:
12142:
12140:
12138:
12114:
12108:
12107:
12105:
12103:
12083:
12077:
12076:
12075:on 21 June 2010.
12064:
12058:
12057:
12055:
12053:
12047:
12032:
12017:Higher Education
12014:
12005:
11999:
11998:
11972:
11966:
11965:
11955:
11937:
11905:
11899:
11898:
11896:
11894:
11875:
11869:
11868:
11866:
11864:
11836:
11830:
11829:
11827:
11825:
11804:
11798:
11797:
11795:
11793:
11771:
11763:
11757:
11756:
11754:
11752:
11733:
11727:
11726:
11690:
11684:
11683:
11681:
11679:
11644:
11638:
11637:
11635:
11629:. Archived from
11624:
11616:
11610:
11609:
11607:
11605:
11585:
11579:
11578:
11576:
11574:
11559:
11553:
11552:
11550:
11548:
11529:
11523:
11522:
11520:
11518:
11503:
11497:
11496:
11494:
11492:
11476:
11470:
11469:
11467:
11465:
11456:. Archived from
11449:
11443:
11442:
11440:
11438:
11423:
11417:
11416:
11414:
11412:
11397:
11391:
11390:
11388:
11386:
11367:
11361:
11360:
11358:
11356:
11347:. Archived from
11341:
11335:
11334:
11332:
11330:
11321:. Archived from
11315:
11309:
11308:
11306:
11304:
11288:
11282:
11281:
11263:
11257:
11256:
11248:
11242:
11241:
11239:
11215:
11209:
11208:
11206:
11182:
11176:
11175:
11165:
11133:
11127:
11126:
11124:
11115:(7677): 549–52.
11100:
11094:
11093:
11091:
11067:
11061:
11060:
11058:
11034:
11028:
11027:
11017:
11000:(7343): 276–79.
10981:
10975:
10974:
10969:
10967:
10952:
10946:
10945:
10940:
10938:
10932:
10925:
10917:
10911:
10910:
10908:
10906:
10900:
10885:
10859:
10850:
10844:
10843:
10831:
10825:
10824:
10808:
10798:
10792:
10791:
10789:
10787:
10764:(2nd ed.).
10755:
10749:
10748:
10746:
10744:
10724:
10718:
10717:
10709:
10703:
10702:
10686:
10676:
10670:
10669:
10661:
10655:
10654:
10638:
10628:
10622:
10621:
10605:
10595:
10586:
10585:
10569:
10559:
10553:
10552:
10536:
10526:
10520:
10519:
10503:
10493:
10484:
10483:
10478:
10476:
10470:
10459:
10451:
10445:
10444:
10421:
10415:
10414:
10412:
10410:
10390:
10384:
10383:
10371:
10358:
10352:
10351:
10349:
10347:
10325:
10319:
10318:
10308:
10290:
10281:(10): –1002264.
10266:
10260:
10259:
10241:
10217:
10211:
10210:
10200:
10168:
10162:
10161:
10159:
10157:
10141:
10132:
10131:
10105:
10099:
10098:
10073:(4442): 369–71.
10059:
10053:
10052:
10026:
10020:
10019:
10017:
10015:
9999:
9993:
9992:
9966:
9960:
9959:
9931:
9925:
9924:
9898:
9892:
9891:
9890:on 19 June 2010.
9875:
9869:
9868:
9866:
9864:
9858:
9851:
9842:
9836:
9835:
9817:
9811:
9810:
9792:
9786:
9785:
9775:
9751:
9745:
9744:
9715:
9709:
9708:
9690:
9684:
9683:
9658:Diggle, Peter J.
9654:
9648:
9647:
9623:
9613:
9607:
9606:
9585:
9576:
9575:
9573:
9571:
9555:
9549:
9548:
9540:
9534:
9533:
9521:
9514:Moody G (2004).
9511:
9505:
9504:
9484:
9478:
9477:
9475:
9473:
9384:; Garip, Filiz;
9378:Watts, Duncan J.
9373:
9367:
9366:
9364:
9362:
9344:
9320:
9314:
9313:
9303:
9283:
9277:
9276:
9266:
9229:
9220:
9188:
9182:
9181:
9163:
9153:
9129:
9123:
9122:
9104:
9098:
9097:
9095:
9093:
9087:
9056:
9047:
9041:
9040:
9038:
9036:
9021:
9015:
9014:
8978:
8972:
8959:
8948:
8942:
8941:
8939:
8937:
8917:
8911:
8910:
8908:
8906:
8891:
8885:
8884:
8883:on 10 June 2021.
8879:. Archived from
8860:
8854:
8853:
8851:
8849:
8840:. Archived from
8828:
8822:
8821:
8803:
8797:
8796:
8778:
8772:
8771:
8769:
8767:
8737:
8731:
8730:
8722:
8716:
8715:
8687:
8681:
8680:
8672:
8666:
8665:
8663:
8661:
8640:
8634:
8633:
8627:
8625:
8606:
8600:
8599:
8597:
8595:
8580:
8574:
8573:
8555:
8549:
8548:
8546:
8544:
8514:
8508:
8507:
8483:
8473:
8464:
8463:
8445:
8439:
8438:
8436:
8434:
8415:
8409:
8408:
8406:
8404:
8399:on 20 April 2019
8389:
8383:
8382:
8366:
8360:
8359:
8349:
8331:
8306:
8300:
8299:
8297:
8295:
8275:
8269:
8268:
8250:
8226:
8220:
8219:
8209:
8199:
8175:
8169:
8168:
8148:
8142:
8141:
8125:
8115:
8109:
8108:
8090:
8084:
8083:
8081:
8079:
8051:
8045:
8044:
8028:
8018:
8012:
8011:
8009:
8007:
8001:
7977:Nobel Foundation
7966:
7957:
7951:
7950:
7932:
7926:
7925:
7923:
7921:
7885:
7879:
7878:
7877:. Horizon Press.
7867:
7861:
7860:
7837:
7831:
7830:
7802:
7796:
7795:
7790:. Archived from
7788:10.5282/rcc/6313
7771:
7765:
7764:
7762:
7760:
7751:. Archived from
7710:
7704:
7703:
7701:
7699:
7693:
7678:
7669:
7663:
7662:
7660:
7658:
7641:(269): 293–316.
7624:
7618:
7617:
7604:
7595:
7594:
7576:
7570:
7569:
7567:
7565:
7525:
7519:
7518:
7500:
7494:
7493:
7472:
7463:
7462:
7426:
7420:
7419:
7417:
7415:
7400:Nature Education
7391:
7385:
7384:
7371:
7365:
7364:
7354:
7322:
7316:
7315:
7297:
7291:
7290:
7272:
7266:
7265:
7244:Wassily Leontief
7232:Theodore Schultz
7209:
7199:
7193:
7192:
7164:
7158:
7157:
7155:
7153:
7144:. Archived from
7129:
7123:
7122:
7114:
7108:
7107:
7095:
7085:
7079:
7078:
7068:
7041:
7035:
7034:
7022:
7012:
7006:
7005:
6987:
6981:
6980:
6978:
6976:
6957:
6951:
6950:
6948:
6946:
6940:
6933:
6925:
6919:
6918:
6916:
6914:
6882:
6872:
6866:
6865:
6846:Speake, Jennifer
6838:
6832:
6831:
6829:
6827:
6799:
6793:
6792:
6790:
6788:
6769:
6763:
6762:
6740:
6734:
6733:
6721:
6715:
6714:
6696:
6690:
6689:
6661:
6655:
6654:
6652:
6650:
6630:
6624:
6623:
6596:Koestler, Arthur
6592:
6586:
6585:
6568:Cohen, H. Floris
6564:
6558:
6557:
6555:
6553:
6548:on 12 April 2020
6547:
6541:. Archived from
6516:
6507:
6501:
6500:
6456:
6447:
6446:
6444:
6442:
6414:
6408:
6407:
6405:
6403:
6388:
6382:
6381:
6372:
6370:
6342:
6334:
6328:
6327:
6303:
6290:
6284:
6283:
6266:Cohen, H. Floris
6262:
6256:
6253:
6225:
6219:
6218:
6186:Kitāb al-Manāẓir
6174:
6165:
6164:
6137:
6131:
6130:
6128:
6126:
6111:"Bayt al-Hikmah"
6107:
6101:
6100:
6074:
6068:
6067:
6047:
6037:
6031:
6030:
6028:
6026:
6006:
6000:
5999:
5997:
5995:
5977:
5971:
5970:
5968:
5966:
5938:
5932:
5931:
5905:
5899:
5898:
5896:
5894:
5866:
5860:
5859:
5857:
5855:
5827:
5821:
5820:
5818:
5816:
5788:
5782:
5781:
5779:
5777:
5749:
5743:
5742:
5740:
5738:
5694:
5688:
5687:
5685:
5683:
5647:
5641:
5640:
5638:
5636:
5608:
5599:
5598:
5596:
5594:
5576:
5570:
5569:
5567:
5565:
5554:"Plato, Apology"
5550:
5544:
5543:
5541:
5539:
5528:"Plato, Apology"
5524:
5518:
5517:
5515:
5513:
5491:
5485:
5484:
5482:
5480:
5452:
5446:
5445:
5443:
5441:
5419:
5413:
5402:
5396:
5395:
5393:
5391:
5363:
5357:
5356:
5354:
5352:
5316:
5310:
5309:
5282:
5273:
5272:
5270:
5268:
5237:
5231:
5230:
5228:
5226:
5194:
5188:
5182:
5178:Guthrie, W.K.C.
5170:
5168:
5166:
5160:
5153:
5129:
5120:
5111:
5105:
5104:
5086:
5080:
5079:
5067:
5061:
5060:
5011:
5005:
5004:
5002:
5000:
4969:
4958:
4957:
4955:
4953:
4934:
4928:
4927:
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4919:
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4882:
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4824:
4796:
4790:
4789:
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4749:
4748:
4730:
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4616:
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4580:
4563:
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4520:
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4480:
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4460:
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4447:
4446:
4444:
4418:
4412:
4411:
4409:
4407:
4371:
4365:
4364:
4339:Vaan, Michiel de
4335:
4329:
4328:
4326:
4324:
4301:
4295:
4294:
4292:
4290:
4262:
4256:
4255:
4237:
4231:
4230:
4228:
4226:
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4192:
4191:
4189:
4187:
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4152:
4150:
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4120:
4114:
4113:
4088:
4082:
4081:
4063:
4057:
4056:
4038:
4032:
4031:
4015:
4005:
3999:
3998:
3980:
3974:
3973:
3955:
3949:
3942:
3936:
3935:
3917:
3911:
3910:
3892:
3886:
3885:
3867:
3861:
3860:
3838:India: A history
3829:
3823:
3810:
3804:
3803:
3787:
3779:
3770:
3769:
3751:
3726:
3725:
3691:
3682:
3681:
3679:
3677:
3657:
3651:
3650:
3640:
3608:
3602:
3601:
3593:
3587:
3586:
3568:
3559:
3558:
3556:
3554:
3523:
3514:
3513:
3474:
3465:
3464:
3462:
3460:
3445:"Social Science"
3440:
3431:
3430:
3422:
3407:
3406:
3404:
3402:
3374:
3365:
3364:
3340:
3331:
3330:
3314:
3304:
3287:
3276:
3270:
3256:
3056:formal education
2972:research funding
2960:in Germany, and
2832:
2767:Women in science
2746:advanced degrees
2666:creation science
2474:scientific paper
2462:
2292:applied research
2240:machine learning
2007:physical science
1856:mobile computing
1820:modern synthesis
1813:Georges Lemaître
1673:Oliver Heaviside
1634:energy qualities
1332:geocentric model
1238:Mondino de Luzzi
1206:Mongol invasions
1155:Byzantine empire
1128:Byzantine Empire
988:and his student
726:
725:
718:
717:
707:
698:
697:
689:
677:
664:
663:
654:
653:
639:
632:
621:
614:Indo-Europeanist
607:
596:
584:
576:
564:
552:
517:science policies
466:Byzantine Empire
376:Applied sciences
304:natural sciences
271:
264:
257:
102:
98:
97:
78:
50:
49:
21:
14923:
14922:
14918:
14917:
14916:
14914:
14913:
14912:
14888:
14887:
14886:
14882:from Wikivoyage
14876:
14871:
14869:
14859:
14854:
14852:
14842:
14837:
14835:
14825:
14820:
14818:
14808:
14803:
14801:
14791:
14786:
14784:
14781:
14777:sister projects
14774:at Knowledge's
14768:
14756:
14748:
14746:
14741:
14681:
14640:Research ethics
14586:
14485:Reverse salient
14379:
14372:
14148:
14141:
14132:Sociotechnology
14076:
13988:
13953:
13930:
13925:
13895:
13890:
13789:Hebrew toponyms
13784:Arabic toponyms
13622:
13612:
13582:
13577:
13566:
13556:
13554:
13542:
13523:Paul Feyerabend
13483:Michael Polanyi
13419:
13405:Galileo Galilei
13374:
13360:Science studies
13276:
13206:
13197:Verificationism
13102:Instrumentalism
13087:Foundationalism
13062:Conventionalism
13020:
12856:Feminist method
12742:
12737:
12707:
12702:
12701:
12691:
12689:
12685:
12636:
12630:
12626:
12616:
12614:
12610:
12585:
12579:
12572:
12557:
12553:
12543:
12541:
12520:
12516:
12494:
12490:
12480:
12478:
12463:
12447:
12443:
12433:
12431:
12416:
12412:
12381:
12377:
12314:
12310:
12300:
12298:
12283:
12279:
12269:
12267:
12252:
12248:
12238:
12236:
12225:
12221:
12211:
12209:
12191:
12187:
12164:(7478): 177–9.
12150:
12146:
12136:
12134:
12115:
12111:
12101:
12099:
12084:
12080:
12065:
12061:
12051:
12049:
12045:
12012:
12006:
12002:
11987:
11973:
11969:
11920:(9): e1002712.
11906:
11902:
11892:
11890:
11877:
11876:
11872:
11862:
11860:
11837:
11833:
11823:
11821:
11806:
11805:
11801:
11791:
11789:
11764:
11760:
11750:
11748:
11735:
11734:
11730:
11691:
11687:
11677:
11675:
11668:
11646:
11645:
11641:
11633:
11622:
11618:
11617:
11613:
11603:
11601:
11586:
11582:
11572:
11570:
11561:
11560:
11556:
11546:
11544:
11531:
11530:
11526:
11516:
11514:
11505:
11504:
11500:
11490:
11488:
11477:
11473:
11463:
11461:
11450:
11446:
11436:
11434:
11425:
11424:
11420:
11410:
11408:
11399:
11398:
11394:
11384:
11382:
11369:
11368:
11364:
11354:
11352:
11343:
11342:
11338:
11328:
11326:
11317:
11316:
11312:
11302:
11300:
11289:
11285:
11278:
11264:
11260:
11249:
11245:
11216:
11212:
11183:
11179:
11163:10.1038/472276a
11134:
11130:
11101:
11097:
11068:
11064:
11035:
11031:
11015:10.1038/472276a
10982:
10978:
10965:
10963:
10954:
10953:
10949:
10936:
10934:
10930:
10923:
10919:
10918:
10914:
10904:
10902:
10898:
10857:
10851:
10847:
10832:
10828:
10821:
10799:
10795:
10785:
10783:
10776:
10768:. p. 206.
10756:
10752:
10742:
10740:
10725:
10721:
10710:
10706:
10699:
10677:
10673:
10662:
10658:
10651:
10629:
10625:
10618:
10596:
10589:
10582:
10560:
10556:
10549:
10527:
10523:
10516:
10494:
10487:
10474:
10472:
10468:
10457:
10453:
10452:
10448:
10441:
10425:Novella, Steven
10422:
10418:
10408:
10406:
10405:on 4 March 2005
10391:
10387:
10380:
10359:
10355:
10345:
10343:
10326:
10322:
10267:
10263:
10218:
10214:
10198:10.1038/515009a
10169:
10165:
10155:
10153:
10142:
10135:
10120:
10106:
10102:
10060:
10056:
10049:
10027:
10023:
10013:
10011:
10010:on 8 April 2008
10000:
9996:
9981:
9967:
9963:
9948:
9932:
9928:
9913:
9899:
9895:
9876:
9872:
9862:
9860:
9859:on 9 April 2008
9856:
9849:
9843:
9839:
9832:
9818:
9814:
9807:
9793:
9789:
9752:
9748:
9741:
9716:
9712:
9705:
9691:
9687:
9680:
9655:
9651:
9636:
9614:
9610:
9600:
9586:
9579:
9569:
9567:
9556:
9552:
9541:
9537:
9530:
9512:
9508:
9485:
9481:
9471:
9469:
9394:Margetts, Helen
9374:
9370:
9360:
9358:
9321:
9317:
9284:
9280:
9189:
9185:
9130:
9126:
9119:
9105:
9101:
9091:
9089:
9085:
9059:Research Policy
9054:
9048:
9044:
9034:
9032:
9023:
9022:
9018:
8979:
8975:
8969:Wayback Machine
8961:Pre-publication
8958:. Edward Elgar.
8949:
8945:
8935:
8933:
8918:
8914:
8904:
8902:
8893:
8892:
8888:
8877:
8861:
8857:
8847:
8845:
8830:
8829:
8825:
8818:
8804:
8800:
8793:
8779:
8775:
8765:
8763:
8756:
8738:
8734:
8723:
8719:
8688:
8684:
8673:
8669:
8659:
8657:
8644:"formal system"
8642:
8641:
8637:
8623:
8621:
8608:
8607:
8603:
8593:
8591:
8582:
8581:
8577:
8570:
8556:
8552:
8542:
8540:
8533:
8515:
8511:
8496:
8474:
8467:
8460:
8446:
8442:
8432:
8430:
8417:
8416:
8412:
8402:
8400:
8391:
8390:
8386:
8367:
8363:
8307:
8303:
8293:
8291:
8276:
8272:
8227:
8223:
8176:
8172:
8149:
8145:
8138:
8116:
8112:
8105:
8091:
8087:
8077:
8075:
8068:
8052:
8048:
8041:
8019:
8015:
8005:
8003:
7999:
7964:
7958:
7954:
7947:
7933:
7929:
7919:
7917:
7902:
7886:
7882:
7868:
7864:
7857:
7838:
7834:
7803:
7799:
7772:
7768:
7758:
7756:
7755:on 23 July 2010
7741:10.1038/ngeo325
7727:(10): 636–639.
7711:
7707:
7697:
7695:
7691:
7676:
7670:
7666:
7656:
7654:
7625:
7621:
7605:
7598:
7591:
7577:
7573:
7563:
7561:
7526:
7522:
7515:
7501:
7497:
7490:
7473:
7466:
7431:Social Research
7427:
7423:
7413:
7411:
7392:
7388:
7372:
7368:
7352:10.1038/451632a
7323:
7319:
7312:
7298:
7294:
7287:
7273:
7269:
7262:
7200:
7196:
7165:
7161:
7151:
7149:
7130:
7126:
7115:
7111:
7104:
7086:
7082:
7042:
7038:
7031:
7013:
7009:
7002:
6988:
6984:
6974:
6972:
6959:
6958:
6954:
6944:
6942:
6938:
6931:
6927:
6926:
6922:
6912:
6910:
6903:
6873:
6869:
6862:
6848:, eds. (1987).
6839:
6835:
6825:
6823:
6816:
6800:
6796:
6786:
6784:
6771:
6770:
6766:
6755:
6741:
6737:
6722:
6718:
6711:
6697:
6693:
6662:
6658:
6648:
6646:
6631:
6627:
6620:
6593:
6589:
6582:
6565:
6561:
6551:
6549:
6545:
6514:
6508:
6504:
6457:
6450:
6440:
6438:
6431:
6415:
6411:
6401:
6399:
6390:
6389:
6385:
6368:
6366:
6335:
6331:
6324:
6291:
6287:
6280:
6263:
6259:
6226:
6222:
6207:
6175:
6168:
6161:
6138:
6134:
6124:
6122:
6109:
6108:
6104:
6089:
6075:
6071:
6064:
6038:
6034:
6024:
6022:
6007:
6003:
5993:
5991:
5978:
5974:
5964:
5962:
5955:
5939:
5935:
5920:
5906:
5902:
5892:
5890:
5883:
5867:
5863:
5853:
5851:
5844:
5828:
5824:
5814:
5812:
5805:
5789:
5785:
5775:
5773:
5766:
5750:
5746:
5736:
5734:
5727:
5695:
5691:
5681:
5679:
5672:
5648:
5644:
5634:
5632:
5625:
5609:
5602:
5592:
5590:
5577:
5573:
5563:
5561:
5552:
5551:
5547:
5537:
5535:
5526:
5525:
5521:
5511:
5509:
5492:
5488:
5478:
5476:
5469:
5453:
5449:
5439:
5437:
5420:
5416:
5410:De rerum natura
5403:
5399:
5389:
5387:
5380:
5364:
5360:
5350:
5348:
5341:
5317:
5313:
5302:
5288:(1 June 1972).
5286:Burkert, Walter
5283:
5276:
5266:
5264:
5257:
5238:
5234:
5224:
5222:
5215:
5195:
5191:
5164:
5162:
5158:
5142:Springer Nature
5127:
5112:
5108:
5101:
5087:
5083:
5068:
5064:
5027:(1257): 21–42.
5012:
5008:
4998:
4996:
4989:
4970:
4961:
4951:
4949:
4936:
4935:
4931:
4917:
4915:
4908:
4889:
4885:
4878:
4870:. p. 127.
4860:
4856:
4849:
4832:
4828:
4797:
4793:
4778:
4756:
4752:
4699:
4695:
4656:
4652:
4645:
4623:
4619:
4588:
4584:
4564:
4560:
4531:(95): 219–234.
4521:
4517:
4510:
4488:
4484:
4474:
4454:
4450:
4419:
4415:
4405:
4403:
4388:
4372:
4368:
4361:
4353:. p. 545.
4336:
4332:
4322:
4320:
4313:Merriam-Webster
4303:
4302:
4298:
4288:
4286:
4279:
4263:
4259:
4252:
4238:
4234:
4224:
4222:
4215:
4199:
4195:
4185:
4183:
4176:
4160:
4156:
4146:
4144:
4137:
4121:
4117:
4106:
4092:Harrison, Peter
4089:
4085:
4078:
4064:
4060:
4053:
4039:
4035:
4028:
4006:
4002:
3995:
3981:
3977:
3970:
3956:
3952:
3943:
3939:
3932:
3918:
3914:
3907:
3893:
3889:
3882:
3868:
3864:
3853:
3830:
3826:
3820:Wayback Machine
3811:
3807:
3800:
3780:
3773:
3766:
3752:
3729:
3714:
3692:
3685:
3675:
3673:
3658:
3654:
3609:
3605:
3594:
3590:
3583:
3569:
3562:
3552:
3550:
3543:
3524:
3517:
3475:
3468:
3458:
3456:
3441:
3434:
3423:
3410:
3400:
3398:
3391:
3375:
3368:
3358:
3341:
3334:
3327:
3305:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3290:
3277:
3273:
3257:
3253:
3248:
3220:
3184:advocacy groups
3169:
3119:
3113:
2994:
2986:Main articles:
2984:
2956:in France, the
2899:
2894:
2883:
2867:
2780:
2772:domestic sphere
2722:academic degree
2698:
2682:
2625:instrumentalism
2618:trial and error
2545:
2525:Richard Feynman
2482:
2435:
2427:Main articles:
2425:
2309:ongoing process
2301:
2284:
2265:
2205:Applied science
2202:
2200:Applied science
2133:
2113:interactionists
2093:human geography
2071:
2063:natural history
2055:presuppositions
1999:Natural science
1996:
1994:Natural science
1968:natural science
1960:
1954:
1928:, predicted by
1890:M87* black hole
1882:
1876:
1828:Albert Einstein
1743:ozone depletion
1715:
1709:
1689:Henri Becquerel
1665:Michael Faraday
1545:
1539:
1401:by Isaac Newton
1389:
1383:
1342:Johannes Kepler
1336:orbital periods
1256:
1248:Main articles:
1246:
1202:Aristotelianism
1186:House of Wisdom
1175:Sassanid Empire
1132:John Philoponus
1096:
1090:
1071:Natural History
1066:Pliny the Elder
1013:Socratic method
982:theory of atoms
918:
912:
851:, and rituals.
817:writing systems
773:
767:
762:
756:
742:Mary Somerville
740:in a review of
734:William Whewell
715:
661:
651:
610:Michiel de Vaan
605:
567:noun derivative
533:
366:instead of the
354:), which study
344:formal sciences
338:), which study
275:
246:
245:
206:
205:
194:
193:
157:
156:
145:
116:Article indexes
92:
91:
83:
82:
81:
80:
79:
46:
28:
23:
22:
18:General science
15:
12:
11:
5:
14921:
14911:
14910:
14905:
14900:
14885:
14884:
14867:
14850:
14848:from Wikibooks
14833:
14831:from Wikiquote
14816:
14799:
14770:
14767:
14766:
14743:
14742:
14740:
14739:
14738:
14737:
14732:
14727:
14712:
14711:
14710:
14705:
14700:
14686:
14683:
14682:
14680:
14679:
14674:
14669:
14664:
14663:
14662:
14657:
14650:Science policy
14647:
14642:
14637:
14632:
14627:
14622:
14617:
14612:
14607:
14605:Digital divide
14602:
14596:
14594:
14588:
14587:
14585:
14584:
14579:
14578:
14577:
14572:
14567:
14562:
14557:
14549:
14548:
14547:
14542:
14537:
14532:
14527:
14521:Technological
14519:
14518:
14517:
14507:
14502:
14497:
14492:
14487:
14482:
14477:
14472:
14467:
14466:
14465:
14460:
14455:
14450:
14445:
14435:
14430:
14425:
14420:
14415:
14410:
14405:
14400:
14398:Design studies
14395:
14390:
14384:
14382:
14374:
14373:
14371:
14370:
14369:
14368:
14358:
14353:
14352:
14351:
14341:
14336:
14334:Scientometrics
14331:
14326:
14325:
14324:
14319:
14314:
14309:
14304:
14299:
14294:
14289:
14284:
14279:
14271:
14270:
14269:
14264:
14259:
14254:
14249:
14244:
14239:
14234:
14226:
14221:
14216:
14215:
14214:
14207:Paradigm shift
14204:
14199:
14194:
14189:
14184:
14179:
14174:
14169:
14164:
14159:
14153:
14151:
14143:
14142:
14140:
14139:
14134:
14129:
14124:
14119:
14118:
14117:
14107:
14106:
14105:
14100:
14092:
14086:
14084:
14078:
14077:
14075:
14074:
14069:
14064:
14059:
14054:
14049:
14047:Postpositivism
14044:
14039:
14034:
14029:
14024:
14019:
14014:
14009:
14007:Antipositivism
14004:
13998:
13996:
13990:
13989:
13987:
13986:
13981:
13980:
13979:
13977:and technology
13969:
13963:
13961:
13955:
13954:
13952:
13951:
13946:
13940:
13938:
13932:
13931:
13924:
13923:
13916:
13909:
13901:
13892:
13891:
13889:
13888:
13883:
13878:
13873:
13868:
13863:
13858:
13853:
13848:
13843:
13841:Nanotechnology
13838:
13833:
13828:
13823:
13818:
13813:
13811:Machine vision
13808:
13803:
13798:
13797:
13796:
13791:
13786:
13781:
13776:
13768:
13767:
13766:
13761:
13753:
13748:
13743:
13738:
13737:
13736:
13731:
13723:
13718:
13713:
13708:
13703:
13698:
13693:
13688:
13683:
13678:
13673:
13668:
13663:
13658:
13653:
13648:
13643:
13638:
13633:
13627:
13624:
13623:
13614:Glossaries of
13611:
13610:
13603:
13596:
13588:
13579:
13578:
13576:
13564:
13552:
13547:
13544:
13543:
13541:
13540:
13535:
13530:
13525:
13520:
13515:
13510:
13508:W. V. O. Quine
13505:
13500:
13495:
13490:
13485:
13480:
13475:
13470:
13465:
13460:
13455:
13450:
13445:
13443:Rudolf Steiner
13440:
13435:
13433:Henri Poincaré
13430:
13424:
13421:
13420:
13418:
13417:
13412:
13407:
13402:
13397:
13391:
13389:
13382:
13376:
13375:
13373:
13372:
13367:
13362:
13357:
13352:
13347:
13342:
13337:
13332:
13331:
13330:
13320:
13315:
13310:
13305:
13303:Exact sciences
13300:
13295:
13290:
13284:
13282:
13281:Related topics
13278:
13277:
13275:
13274:
13273:
13272:
13267:
13262:
13257:
13252:
13247:
13240:Social science
13237:
13236:
13235:
13233:Space and time
13225:
13220:
13214:
13212:
13208:
13207:
13205:
13204:
13199:
13194:
13189:
13184:
13179:
13174:
13165:
13160:
13155:
13146:
13137:
13132:
13119:
13114:
13109:
13104:
13099:
13094:
13089:
13084:
13079:
13074:
13069:
13064:
13059:
13054:
13049:
13044:
13039:
13034:
13028:
13026:
13022:
13021:
13019:
13018:
13013:
13012:
13011:
13006:
12996:
12991:
12986:
12985:
12984:
12979:
12974:
12964:
12959:
12954:
12949:
12944:
12942:Scientific law
12939:
12938:
12937:
12927:
12922:
12917:
12912:
12907:
12902:
12897:
12892:
12887:
12880:
12879:
12878:
12873:
12863:
12858:
12853:
12851:Falsifiability
12848:
12843:
12838:
12837:
12836:
12826:
12821:
12816:
12811:
12810:
12809:
12799:
12794:
12789:
12784:
12783:
12782:
12780:Mill's Methods
12772:
12761:
12756:
12750:
12748:
12744:
12743:
12736:
12735:
12728:
12721:
12713:
12706:
12705:External links
12703:
12700:
12699:
12624:
12570:
12559:Bolsen, Toby;
12551:
12514:
12488:
12461:
12441:
12410:
12391:(4): 337–357.
12375:
12308:
12277:
12246:
12219:
12185:
12144:
12109:
12078:
12059:
12023:(5): 567–588.
12000:
11985:
11967:
11900:
11870:
11831:
11799:
11758:
11728:
11707:10.1086/351711
11685:
11667:978-9264239784
11666:
11639:
11611:
11580:
11554:
11533:"Introduction"
11524:
11498:
11471:
11452:Meynell, G.G.
11444:
11418:
11392:
11362:
11351:on 3 June 2014
11336:
11325:on 29 May 2013
11310:
11283:
11276:
11258:
11243:
11210:
11177:
11128:
11095:
11062:
11029:
10976:
10947:
10912:
10845:
10826:
10819:
10793:
10774:
10750:
10719:
10704:
10697:
10671:
10656:
10649:
10623:
10616:
10587:
10580:
10554:
10547:
10521:
10514:
10485:
10446:
10440:978-1473696419
10439:
10416:
10385:
10378:
10353:
10320:
10261:
10232:(6): 528–530.
10212:
10163:
10133:
10118:
10100:
10054:
10047:
10021:
9994:
9979:
9961:
9946:
9926:
9911:
9893:
9870:
9837:
9830:
9812:
9805:
9787:
9766:(4): 364–376.
9746:
9739:
9719:Fara, Patricia
9710:
9703:
9685:
9679:978-0199543182
9678:
9649:
9634:
9608:
9598:
9577:
9550:
9535:
9528:
9506:
9495:(2): 121–128.
9479:
9406:Vazire, Simine
9390:Kleinberg, Jon
9368:
9335:(3): 844–853.
9315:
9278:
9235:(March 2000).
9233:Davis, Bernard
9183:
9124:
9117:
9099:
9065:(5): 477–486.
9042:
9016:
8973:
8943:
8926:+Plus Magazine
8912:
8886:
8875:
8855:
8823:
8816:
8798:
8791:
8773:
8754:
8732:
8717:
8682:
8667:
8635:
8601:
8575:
8568:
8550:
8531:
8509:
8494:
8465:
8458:
8440:
8410:
8384:
8361:
8301:
8270:
8241:(3): 625–629.
8221:
8190:(6): 577–622.
8184:Human Genomics
8170:
8143:
8136:
8110:
8103:
8085:
8067:978-1605356051
8066:
8046:
8039:
8013:
7952:
7945:
7927:
7900:
7880:
7862:
7855:
7832:
7813:(2): 115–125.
7797:
7766:
7705:
7664:
7629:"Cathode Rays"
7619:
7596:
7589:
7571:
7520:
7513:
7495:
7488:
7464:
7437:(1): 125–158.
7421:
7386:
7366:
7317:
7310:
7292:
7285:
7267:
7260:
7228:Maurice Allais
7216:Lawrence Klein
7212:Paul Samuelson
7194:
7181:10.2307/588406
7175:(2): 164–180.
7159:
7148:on 6 June 2011
7124:
7109:
7102:
7080:
7059:(2): 268–270.
7036:
7030:978-0521640664
7029:
7007:
7001:978-0131443297
7000:
6982:
6952:
6920:
6902:978-0511819421
6901:
6867:
6861:978-0816013159
6860:
6833:
6814:
6794:
6764:
6753:
6735:
6716:
6709:
6691:
6672:(1): 201–218.
6656:
6625:
6618:
6587:
6580:
6559:
6502:
6473:10.1086/352843
6448:
6429:
6409:
6383:
6353:(4): 168–188.
6329:
6322:
6296:, ed. (2006).
6294:Selin, Helaine
6285:
6278:
6257:
6242:10.1086/349914
6220:
6205:
6166:
6160:978-0415259347
6159:
6132:
6102:
6087:
6069:
6062:
6032:
6001:
5972:
5953:
5933:
5918:
5900:
5881:
5861:
5842:
5822:
5803:
5783:
5764:
5744:
5725:
5689:
5670:
5642:
5623:
5600:
5571:
5556:. p. 27.
5545:
5530:. p. 17.
5519:
5486:
5467:
5447:
5414:
5397:
5378:
5358:
5339:
5311:
5300:
5274:
5255:
5232:
5214:978-0814319024
5213:
5189:
5106:
5099:
5081:
5062:
5006:
4987:
4959:
4929:
4906:
4892:Erlich, Ḥaggai
4883:
4877:978-0313324338
4876:
4854:
4847:
4826:
4807:(2): 197–211.
4791:
4776:
4750:
4693:
4672:10.1086/599864
4666:(2): 345–375.
4650:
4643:
4617:
4598:(1): 133–143.
4582:
4579:. p. 248.
4571:Wengrow, David
4567:Graeber, David
4558:
4515:
4508:
4482:
4448:
4413:
4386:
4366:
4359:
4330:
4296:
4277:
4257:
4250:
4232:
4213:
4193:
4174:
4154:
4135:
4115:
4104:
4083:
4076:
4058:
4051:
4033:
4026:
4000:
3993:
3975:
3968:
3950:
3937:
3930:
3912:
3905:
3887:
3880:
3862:
3851:
3824:
3805:
3798:
3771:
3765:978-0226482057
3764:
3727:
3712:
3683:
3652:
3603:
3588:
3581:
3560:
3541:
3515:
3478:Löwe, Benedikt
3466:
3432:
3408:
3389:
3366:
3356:
3344:Heilbron, J.L.
3332:
3325:
3298:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3289:
3288:
3271:
3267:Ibn al-Haytham
3261:Book of Optics
3250:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3243:
3242:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3219:
3216:
3168:
3165:
3160:
3159:
3152:
3149:
3135:
3128:climate change
3115:Main article:
3112:
3109:
3068:beat reporters
3038:observations,
2983:
2980:
2968:Science policy
2952:in Australia,
2948:in Argentina,
2906:Budget of NASA
2898:
2895:
2882:
2879:
2870:Science awards
2866:
2863:
2779:
2776:
2697:
2694:
2681:
2678:
2651:paradigm shift
2643:normal science
2610:falsifiability
2544:
2541:
2517:fringe science
2490:methodological
2488:is an ongoing
2481:
2478:
2424:
2421:
2300:
2297:
2288:Basic research
2283:
2280:
2272:bioinformatics
2264:
2261:
2256:topic modeling
2252:random forests
2226:basic sciences
2201:
2198:
2156:systems theory
2140:formal systems
2136:Formal science
2132:
2131:Formal science
2129:
2105:functionalists
2085:Social science
2070:
2069:Social science
2067:
2027:Ancient Greece
2025:that began in
1995:
1992:
1976:formal science
1972:social science
1956:Main article:
1953:
1950:
1946:accretion disc
1934:first observed
1922:Standard Model
1896:collaboration.
1878:Main article:
1875:
1872:
1864:systems theory
1784:, such as the
1755:climate change
1751:eutrophication
1711:Main article:
1708:
1705:
1677:Heinrich Hertz
1642:thermodynamics
1612:. The laws of
1573:Charles Darwin
1557:Charles Darwin
1541:Main article:
1538:
1535:
1464:popularisation
1450:
1385:Main article:
1382:
1379:
1375:laws of nature
1370:René Descartes
1362:printing press
1281:camera obscura
1245:
1242:
1231:. Renaissance
1210:Ibn al-Haytham
1143:late antiquity
1092:Main article:
1089:
1086:
1026:self-criticism
914:Main article:
911:
908:
769:Main article:
766:
763:
758:Main article:
755:
752:
713:
680:back-formation
659:
649:
547:as the suffix
541:Middle English
532:
529:
422:physical world
356:formal systems
320:physical world
277:
276:
274:
273:
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88:
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84:
73:
72:
71:
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69:
66:
65:
59:
58:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
14920:
14909:
14906:
14904:
14901:
14899:
14896:
14895:
14893:
14881:
14880:
14879:Travel guides
14868:
14864:
14863:
14851:
14847:
14846:
14834:
14830:
14829:
14817:
14814:from Wikinews
14813:
14812:
14800:
14796:
14795:
14783:
14782:
14779:
14773:
14765:
14760:
14755:
14754:
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14731:
14728:
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14713:
14709:
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14696:
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14688:
14687:
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14673:
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14658:
14656:
14653:
14652:
14651:
14648:
14646:
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14641:
14638:
14636:
14633:
14631:
14628:
14626:
14623:
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14611:
14608:
14606:
14603:
14601:
14598:
14597:
14595:
14593:
14589:
14583:
14580:
14576:
14573:
14571:
14568:
14566:
14563:
14561:
14558:
14556:
14553:
14552:
14550:
14546:
14543:
14541:
14538:
14536:
14533:
14531:
14528:
14526:
14523:
14522:
14520:
14516:
14513:
14512:
14511:
14510:Technoscience
14508:
14506:
14503:
14501:
14498:
14496:
14493:
14491:
14488:
14486:
14483:
14481:
14480:Media studies
14478:
14476:
14473:
14471:
14468:
14464:
14461:
14459:
14456:
14454:
14451:
14449:
14446:
14444:
14441:
14440:
14439:
14436:
14434:
14431:
14429:
14426:
14424:
14421:
14419:
14418:Early adopter
14416:
14414:
14411:
14409:
14406:
14404:
14401:
14399:
14396:
14394:
14391:
14389:
14388:Co-production
14386:
14385:
14383:
14381:
14375:
14367:
14364:
14363:
14362:
14359:
14357:
14354:
14350:
14347:
14346:
14345:
14342:
14340:
14337:
14335:
14332:
14330:
14327:
14323:
14320:
14318:
14315:
14313:
14310:
14308:
14305:
14303:
14300:
14298:
14295:
14293:
14290:
14288:
14285:
14283:
14280:
14278:
14275:
14274:
14272:
14268:
14265:
14263:
14260:
14258:
14255:
14253:
14250:
14248:
14245:
14243:
14240:
14238:
14237:communication
14235:
14233:
14230:
14229:
14227:
14225:
14222:
14220:
14219:Pseudoscience
14217:
14213:
14210:
14209:
14208:
14205:
14203:
14200:
14198:
14195:
14193:
14190:
14188:
14185:
14183:
14180:
14178:
14175:
14173:
14170:
14168:
14167:Boundary-work
14165:
14163:
14162:Bibliometrics
14160:
14158:
14155:
14154:
14152:
14150:
14144:
14138:
14135:
14133:
14130:
14128:
14125:
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14113:
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14111:
14108:
14104:
14101:
14099:
14096:
14095:
14093:
14091:
14088:
14087:
14085:
14083:
14079:
14073:
14072:Transhumanism
14070:
14068:
14065:
14063:
14060:
14058:
14055:
14053:
14050:
14048:
14045:
14043:
14040:
14038:
14035:
14033:
14030:
14028:
14025:
14023:
14020:
14018:
14015:
14013:
14010:
14008:
14005:
14003:
14000:
13999:
13997:
13995:
13991:
13985:
13982:
13978:
13975:
13974:
13973:
13970:
13968:
13965:
13964:
13962:
13960:
13956:
13950:
13947:
13945:
13942:
13941:
13939:
13937:
13933:
13929:
13922:
13917:
13915:
13910:
13908:
13903:
13902:
13899:
13887:
13884:
13882:
13879:
13877:
13874:
13872:
13869:
13867:
13864:
13862:
13859:
13857:
13854:
13852:
13849:
13847:
13844:
13842:
13839:
13837:
13834:
13832:
13829:
13827:
13824:
13822:
13819:
13817:
13814:
13812:
13809:
13807:
13804:
13802:
13799:
13795:
13792:
13790:
13787:
13785:
13782:
13780:
13777:
13775:
13772:
13771:
13769:
13765:
13762:
13760:
13757:
13756:
13754:
13752:
13749:
13747:
13744:
13742:
13739:
13735:
13732:
13730:
13727:
13726:
13724:
13722:
13719:
13717:
13714:
13712:
13709:
13707:
13704:
13702:
13699:
13697:
13694:
13692:
13689:
13687:
13684:
13682:
13679:
13677:
13674:
13672:
13669:
13667:
13664:
13662:
13659:
13657:
13654:
13652:
13649:
13647:
13644:
13642:
13639:
13637:
13634:
13632:
13629:
13628:
13625:
13621:
13617:
13609:
13604:
13602:
13597:
13595:
13590:
13589:
13586:
13575:
13570:
13565:
13563:
13553:
13551:
13548:
13545:
13539:
13536:
13534:
13531:
13529:
13526:
13524:
13521:
13519:
13516:
13514:
13511:
13509:
13506:
13504:
13501:
13499:
13496:
13494:
13493:Rudolf Carnap
13491:
13489:
13486:
13484:
13481:
13479:
13476:
13474:
13471:
13469:
13466:
13464:
13461:
13459:
13456:
13454:
13451:
13449:
13446:
13444:
13441:
13439:
13436:
13434:
13431:
13429:
13428:Auguste Comte
13426:
13425:
13416:
13413:
13411:
13408:
13406:
13403:
13401:
13400:Francis Bacon
13398:
13396:
13393:
13392:
13390:
13386:
13383:
13381:
13377:
13371:
13368:
13366:
13363:
13361:
13358:
13356:
13353:
13351:
13348:
13346:
13343:
13341:
13338:
13336:
13333:
13329:
13328:Pseudoscience
13326:
13325:
13324:
13321:
13319:
13316:
13314:
13311:
13309:
13306:
13304:
13301:
13299:
13296:
13294:
13291:
13289:
13286:
13285:
13283:
13279:
13271:
13268:
13266:
13263:
13261:
13258:
13256:
13253:
13251:
13248:
13246:
13243:
13242:
13241:
13238:
13234:
13231:
13230:
13229:
13226:
13224:
13221:
13219:
13216:
13215:
13213:
13209:
13203:
13200:
13198:
13195:
13193:
13190:
13188:
13187:Structuralism
13185:
13183:
13180:
13178:
13175:
13173:
13169:
13166:
13164:
13161:
13159:
13156:
13154:
13150:
13149:Received view
13147:
13145:
13141:
13138:
13136:
13133:
13131:
13127:
13123:
13120:
13118:
13115:
13113:
13110:
13108:
13105:
13103:
13100:
13098:
13095:
13093:
13090:
13088:
13085:
13083:
13080:
13078:
13075:
13073:
13070:
13068:
13065:
13063:
13060:
13058:
13057:Contextualism
13055:
13053:
13050:
13048:
13045:
13043:
13040:
13038:
13035:
13033:
13030:
13029:
13027:
13023:
13017:
13014:
13010:
13007:
13005:
13002:
13001:
13000:
12997:
12995:
12992:
12990:
12987:
12983:
12980:
12978:
12975:
12973:
12970:
12969:
12968:
12965:
12963:
12960:
12958:
12955:
12953:
12950:
12948:
12945:
12943:
12940:
12936:
12933:
12932:
12931:
12928:
12926:
12923:
12921:
12918:
12916:
12913:
12911:
12908:
12906:
12903:
12901:
12898:
12896:
12893:
12891:
12888:
12886:
12885:
12881:
12877:
12874:
12872:
12869:
12868:
12867:
12864:
12862:
12859:
12857:
12854:
12852:
12849:
12847:
12844:
12842:
12839:
12835:
12832:
12831:
12830:
12827:
12825:
12822:
12820:
12817:
12815:
12812:
12808:
12805:
12804:
12803:
12800:
12798:
12795:
12793:
12790:
12788:
12785:
12781:
12778:
12777:
12776:
12773:
12771:
12770:
12766:
12762:
12760:
12757:
12755:
12752:
12751:
12749:
12745:
12741:
12734:
12729:
12727:
12722:
12720:
12715:
12714:
12711:
12684:
12680:
12676:
12671:
12666:
12662:
12658:
12654:
12650:
12646:
12642:
12635:
12628:
12609:
12604:
12599:
12595:
12591:
12584:
12577:
12575:
12566:
12562:
12555:
12539:
12535:
12531:
12530:
12525:
12518:
12511:
12507:
12503:
12499:
12492:
12476:
12472:
12468:
12464:
12458:
12454:
12453:
12445:
12429:
12425:
12421:
12414:
12406:
12402:
12398:
12394:
12390:
12386:
12379:
12371:
12367:
12362:
12357:
12353:
12349:
12344:
12339:
12335:
12331:
12327:
12323:
12319:
12312:
12296:
12292:
12288:
12281:
12265:
12261:
12257:
12250:
12234:
12230:
12223:
12207:
12203:
12199:
12195:
12189:
12181:
12177:
12172:
12167:
12163:
12159:
12155:
12148:
12132:
12128:
12124:
12120:
12113:
12097:
12093:
12089:
12082:
12074:
12070:
12063:
12044:
12040:
12036:
12031:
12026:
12022:
12018:
12011:
12004:
11996:
11992:
11988:
11982:
11978:
11971:
11963:
11959:
11954:
11949:
11945:
11941:
11936:
11931:
11927:
11923:
11919:
11915:
11911:
11904:
11888:
11884:
11880:
11874:
11858:
11854:
11850:
11846:
11842:
11835:
11819:
11815:
11814:
11809:
11803:
11787:
11783:
11779:
11775:
11770:
11762:
11746:
11742:
11738:
11732:
11724:
11720:
11716:
11712:
11708:
11704:
11701:(241): 4–26.
11700:
11696:
11689:
11673:
11669:
11663:
11659:
11655:
11651:
11650:
11643:
11632:
11628:
11621:
11615:
11599:
11595:
11591:
11584:
11568:
11564:
11558:
11542:
11538:
11534:
11528:
11512:
11508:
11502:
11486:
11482:
11475:
11459:
11455:
11448:
11432:
11428:
11422:
11406:
11402:
11396:
11380:
11376:
11372:
11366:
11350:
11346:
11340:
11324:
11320:
11314:
11298:
11294:
11287:
11279:
11273:
11269:
11262:
11254:
11247:
11238:
11233:
11229:
11225:
11221:
11214:
11205:
11200:
11196:
11192:
11188:
11181:
11173:
11169:
11164:
11159:
11155:
11151:
11147:
11143:
11139:
11132:
11123:
11118:
11114:
11110:
11106:
11099:
11090:
11085:
11081:
11077:
11073:
11066:
11057:
11052:
11048:
11044:
11040:
11033:
11025:
11021:
11016:
11011:
11007:
11003:
10999:
10995:
10991:
10987:
10986:Nayar, Anjali
10980:
10973:
10961:
10957:
10951:
10944:
10929:
10922:
10916:
10897:
10893:
10889:
10884:
10879:
10875:
10871:
10867:
10863:
10856:
10849:
10841:
10837:
10830:
10822:
10816:
10812:
10807:
10806:
10797:
10781:
10777:
10771:
10767:
10763:
10762:
10754:
10738:
10734:
10730:
10729:"Thomas Kuhn"
10723:
10715:
10708:
10700:
10694:
10690:
10685:
10684:
10675:
10667:
10660:
10652:
10646:
10642:
10637:
10636:
10627:
10619:
10613:
10609:
10604:
10603:
10594:
10592:
10583:
10577:
10573:
10568:
10567:
10558:
10550:
10544:
10540:
10535:
10534:
10525:
10517:
10511:
10507:
10502:
10501:
10492:
10490:
10482:
10467:
10463:
10456:
10450:
10442:
10436:
10432:
10431:
10426:
10420:
10404:
10400:
10396:
10389:
10381:
10375:
10370:
10369:
10363:
10357:
10341:
10337:
10336:
10331:
10324:
10316:
10312:
10307:
10302:
10298:
10294:
10289:
10284:
10280:
10276:
10272:
10265:
10257:
10253:
10249:
10245:
10240:
10235:
10231:
10227:
10223:
10216:
10208:
10204:
10199:
10194:
10190:
10186:
10182:
10178:
10174:
10167:
10151:
10147:
10140:
10138:
10129:
10125:
10121:
10115:
10112:. CRC Press.
10111:
10104:
10096:
10092:
10088:
10084:
10080:
10076:
10072:
10068:
10064:
10058:
10050:
10044:
10040:
10036:
10032:
10025:
10009:
10005:
9998:
9990:
9986:
9982:
9976:
9972:
9965:
9957:
9953:
9949:
9943:
9939:
9938:
9930:
9922:
9918:
9914:
9908:
9904:
9897:
9889:
9885:
9881:
9874:
9855:
9848:
9841:
9833:
9827:
9823:
9816:
9808:
9802:
9798:
9791:
9783:
9779:
9774:
9769:
9765:
9761:
9757:
9750:
9742:
9736:
9732:
9728:
9724:
9720:
9714:
9706:
9700:
9696:
9689:
9681:
9675:
9671:
9667:
9663:
9659:
9653:
9645:
9641:
9637:
9631:
9627:
9622:
9621:
9612:
9605:
9601:
9595:
9591:
9584:
9582:
9565:
9561:
9554:
9546:
9539:
9531:
9525:
9520:
9519:
9510:
9502:
9498:
9494:
9490:
9483:
9467:
9463:
9459:
9455:
9451:
9447:
9443:
9439:
9435:
9431:
9427:
9423:
9419:
9415:
9412:(July 2021).
9411:
9407:
9403:
9399:
9395:
9391:
9387:
9383:
9379:
9372:
9356:
9352:
9348:
9343:
9338:
9334:
9330:
9326:
9319:
9311:
9307:
9302:
9297:
9293:
9289:
9282:
9274:
9270:
9265:
9260:
9256:
9252:
9248:
9244:
9243:
9238:
9234:
9228:
9224:
9219:
9214:
9210:
9206:
9202:
9198:
9194:
9187:
9179:
9175:
9171:
9167:
9162:
9157:
9152:
9147:
9143:
9139:
9135:
9128:
9120:
9114:
9110:
9103:
9084:
9080:
9076:
9072:
9068:
9064:
9060:
9053:
9046:
9030:
9026:
9020:
9012:
9008:
9004:
9000:
8996:
8992:
8989:(3): 102–04.
8988:
8984:
8977:
8970:
8966:
8962:
8957:
8953:
8947:
8931:
8927:
8923:
8916:
8900:
8896:
8890:
8882:
8878:
8872:
8868:
8867:
8859:
8843:
8839:
8838:
8833:
8827:
8819:
8813:
8809:
8802:
8794:
8788:
8784:
8777:
8761:
8757:
8751:
8747:
8743:
8736:
8728:
8721:
8713:
8709:
8705:
8701:
8697:
8693:
8686:
8678:
8671:
8655:
8651:
8650:
8645:
8639:
8632:
8619:
8615:
8611:
8605:
8589:
8585:
8579:
8571:
8565:
8561:
8554:
8538:
8534:
8528:
8524:
8520:
8513:
8505:
8501:
8497:
8491:
8487:
8482:
8481:
8472:
8470:
8461:
8455:
8451:
8444:
8428:
8424:
8423:Seed Magazine
8420:
8414:
8398:
8394:
8388:
8380:
8376:
8372:
8365:
8357:
8353:
8348:
8343:
8339:
8335:
8330:
8325:
8321:
8317:
8313:
8305:
8289:
8285:
8281:
8274:
8266:
8262:
8258:
8254:
8249:
8244:
8240:
8236:
8232:
8225:
8217:
8213:
8208:
8203:
8198:
8193:
8189:
8185:
8181:
8174:
8166:
8162:
8159:(4): 407–26.
8158:
8154:
8147:
8139:
8133:
8129:
8124:
8123:
8114:
8106:
8100:
8096:
8089:
8073:
8069:
8063:
8059:
8058:
8050:
8042:
8036:
8032:
8027:
8026:
8017:
7998:
7994:
7990:
7986:
7982:
7978:
7974:
7970:
7963:
7956:
7948:
7942:
7938:
7931:
7915:
7911:
7907:
7903:
7897:
7893:
7892:
7884:
7876:
7872:
7866:
7858:
7856:0-525-94571-7
7852:
7848:
7847:
7842:
7836:
7828:
7824:
7820:
7816:
7812:
7808:
7801:
7793:
7789:
7785:
7781:
7777:
7770:
7754:
7750:
7746:
7742:
7738:
7734:
7730:
7726:
7722:
7721:
7716:
7709:
7690:
7686:
7682:
7675:
7668:
7652:
7648:
7644:
7640:
7636:
7635:
7630:
7623:
7615:
7614:
7609:
7603:
7601:
7592:
7586:
7582:
7575:
7559:
7555:
7551:
7547:
7543:
7539:
7535:
7531:
7524:
7516:
7510:
7506:
7499:
7491:
7489:0-7131-2789-9
7485:
7481:
7477:
7476:Reichl, Linda
7471:
7469:
7460:
7456:
7452:
7448:
7444:
7440:
7436:
7432:
7425:
7409:
7405:
7401:
7397:
7390:
7382:
7381:
7376:
7370:
7362:
7358:
7353:
7348:
7344:
7340:
7336:
7332:
7328:
7321:
7313:
7307:
7303:
7296:
7288:
7282:
7278:
7271:
7263:
7257:
7253:
7249:
7248:Jan Tinbergen
7245:
7241:
7237:
7236:Richard Stone
7233:
7229:
7225:
7221:
7217:
7213:
7208:
7207:
7198:
7190:
7186:
7182:
7178:
7174:
7170:
7163:
7147:
7143:
7142:New Statesman
7139:
7137:
7128:
7120:
7113:
7105:
7099:
7094:
7093:
7084:
7076:
7072:
7067:
7062:
7058:
7054:
7050:
7046:
7040:
7032:
7026:
7021:
7020:
7011:
7003:
6997:
6993:
6986:
6970:
6966:
6962:
6956:
6937:
6930:
6924:
6908:
6904:
6898:
6894:
6890:
6886:
6881:
6880:
6871:
6863:
6857:
6853:
6852:
6847:
6843:
6837:
6821:
6817:
6811:
6807:
6806:
6798:
6782:
6778:
6777:Maths History
6774:
6768:
6761:
6756:
6750:
6746:
6739:
6731:
6727:
6720:
6712:
6706:
6702:
6701:Francis Bacon
6695:
6687:
6683:
6679:
6675:
6671:
6667:
6660:
6644:
6640:
6636:
6629:
6621:
6619:0-14-019246-8
6615:
6611:
6607:
6606:Penguin Books
6603:
6602:
6597:
6591:
6583:
6577:
6573:
6569:
6563:
6544:
6540:
6536:
6532:
6528:
6525:(3): 219–35.
6524:
6520:
6513:
6506:
6498:
6494:
6490:
6486:
6482:
6478:
6474:
6470:
6467:(4): 568–89.
6466:
6462:
6455:
6453:
6436:
6432:
6426:
6422:
6421:
6413:
6397:
6393:
6387:
6380:
6376:
6364:
6360:
6356:
6352:
6348:
6347:
6341:
6333:
6325:
6319:
6315:
6311:
6307:
6302:
6301:
6295:
6289:
6281:
6275:
6271:
6267:
6261:
6251:
6247:
6243:
6239:
6236:(4): 463–65.
6235:
6231:
6224:
6216:
6212:
6208:
6202:
6198:
6194:
6190:
6189:
6185:
6182:De Aspectibus
6181:
6173:
6171:
6162:
6156:
6152:
6148:
6147:
6142:
6136:
6120:
6116:
6112:
6106:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6084:
6080:
6073:
6065:
6059:
6055:
6051:
6046:
6045:
6036:
6020:
6016:
6012:
6005:
5989:
5985:
5984:
5976:
5960:
5956:
5950:
5946:
5945:
5937:
5929:
5925:
5921:
5919:1-56025-748-2
5915:
5911:
5904:
5888:
5884:
5878:
5874:
5873:
5865:
5849:
5845:
5839:
5835:
5834:
5826:
5810:
5806:
5800:
5796:
5795:
5787:
5771:
5767:
5761:
5757:
5756:
5748:
5732:
5728:
5722:
5718:
5714:
5710:
5706:
5702:
5701:
5693:
5677:
5673:
5667:
5663:
5659:
5655:
5654:
5646:
5630:
5626:
5620:
5616:
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2019:earth science
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14725:Associations
14560:criticism of
14470:Leapfrogging
14453:linear model
14339:Team science
14329:Scientocracy
14252:Neo-colonial
14002:Anthropocene
13725:Engineering
13676:Cell biology
13646:Architecture
13615:
13538:Larry Laudan
13518:Imre Lakatos
13473:Otto Neurath
13448:Karl Pearson
13438:Pierre Duhem
13410:Isaac Newton
13340:Protoscience
13298:Epistemology
13172:Anti-realism
13170: /
13151: /
13142: /
13128: /
13126:Reductionism
13124: /
13097:Inductionism
13077:Evolutionism
12882:
12769:a posteriori
12768:
12764:
12690:. Retrieved
12644:
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12627:
12615:. Retrieved
12593:
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12542:. Retrieved
12538:the original
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8512:
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8449:
8443:
8431:. Retrieved
8427:the original
8422:
8413:
8403:21 September
8401:. Retrieved
8397:the original
8387:
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8364:
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8273:
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8056:
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7972:
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7918:. Retrieved
7890:
7883:
7874:
7871:Kahn, Herman
7865:
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7841:Kraft, Chris
7835:
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7792:the original
7779:
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7753:the original
7724:
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7638:
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7537:
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7403:
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7146:the original
7141:
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7045:Calisher, CH
7039:
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6964:
6955:
6943:. Retrieved
6923:
6911:. Retrieved
6878:
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6804:
6797:
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6776:
6767:
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6638:
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6543:the original
6522:
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6460:
6439:. Retrieved
6419:
6412:
6400:. Retrieved
6386:
6378:
6373:– via
6367:. Retrieved
6350:
6344:
6332:
6299:
6288:
6269:
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6229:
6223:
6193:Philadelphia
6187:
6183:
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6135:
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6114:
6105:
6078:
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6043:
6035:
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6014:
6004:
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5982:
5975:
5963:. Retrieved
5943:
5936:
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5903:
5891:. Retrieved
5871:
5864:
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5832:
5825:
5813:. Retrieved
5793:
5786:
5774:. Retrieved
5754:
5747:
5735:. Retrieved
5699:
5692:
5680:. Retrieved
5652:
5645:
5633:. Retrieved
5613:
5593:22 September
5591:. Retrieved
5581:
5574:
5562:. Retrieved
5548:
5536:. Retrieved
5522:
5510:. Retrieved
5496:
5489:
5477:. Retrieved
5457:
5450:
5438:. Retrieved
5430:Golden Press
5424:
5417:
5408:
5400:
5388:. Retrieved
5368:
5361:
5349:. Retrieved
5321:
5314:
5290:
5265:. Retrieved
5245:
5235:
5223:. Retrieved
5199:
5192:
5184:
5179:
5173:
5163:. Retrieved
5137:
5131:
5116:
5109:
5090:
5084:
5075:
5071:
5065:
5024:
5018:
5015:Aaboe, Asger
5009:
4997:. Retrieved
4977:
4950:. Retrieved
4941:
4932:
4923:
4916:. Retrieved
4896:
4886:
4863:
4857:
4838:
4829:
4804:
4800:
4794:
4759:
4753:
4713:(1): 25–48.
4710:
4706:
4696:
4663:
4659:
4653:
4626:
4620:
4595:
4591:
4585:
4574:
4561:
4528:
4524:
4518:
4491:
4485:
4462:
4451:
4435:(2): 65–85.
4432:
4426:
4416:
4404:. Retrieved
4376:
4369:
4346:
4333:
4321:. Retrieved
4308:
4299:
4287:. Retrieved
4267:
4260:
4241:
4235:
4223:. Retrieved
4203:
4196:
4184:. Retrieved
4164:
4157:
4145:. Retrieved
4125:
4118:
4109:
4095:
4086:
4067:
4061:
4042:
4036:
4011:
4003:
3984:
3978:
3959:
3953:
3940:
3921:
3915:
3896:
3890:
3871:
3865:
3856:
3837:
3827:
3808:
3789:
3755:
3695:
3674:. Retrieved
3665:
3655:
3623:(2): Doc24.
3620:
3616:
3606:
3597:
3591:
3572:
3551:. Retrieved
3531:
3527:Rucker, Rudy
3485:
3481:
3457:. Retrieved
3448:
3426:
3399:. Retrieved
3379:
3361:
3347:
3310:
3302:
3274:
3259:
3254:
3181:
3161:
3155:
3139:marginalised
3120:
3100:
3089:
3083:
3077:
3072:
3060:
3036:quantitative
3028:correlations
3006:
2966:
2939:
2915:
2868:
2820:
2793:
2764:
2761:
2742:
2718:
2711:in 1903 and
2683:
2659:
2646:
2642:
2633:
2622:
2591:
2568:
2546:
2533:
2523:. Physicist
2521:junk science
2510:
2502:unrepeatable
2483:
2471:
2464:
2463:followed by
2450:
2442:
2401:
2383:
2356:
2352:measurements
2336:natural laws
2328:reproducible
2313:
2285:
2266:
2230:
2203:
2164:
2134:
2121:case studies
2103:such as the
2089:anthropology
2083:
2061:, succeeded
2047:mathematical
2003:life science
1997:
1980:nomenclature
1961:
1908:. The first
1906:human genome
1899:
1874:21st century
1858:, including
1817:
1794:
1774:World War II
1763:
1728:
1707:20th century
1697:Nobel Prizes
1650:
1626:steam engine
1609:
1599:
1584:
1570:
1562:
1537:19th century
1528:
1498:
1480:
1453:
1438:
1433:teleological
1418:
1411:Isaac Newton
1404:
1396:
1359:
1340:
1321:
1305:apperception
1297:John Peckham
1277:metaphysical
1270:
1263:
1222:
1183:
1169:. Under the
1167:Monophysites
1140:
1113:
1076:
1069:
1054:Solar System
1047:
1036:teleological
1030:
1006:
978:Pythagoreans
974:supernatural
951:
940:
930:
898:appeared in
868:lime plaster
854:The ancient
853:
849:incantations
814:
806:protoscience
794:
745:
737:
730:
721:
709:
691:
667:
645:
602:
600:
589:
536:
534:
509:
505:professional
497:19th century
474:
388:
358:governed by
283:
282:
280:
62:
47:
32:
14903:Observation
14570:theories of
14555:and society
14551:Technology
14545:transitions
14535:determinism
14530:convergence
14505:Technocracy
14287:controversy
14273:Scientific
14257:post-normal
14202:Metascience
14172:Consilience
14157:Antiscience
14022:Neo-Luddism
14017:Fuzzy logic
13846:Ornithology
13831:Meteorology
13816:Mathematics
13806:Ichthyology
13641:Archaeology
13636:Agriculture
13620:engineering
13528:Ian Hacking
13513:Thomas Kuhn
13498:Karl Popper
13478:C. D. Broad
13395:Roger Bacon
13323:Non-science
13265:Linguistics
13245:Archaeology
13140:Rationalism
13130:Determinism
13117:Physicalism
13082:Fallibilism
13032:Coherentism
12962:Testability
12915:Observation
12910:Objectivity
12871:alternative
12802:Correlation
12792:Consilience
12481:5 September
12434:5 September
12194:Wilde, Fran
12137:20 February
12102:20 February
11845:Der Spiegel
11604:3 September
11197:: 419–421.
11082:: 549–552.
10966:7 September
10937:3 September
10883:1721.1/5693
10183:(7525): 9.
10063:Ziman, J.M.
9723:"Decisions"
9294:(80): 3–6.
9249:(1): 1–12.
9203:(1): 1–12.
9138:Med Humanit
8952:Varian, Hal
8543:3 September
7687:: 257–264.
7657:24 February
7540:: 665–681.
7240:James Tobin
6052:. pp.
5579:Aristotle.
5440:18 November
4925:disappear."
4458:"scientist"
3946:Pages 80–81
3676:7 September
3117:Antiscience
3052:computation
3032:qualitative
3020:measurement
2808:conferences
2705:Marie Curie
2690:peer review
2635:Thomas Kuhn
2606:Karl Popper
2594:rationalism
2583:Bayesianism
2579:inductivism
2506:metascience
2408:peer review
2371:falsifiable
2367:consilience
2340:observation
2320:objectively
2051:conjectures
1918:Higgs boson
1860:smartphones
1842:, time and
1770:World War I
1731:antibiotics
1693:Marie Curie
1602:John Dalton
1513:John Millar
1289:Roger Bacon
1273:Renaissance
1244:Renaissance
1151:four causes
1114:Due to the
1088:Middle Ages
998:Hippocrates
962:Anaximander
902:during the
825:Mesopotamia
785:Babylonians
724:*sḱʰeh2(i)-
477:Greek works
470:Renaissance
436:during the
402:Mesopotamia
380:engineering
340:individuals
300:predictions
14892:Categories
14828:Quotations
14708:Technology
14660:science of
14655:history of
14540:revolution
14448:disruptive
14438:Innovation
14433:Hype cycle
14378:Technology
14349:ecological
14322:skepticism
14312:misconduct
14297:enterprise
14115:scientific
14042:Positivism
14012:Empiricism
13994:Philosophy
13861:Psychiatry
13770:Geography
13741:Entomology
13415:David Hume
13388:Precursors
13270:Psychology
13250:Economics
13144:Empiricism
13135:Pragmatism
13122:Positivism
13112:Naturalism
12982:scientific
12866:Hypothesis
12829:Experiment
12567:(65): 746.
12471:1322437138
11573:21 October
11464:13 October
11437:7 December
11385:22 January
11049:: 419–21.
10743:26 October
10409:4 November
10156:4 November
9570:5 February
9092:14 October
8594:21 October
8433:4 November
8329:1710.05833
8322:(2): L12.
7979:: 549–54.
7759:22 October
7406:(1): 134.
7103:0198505949
6975:29 January
6965:Britannica
6945:29 January
6649:3 November
6608:. p.
6604:. London:
6402:27 October
6125:3 November
5965:9 November
5893:20 October
5854:20 October
5815:20 October
5776:20 October
5635:20 October
5564:1 November
5538:1 November
5479:20 October
5390:20 October
5351:20 October
5267:20 October
5078:(1): 7–18.
4999:20 October
4479:required.)
4323:16 October
3833:Keay, John
3294:References
3024:empiricism
2935:humanities
2800:profession
2758:government
2738:government
2696:Scientists
2655:relativism
2575:empiricism
2480:Challenges
2344:hypotheses
2214:prevention
1942:black hole
1914:stem cells
1811:theory of
1786:Space Race
1776:, and the
1723:ozone hole
1527:published
1525:Adam Smith
1163:Nestorians
1106:depicts a
1082:arithmetic
990:Democritus
966:Anaximenes
952:The early
888:divinatory
810:presentism
395:Bronze Age
332:psychology
322:; and the
296:hypotheses
288:systematic
203:In society
141:Philosophy
131:Literature
121:Glossaries
14862:Resources
14845:Textbooks
14615:Factor 10
14443:diffusion
14282:consensus
14277:community
14242:education
14082:Sociology
14057:Scientism
13936:Economics
13716:Economics
13681:Chemistry
13656:Astronomy
13255:Geography
13223:Chemistry
13182:Scientism
12977:ladenness
12797:Construct
12775:Causality
12692:25 August
12544:16 August
12405:144645723
12352:0027-8424
12129:: 41–60.
12052:16 August
12039:0018-1560
11995:875999943
11944:1553-734X
11853:2195-1349
11813:Le Figaro
11782:0362-4331
10362:Shermer M
10297:1545-7885
10128:232950234
9956:185926306
9462:235697917
9446:1476-4687
9361:16 August
9351:248334446
9079:0048-7333
8848:3 October
8356:217162243
8294:9 October
8257:1600-0641
8057:Evolution
8006:4 October
7910:166143348
7698:8 January
7459:141350239
7252:Routledge
6598:(1990) .
6539:118351058
6151:Routledge
6025:3 October
5512:23 August
5502:Macmillan
5405:Lucretius
5165:16 August
5057:122508567
4918:9 January
4821:141599452
4786:700406626
4745:253597172
4737:1422-6944
4545:1827-4765
4305:"science"
3722:110332727
3502:0039-7857
3044:chemistry
2875:chemistry
2713:Chemistry
2674:empirical
2598:Descartes
2559:epicycles
2222:treatment
2218:diagnosis
2194:economics
2182:chemistry
2035:Descartes
2015:astronomy
2011:chemistry
1521:modernity
1495:chemistry
1491:magnetism
1460:academies
1285:telescope
1171:Caliphate
1032:Aristotle
1021:dialectic
992:. Later,
986:Leucippus
884:astrology
880:behaviour
738:scientist
700:in Latin
672:proposed
535:The word
531:Etymology
410:astronomy
336:sociology
328:economics
312:chemistry
292:knowledge
241:Scientist
221:Education
216:Community
35:(journal)
14735:Scholars
14730:Journals
14720:Category
14694:Portals
14575:transfer
14565:dynamics
14515:feminist
14317:priority
14302:literacy
14262:rhetoric
14228:Science
14192:Logology
13886:Virology
13871:Robotics
13836:Mycology
13826:Medicine
13671:Calculus
13550:Category
13202:Vitalism
13025:Theories
12999:Variable
12920:Paradigm
12807:function
12765:A priori
12754:Analysis
12747:Concepts
12683:Archived
12679:31565263
12647:(2): 1.
12617:12 April
12608:Archived
12596:: 2–38.
12506:Archived
12475:Archived
12428:Archived
12370:35858405
12301:4 August
12295:Archived
12270:4 August
12264:Archived
12239:27 April
12206:Archived
12180:24312943
12131:Archived
12096:Archived
12043:Archived
11962:23028299
11887:Archived
11857:Archived
11818:Archived
11786:Archived
11745:Archived
11723:32956693
11672:Archived
11598:Archived
11567:Archived
11541:Archived
11511:Archived
11491:12 March
11485:Archived
11431:Archived
11405:Archived
11379:Archived
11297:Archived
11172:21512548
11024:21512548
10960:Archived
10928:Archived
10896:Archived
10780:Archived
10737:Archived
10427:(2018).
10364:(1997).
10340:Archived
10315:26431313
10256:26361121
10248:26168108
10207:25373639
10150:Archived
10014:28 March
9989:47791316
9921:54989960
9863:28 March
9721:(2009).
9664:(2011).
9644:59377149
9501:23767672
9466:Archived
9454:34194044
9355:Archived
9310:19790950
9273:10704471
9227:10704471
9178:73306806
9170:12484313
9083:Archived
9035:25 March
9029:Archived
9011:21610124
9003:15319191
8965:Archived
8930:Archived
8766:24 March
8760:Archived
8698:: 5–11.
8692:Synthese
8654:Archived
8618:Archived
8588:Archived
8537:Archived
8504:59377149
8288:Archived
8265:23131523
8216:22155605
8072:Archived
7997:Archived
7993:17729659
7975:(4406).
7914:Archived
7873:(1962).
7827:34844169
7749:94880859
7689:Archived
7651:Archived
7558:Archived
7478:(1980).
7451:40972005
7408:Archived
7377:(2000).
7361:18256649
7152:27 April
7075:17436393
7047:(2007).
6969:Archived
6936:Archived
6907:Archived
6820:Archived
6781:Archived
6643:Archived
6552:12 April
6497:27806323
6441:27 March
6435:Archived
6396:Archived
6363:Archived
6359:26473232
6215:47168716
6188:, 2 vols
6119:Archived
6019:Archived
5988:Archived
5959:Archived
5928:62164511
5887:Archived
5848:Archived
5809:Archived
5770:Archived
5731:Archived
5676:Archived
5629:Archived
5587:Archived
5558:Archived
5532:Archived
5506:Archived
5473:Archived
5434:Archived
5384:Archived
5345:Archived
5306:Archived
5261:Archived
5243:(2016).
5219:Archived
5156:Archived
4993:Archived
4975:(2005).
4946:Archived
4912:Archived
4688:43643053
4680:19750597
4573:(2021).
4553:28489015
4400:Archived
4396:51330464
4341:(2008).
4317:Archived
4283:Archived
4219:Archived
4180:Archived
4141:Archived
4094:(2015).
3835:(2000).
3816:Archived
3670:Archived
3647:24872859
3547:Archived
3482:Synthese
3453:Archived
3395:Archived
3218:See also
3190:such as
3167:Politics
3156:delivery
3124:COVID-19
3076:such as
2754:industry
2750:academia
2734:industry
2730:academia
2728:such as
2585:and the
2393:reasoned
2348:theories
2234:applies
2170:Calculus
2165:a priori
2148:theorems
1964:branches
1952:Branches
1809:Big Bang
1778:Cold War
1741:such as
1701:electron
1628:and the
1555:made by
1483:taxonomy
1301:ontology
1283:and the
1214:Avicenna
1165:and the
1145:and the
1062:calculus
1049:Almagest
1009:Socrates
994:Epicurus
900:Sumerian
845:calendar
841:geometry
787:records
744:'s book
561:scientia
452:and the
384:medicine
172:Physical
154:Branches
111:Category
55:a series
53:Part of
14898:Science
14772:Science
14764:Science
14698:Science
14380:studies
14292:dissent
14232:citizen
14149:studies
14147:Science
14094:Social
13959:History
13851:Physics
13801:Geology
13711:Ecology
13661:Biology
13616:science
13260:History
13228:Physics
13218:Biology
13016:more...
13004:control
12900:Inquiry
12670:6607159
12649:Bibcode
12361:9335320
12330:Bibcode
12212:4 April
12202:Tor.com
11953:3459878
11922:Bibcode
11883:ELMUNDO
11150:Bibcode
11002:Bibcode
10892:1322857
10475:21 July
10306:4592065
10185:Bibcode
10095:7367863
10075:Bibcode
10067:Science
9782:2246135
9426:Bibcode
9301:2560978
9161:1071282
8936:1 March
8712:9272212
8371:Science
8334:Bibcode
8207:3525251
8031:495–464
7969:Science
7729:Bibcode
7542:Bibcode
7339:Bibcode
7066:2080517
6826:25 July
6787:2 March
6760:century
6674:Bibcode
6489:7040292
6310:Bibcode
5705:Bibcode
5327:Bibcode
5121:and in
5029:Bibcode
4715:Bibcode
4315:, Inc.
3858:golden.
3638:4027809
3510:9272212
3239:Science
3048:biology
3034:versus
2881:Society
2715:in 1911
2709:Physics
2390:validly
2190:finance
2186:biology
2031:Galileo
1844:gravity
1646:entropy
1559:in 1837
1468:Galileo
1417:by his
1355:Galileo
1293:Vitello
1194:Baghdad
1190:Abbasid
1141:During
1108:peacock
937:concept
876:anatomy
864:faience
860:pottery
783:by the
754:History
720:, from
686:nescīre
603:science
550:-cience
537:science
346:(e.g.,
326:(e.g.,
316:biology
308:physics
306:(e.g.,
284:Science
226:Funding
189:Applied
167:Natural
126:History
106:Outline
63:Science
33:Science
14750:Portal
14592:Policy
14525:change
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