175:
coherence tomography can offer unique benefits. Optical coherence tomography angiography can help the physician see if there is any subretinal fluid in the eye. This is useful because it could indicate that the patient may be developing wet AMD. Since patients with geographic atrophy are at higher risk for developing advanced wet AMD (neovascular AMD), this could be especially useful in the monitoring of patients with geography atrophy. If signs of neovascular AMD found, the physician can initiate treatment of wet age-related macular degeneration.
74:, region of the retina. As such, a standard vision test may underrepresent the visual deficit experienced by patients who report challenges reading, driving or seeing in low light conditions. Reading speed is often initially unaffected due to foveal sparing, but worsens progressively as the area of atrophy enlarges. As the disease progresses, vision-related quality-of-life declines markedly.
183:
Traditionally, GA progression is quantified in terms of the area of retinal pigment epithelium atrophy. Multiple imaging methods can be applied to quantify this area of retinal pigment epithelium atrophy including short-wavelength (blue) fundus autofluorescence imaging, green fundus autofluorescence
158:
to image the retinal pigment epithelium over the course of a year, this allowed them to map out the direction and magnitude with the geographic atrophy spread. They then found that regions of the choriocapillaris which had less blood flow were more likely to degenerate and become geographic atrophy.
174:
Diagnosis of geographic atrophy is made by an ophthalmologist in the clinic. Fundus autofluorescence and optical coherence tomography angiography are imaging modalities that can be used in the diagnosis. While fundus autofluorescence is the standard modality for viewing geographic atrophy, optical
114:
and lipofuscin deposits (early and intermediate AMD). These and other products of oxidative stress can trigger inflammation via multiple pathways, particularly the complement cascade, ultimately leading to loss of photoreceptors, RPE, and choriocapillaris, culminating in atrophic lesions that grow
674:
Lindner, Moritz; Böker, Alexander; Mauschitz, Matthias M.; Göbel, Arno P.; Fimmers, Rolf; Brinkmann, Christian K.; Schmitz-Valckenberg, Steffen; Schmid, Matthias; Holz, Frank G. (July 2015). "Directional
Kinetics of Geographic Atrophy Progression in Age-Related Macular Degeneration with Foveal
215:
It was recently discovered that the aging pigment lipofuscin can be broken down with the help of melanin and drugs through a newly discovered mechanism (chemical excitation). The pigment lipofuscin plays a central role in the development of dry AMD and geographic atrophy. This breakdown can be
146:
Recent studies indicate that geographic atrophy may be due to deficiencies in blood flow within the choriocapillaris. These studies used swept-source optical coherence tomography angiography to examine the choriocapillaris. Using imaging algorithms, they then determined which regions of the
1477:
Schmitz-Valckenberg S, Brinkmann CK, Alten F, Herrmann P, Stratmann NK, Göbel AP, Fleckenstein M, Diller M, Jaffe GJ, Holz FG (September 2011). "Semiautomated image processing method for identification and quantification of geographic atrophy in age-related macular degeneration".
1014:
193:
However, more recent data suggest that photoreceptor degeneration is not limited to the area of retinal pigment epithelium atrophy, but extends beyond this area. These more subtle changes can be quantified by volumetric analyses of optical coherence tomography data.
130:
is initiated by lipid peroxidation and is characterized by iron-dependent accumulation. Studies on iron accumulation and elevated lipid peroxidation in the aging retina, and their intimate role in ferroptosis, have implicated ferroptosis in AMD pathogenesis.
1071:
Saleh
Abdelfattah, Nizar; Zhang, Hongyang; Boyer, David S.; Sadda, SriniVas R. (2016). "Progression of Macular Atrophy in Patients with Neovascular Age-Related Macular Degeneration Undergoing Antivascular Endothelial Growth Factor Therapy".
110:, increase the risk of developing GA. This is an active area of research but the current hypothesis is that with aging, damage caused by these stressors accumulates, which coupled with a genetic predisposition, results in the appearance of
66:
Geographic atrophy is a chronic disease, which leads to visual function loss. This often results in difficulties performing daily tasks such as reading, recognizing faces, and driving, and ultimately has severe consequences on independence.
1010:
1750:
159:
Since the choriocapillaris is the main blood supply of the retinal pigment epithelium, it is leading some to believe that geographic atrophy is primarily an ischemic disease (disease due to decreased blood flow).
1771:
Lyu Y, Tschulakow AV, Wang K, Brash DE, Schraermeyer U. Chemiexcitation and melanin in photoreceptor disc turnover and prevention of macular degeneration. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2023;120(20):e2216935120.
50:) which can lead to a loss of visual function over time. It is estimated that GA affects over 5 million people worldwide and approximately 1 million patients in the US, which is similar to the prevalence of
101:
The pathogenesis of GA is not fully understood yet. It is likely multifactorial and triggered by intrinsic and extrinsic stressors of the poorly regenerative retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), particularly
57:
The incidence of advanced AMD, both geographic atrophy and neovascular AMD, increases exponentially with age. The aim of most current clinical trials is to reduce the progression of GA lesion enlargement.
85:
are today well established for diagnosing and tracking progression in geographic atrophy more complex diagnostic assessments may be required in the context of clinical trials. In
February 2023, the
1036:
Holz, Frank G.; Strauss, Erich C.; Schmitz-Valckenberg, Steffen; van
Lookeren Campagne, Menno (May 2014). "Geographic atrophy: clinical features and potential therapeutic approaches".
1515:"Green-Light Autofluorescence Versus Combined Blue-Light Autofluorescence and Near-Infrared Reflectance Imaging in Geographic Atrophy Secondary to Age-Related Macular Degeneration"
1273:
Müller PL, Pfau M, Möller PT, Nadal J, Schmid M, Lindner M, de
Sisternes L, Stöhr H, Weber BH, Neuhaus C, Herrmann P, Schmitz-Valckenberg S, Holz FG, Fleckenstein M (March 2018).
961:
Holz, Frank G.; Sadda, SriniVas R.; Staurenghi, Giovanni; Lindner, Moritz; Bird, Alan C.; Blodi, Barbara A.; Bottoni, Ferdinando; Chakravarthy, Usha; Chew, Emily Y. (April 2017).
458:
Rudnicka, Alicja R.; Kapetanakis, Venediktos V.; Jarrar, Zakariya; Wathern, Andrea K.; Wormald, Richard; Fletcher, Astrid E.; Cook, Derek G.; Owen, Christopher G. (July 2015).
106:
caused by the high metabolic demand of photoreceptors, photo-oxidation, and environmental stressors such as cigarette smoke. Variations in several genes, particularly in the
1720:
1562:
Shi Y, Zhang Q, Zhou H, Wang L, Chu Z, Jiang X, Shen M, Thulliez M, Lyu C, Feuer W, de
Sisternes L, Durbin MK, Gregori G, Wang RK, Rosenfeld PJ (April 2021).
233:
Lindblad, AS; Lloyd, PC; Clemons, TE; Gensler, GR; Ferris FL, 3rd; Klein, ML; Armstrong, JR; Age-Related Eye
Disease Study Research, Group. (September 2009).
1322:
Pfau M, Möller PT, Künzel SH, von der Emde L, Lindner M, Thiele S, Dysli C, Nadal J, Schmid M, Schmitz-Valckenberg S, Holz FG, Fleckenstein M (March 2020).
1224:"Choriocapillaris impairment around the atrophic lesions in patients with geographic atrophy: a swept-source optical coherence tomography angiography study"
631:
DeCarlo, DK; Scilley, K; Wells, J; Owsley, C (March 2003). "Driving habits and health-related quality of life in patients with age-related maculopathy".
963:"Imaging Protocols in Clinical Studies in Advanced Age-Related Macular Degeneration: Recommendations from Classification of Atrophy Consensus Meetings"
865:"Association of Reading Performance in Geographic Atrophy Secondary to Age-Related Macular Degeneration With Visual Function and Structural Biomarkers"
2791:
212:(Izervay) was approved in the United States in August 2023 for the treatment of geographic atrophy secondary to age-related macular degeneration.
720:"Fixation patterns and reading rates in eyes with central scotomas from advanced atrophic age-related macular degeneration and Stargardt disease"
285:
2188:
419:"Global prevalence of age-related macular degeneration and disease burden projection for 2020 and 2040: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
299:
Sunness, JS (3 November 1999). "The natural history of geographic atrophy, the advanced atrophic form of age-related macular degeneration".
2860:
2786:
1011:"FDA Approves Syfovre (pegcetacoplan injection) as the First and Only Treatment for Geographic Atrophy (GA), a Leading Cause of Blindness"
863:
Künzel SH, Lindner M, Sassen J, Möller PT, Goerdt L, Schmid M, Schmitz-Valckenberg S, Holz FG, Fleckenstein M, Pfau M (September 2021).
1167:"Correlations between Choriocapillaris Flow Deficits around Geographic Atrophy and Enlargement Rates Based on Swept-Source OCT Imaging"
1751:"Iveric Bio Receives U.S. FDA Approval for Izervay (avacincaptad pegol intravitreal solution), a New Treatment for Geographic Atrophy"
1564:"Correlations Between Choriocapillaris and Choroidal Measurements and the Growth of Geographic Atrophy Using Swept Source OCT Imaging"
600:
Tschosik, Elizabeth; Leidy, Nancy Kline; Kimel, Miriam; Dolan, Chantal; Souied, Eric; Varma, Rohit; Bressler, Neil M. (11 June 2015).
1662:"Subretinal Drusenoid Deposits and Photoreceptor Loss Detecting Global and Local Progression of Geographic Atrophy by SD-OCT Imaging"
1324:"Type 1 Choroidal Neovascularization Is Associated with Reduced Localized Progression of Atrophy in Age-Related Macular Degeneration"
502:
Sadda, SriniVas R.; Chakravarthy, Usha; Birch, David G.; Staurenghi, Giovanni; Henry, Erin C.; Brittain, Christopher (October 2016).
1611:
Pfau M, von der Emde L, de
Sisternes L, Hallak JA, Leng T, Schmitz-Valckenberg S, Holz FG, Fleckenstein M, Rubin DL (October 2020).
3346:
1800:
912:
Künzel SH, Möller PT, Lindner M, Goerdt L, Nadal J, Schmid M, Schmitz-Valckenberg S, Holz FG, Fleckenstein M, Pfau M (May 2020).
2808:
2803:
2628:
1370:
2668:
417:
Wong, Wan Ling; Su, Xinyi; Li, Xiang; Cheung, Chui Ming G; Klein, Ronald; Cheng, Ching-Yu; Wong, Tien Yin (February 2014).
2781:
2776:
2663:
2230:
1275:"Choroidal Flow Signal in Late-Onset Stargardt Disease and Age-Related Macular Degeneration: An OCT-Angiography Study"
2531:
2391:
402:
166:, are associated with a markedly slower GA progression. This further supports the vascular insufficiency hypothesis.
2496:
385:
Lindner, Moritz; Fleckenstein, Monika; Schmitz-Valckenberg, Steffen; Holz, Frank G. (2018), "Atrophy, Geographic",
216:
supported by medication. This discovery can be translated into the development of a therapy to treat dry AMD.
460:"Incidence of Late-Stage Age-Related Macular Degeneration in American Whites: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis"
3071:
2589:
2501:
1513:
Pfau M, Goerdt L, Schmitz-Valckenberg S, Mauschitz MM, Mishra DK, Holz FG, Lindner M, Fleckenstein M (May 2017).
1708:
70:
Initially, patients often have good visual acuity if the GA lesions are not involved in the central macular, or
2491:
2220:
1613:"Progression of Photoreceptor Degeneration in Geographic Atrophy Secondary to Age-related Macular Degeneration"
1436:
Fleckenstein, M; Mitchell, P; Freund, KB; Sadda, S; Holz, FG; Brittain, C; Henry, EC; Ferrara, D (March 2018).
553:"Characterizing Functional Complaints in Patients Seeking Outpatient Low-Vision Services in the United States"
2584:
2475:
2341:
2982:
2673:
2658:
1726:
82:
1870:
1828:
1793:
1323:
817:
1660:
Reiter GS, Told R, Schranz M, Baumann L, Mylonas G, Sacu S, Pollreisz A, Schmidt-Erfurth U (June 2020).
551:
Brown, Jamie C.; Goldstein, Judith E.; Chan, Tiffany L.; Massof, Robert; Ramulu, Pradeep (August 2014).
2798:
2594:
2568:
2526:
2521:
2386:
2259:
2247:
2203:
1124:
Fleckenstein M, Mitchell P, Freund KB, Sadda S, Holz FG, Brittain C, Henry EC, Ferrara D (March 2018).
816:
Lindner M, Pfau M, Czauderna J, Goerdt L, Schmitz-Valckenberg S, Holz FG, Fleckenstein M (March 2019).
43:
504:"Clinical Endpoints for the Study of Geographic Atrophy Secondary to Age-Related Macular Degeneration"
234:
2977:
2865:
2771:
2618:
2463:
2264:
2210:
914:"Determinants of Quality of Life in Geographic Atrophy Secondary to Age-Related Macular Degeneration"
2516:
2487:
2111:
2076:
235:"Change in area of geographic atrophy in the Age-Related Eye Disease Study: AREDS report number 26"
93:
for the treatment of people with geographic atrophy secondary to age-related macular degeneration.
2987:
2741:
2541:
2061:
2054:
78:
3256:
3226:
3161:
3156:
2883:
2161:
2026:
1786:
601:
3341:
3199:
2875:
279:
2843:
2972:
2558:
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2511:
2326:
2242:
31:
8:
3277:
3151:
2951:
2834:
2826:
2614:
2578:
2563:
2418:
2198:
1978:
2907:
1191:
1166:
2888:
2638:
2546:
2470:
2423:
2235:
2171:
2156:
2016:
1965:
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1637:
1612:
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1413:
1396:
1351:
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1204:
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938:
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845:
793:
768:
744:
719:
656:
577:
552:
528:
503:
362:
327:
262:
209:
162:
It was also shown that non-exudative neovascular membranes, which can recapitulate the
123:
39:
735:
435:
418:
3231:
3128:
2893:
2753:
2536:
2193:
2099:
1691:
1642:
1628:
1593:
1536:
1495:
1459:
1438:"The Progression of Geographic Atrophy Secondary to Age-Related Macular Degeneration"
1418:
1355:
1343:
1296:
1255:
1240:
1223:
1196:
1147:
1126:"The Progression of Geographic Atrophy Secondary to Age-Related Macular Degeneration"
1089:
1053:
992:
984:
943:
894:
880:
837:
798:
749:
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692:
648:
644:
613:
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533:
481:
440:
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367:
349:
308:
267:
107:
1548:
1308:
1208:
1101:
849:
818:"Determinants of Reading Performance in Eyes with Foveal-Sparing Geographic Atrophy"
660:
253:
3019:
3009:
2855:
2830:
2763:
2729:
2648:
2279:
2269:
2166:
2021:
1908:
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1681:
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1632:
1624:
1583:
1575:
1526:
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1449:
1408:
1335:
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1245:
1235:
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1178:
1137:
1081:
1045:
1035:
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933:
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829:
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739:
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523:
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471:
430:
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357:
339:
257:
249:
163:
155:
103:
47:
602:"Quantifying functional reading independence in geographic atrophy: the FRI Index"
3086:
3050:
3014:
2633:
2458:
2445:
2379:
2336:
2254:
2066:
1998:
1918:
1903:
1454:
1437:
1142:
1125:
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1049:
979:
962:
688:
568:
519:
71:
3316:
3168:
3113:
2956:
2724:
2653:
2435:
2405:
2351:
2305:
2176:
2049:
1983:
1973:
1339:
1182:
833:
784:
1579:
476:
459:
328:"Age and disease-related structural changes in the retinal pigment epithelium"
3335:
3236:
3091:
3031:
2748:
2696:
2643:
2573:
2482:
2369:
2346:
2274:
2183:
1988:
1893:
988:
696:
617:
353:
203:
202:
In
February 2023, Apellis Pharmaceuticals received the first FDA approval of
90:
1778:
3101:
2929:
2310:
2225:
2133:
2011:
2006:
1951:
1946:
1695:
1646:
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1422:
1347:
1300:
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1151:
1093:
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947:
898:
841:
802:
704:
652:
586:
537:
485:
444:
371:
312:
271:
152:
151:
of the blood supply to the retinal pigment epithelium. They went on to use
1531:
1514:
1291:
1274:
769:"Foveal-Sparing Scotomas in Advanced Dry Age-Related Macular Degeneration"
753:
384:
186:
3300:
3251:
3194:
3189:
3146:
3124:
3035:
3026:
2946:
2924:
2736:
2708:
2506:
2374:
2215:
2036:
1913:
1865:
1812:
1677:
1491:
1476:
929:
127:
51:
3221:
3184:
3108:
3096:
3040:
3001:
2822:
2712:
2071:
1936:
1250:
344:
1512:
718:
Sunness, JS; Applegate, CA; Haselwood, D; Rubin, GS (September 1996).
3272:
3246:
3120:
3066:
3054:
2939:
2934:
2919:
2915:
2453:
2151:
2128:
1941:
1888:
1883:
1860:
3311:
3076:
2610:
2413:
2044:
148:
143:
risk factors for GA progression have been published and validated.
118:
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is characterized by retinal
1610:
1371:"Optical Coherence Tomography in Age-related Macular Degeneration"
3138:
3081:
2623:
2430:
2361:
2331:
2321:
1928:
767:
Sunness JS, Rubin GS, Zuckerbrod A, Applegate CA (October 2008).
1070:
501:
457:
3241:
2143:
2120:
1840:
1435:
1397:"Wet age-related macular degeneration management and follow-up"
1123:
766:
111:
35:
717:
3213:
1321:
1013:(Press release). Apellis Pharmaceuticals. 17 February 2023.
34:
that can result in the progressive and irreversible loss of
2293:
1855:
232:
147:
choriocapillaris had deficient blood flow, thus creating a
119:
960:
815:
673:
911:
862:
630:
86:
1659:
550:
1394:
599:
1272:
2842:
1753:(Press release). Astellas Pharma Inc. 4 August 2023
1709:
FDA Approves First
Treatment for Geographic Atrophy
178:
54:(wet) AMD, the other advanced form of the disease.
134:
2787:arteritic anterior (AAION or arteritic AION)
16:Advanced form of age-related macular degeneration
3333:
1561:
606:Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science
389:, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 207–209,
24:atrophic age-related macular degeneration (AMD)
1395:Malciolu Radu Alexandru (January–March 2016).
416:
1808:
1794:
197:
2861:Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia
2189:Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy
1848:
284:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1801:
1787:
1685:
1636:
1587:
1530:
1453:
1412:
1368:
1290:
1249:
1239:
1190:
1141:
978:
937:
888:
792:
743:
576:
527:
475:
434:
361:
343:
261:
1164:
1221:
497:
495:
325:
298:
3334:
190:optical coherence tomography imaging.
3298:
2694:
2097:
1826:
1782:
1017:from the original on 17 February 2023
206:for the treatment of this condition.
30:, is an advanced form of age-related
2669:Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy
492:
2792:non-arteritic anterior (NAION)
2629:Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy
13:
2664:Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis
14:
3358:
2392:Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy
464:American Journal of Ophthalmology
2497:Central retinal artery occlusion
1629:10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2020.2914
1241:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2018-312643
881:10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2021.3826
645:10.1097/00006324-200303000-00010
179:Quantification of GA progression
3347:Disorders of choroid and retina
2502:Branch retinal artery occlusion
2231:Terrien's marginal degeneration
1765:
1743:
1721:"Novel Drug Approvals for 2023"
1713:
1702:
1653:
1604:
1555:
1506:
1470:
1429:
1388:
1362:
1315:
1266:
1215:
1158:
1117:
1108:
1064:
1029:
1003:
954:
905:
856:
809:
760:
711:
667:
624:
254:10.1001/archophthalmol.2009.198
135:Risk factors for GA progression
96:
61:
3299:
2532:Bietti's crystalline dystrophy
2492:Central retinal vein occlusion
2221:Pellucid marginal degeneration
593:
544:
451:
410:
395:10.1007/978-3-540-69000-9_1125
378:
319:
292:
226:
1:
2585:Vitelliform macular dystrophy
2476:Posterior vitreous detachment
2342:Persistent pupillary membrane
1222:Nassisi, M (21 August 2018).
736:10.1016/S0161-6420(96)30483-1
436:10.1016/S2214-109X(13)70145-1
387:Encyclopedia of Ophthalmology
219:
3072:Leber's congenital amaurosis
2983:Internuclear ophthalmoplegia
2695:
2674:Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease
2659:Persistent fetal vasculature
2590:Leber's congenital amaurosis
1727:Food and Drug Administration
1455:10.1016/j.ophtha.2017.08.038
1143:10.1016/j.ophtha.2017.08.038
1086:10.1097/iae.0000000000001059
1050:10.1016/j.ophtha.2013.11.023
980:10.1016/j.ophtha.2016.12.002
689:10.1016/j.ophtha.2015.03.027
633:Optometry and Vision Science
569:10.1016/j.ophtha.2014.02.030
520:10.1097/IAE.0000000000001283
169:
83:optical coherence tomography
7:
1871:Meibomian gland dysfunction
10:
3363:
2595:Birdshot chorioretinopathy
2569:Central serous retinopathy
2387:Focal choroidal excavation
2260:Corneal neovascularization
2077:Subconjunctival hemorrhage
1827:
1340:10.1016/j.oret.2019.09.016
1183:10.1016/j.oret.2019.01.024
1114:DOI: 10.14336/AD.2020.0912
1025:– via GlobeNewswire.
834:10.1016/j.oret.2018.11.005
785:10.1177/0145482X0810201004
198:Treatment and new findings
44:retinal pigment epithelium
3307:
3294:
3265:
3212:
3177:
3137:
3062:
3049:
3000:
2978:Convergence insufficiency
2965:
2906:
2874:
2851:
2821:
2762:
2720:
2707:
2703:
2690:
2619:Primary juvenile glaucoma
2603:
2464:Cytomegalovirus retinitis
2444:
2404:
2360:
2301:
2292:
2142:
2119:
2110:
2106:
2098:
2093:
2035:
1997:
1964:
1927:
1879:
1839:
1835:
1822:
1813:Diseases of the human eye
1666:Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci
1580:10.1016/j.ajo.2020.12.015
1519:Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci
1480:Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci
1279:Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci
1165:Thulliez, M (June 2019).
918:Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci
477:10.1016/j.ajo.2015.04.003
242:Archives of Ophthalmology
2488:Ocular ischemic syndrome
1761:– via PR Newswire.
1369:Garcia-Layana, Alfredo.
423:The Lancet Global Health
326:Bonilha, Vera L (2008).
2988:One and a half syndrome
2742:Foster Kennedy syndrome
79:fluorescein angiography
20:Geographic atrophy (GA)
3227:Argyll Robertson pupil
2027:Periorbital cellulitis
332:Clinical Ophthalmology
3200:Scintillating scotoma
2866:Kearns–Sayre syndrome
2809:Toxic and nutritional
2782:posterior (PION)
2265:Kayser–Fleischer ring
1532:10.1167/iovs.17-21764
1292:10.1167/iovs.18-23819
2973:Conjugate gaze palsy
2844:Paralytic strabismus
2777:anterior (AION)
2559:Retinitis pigmentosa
2554:Macular degeneration
2327:Intermediate uveitis
2243:Keratoconjunctivitis
1678:10.1167/iovs.61.6.11
1525:(6): BIO121–BIO130.
1492:10.1167/iovs.11-7457
1285:(4): AMD122–AMD131.
930:10.1167/iovs.61.5.63
32:macular degeneration
3278:Childhood blindness
3257:Parinaud's syndrome
2827:Extraocular muscles
2615:Ocular hypertension
2579:Epiretinal membrane
2564:Retinal haemorrhage
2419:Congenital cataract
563:(8): 1655–1662.e1.
2804:Leber's hereditary
2471:Retinal detachment
2424:Childhood cataract
2236:Post-LASIK ectasia
2017:Orbital cellulitis
1966:Lacrimal apparatus
773:J Vis Impair Blind
345:10.2147/opth.s2151
210:Avacincaptad pegol
124:lipid peroxidation
3329:
3328:
3325:
3324:
3290:
3289:
3286:
3285:
3232:Marcus Gunn pupil
3208:
3207:
3129:Visual impairment
2996:
2995:
2902:
2901:
2889:Fourth-nerve (IV)
2817:
2816:
2754:Optic disc drusen
2686:
2685:
2682:
2681:
2400:
2399:
2288:
2287:
2194:Corneal dystrophy
2089:
2088:
2085:
2084:
1960:
1959:
1623:(10): 1026–1034.
1328:Ophthalmol Retina
1171:Ophthalmol Retina
1080:(10): 1843–1850.
875:(11): 1191–1199.
822:Ophthalmol Retina
514:(10): 1806–1822.
122:accumulation and
108:complement system
3354:
3296:
3295:
3060:
3059:
3051:Vision disorders
3010:Refractive error
2952:Brown's syndrome
2908:Other strabismus
2894:Sixth-nerve (VI)
2884:Oculomotor (III)
2856:Ophthalmoparesis
2849:
2848:
2840:
2839:
2831:Binocular vision
2764:Optic neuropathy
2730:optic papillitis
2718:
2717:
2705:
2704:
2692:
2691:
2581:(Macular pucker)
2299:
2298:
2280:Band keratopathy
2117:
2116:
2108:
2107:
2095:
2094:
2022:Orbital lymphoma
1909:Blepharophimosis
1899:Blepharochalasis
1846:
1845:
1837:
1836:
1824:
1823:
1803:
1796:
1789:
1780:
1779:
1773:
1769:
1763:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1747:
1741:
1740:
1738:
1736:
1731:. 18 August 2023
1717:
1711:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1689:
1657:
1651:
1650:
1640:
1608:
1602:
1601:
1591:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1534:
1510:
1504:
1503:
1474:
1468:
1467:
1457:
1433:
1427:
1426:
1416:
1401:Rom J Ophthalmol
1392:
1386:
1385:
1383:
1381:
1366:
1360:
1359:
1319:
1313:
1312:
1294:
1270:
1264:
1263:
1253:
1243:
1219:
1213:
1212:
1194:
1162:
1156:
1155:
1145:
1121:
1115:
1112:
1106:
1105:
1068:
1062:
1061:
1044:(5): 1079–1091.
1033:
1027:
1026:
1024:
1022:
1007:
1001:
1000:
982:
958:
952:
951:
941:
909:
903:
902:
892:
860:
854:
853:
813:
807:
806:
796:
764:
758:
757:
747:
715:
709:
708:
683:(7): 1356–1365.
671:
665:
664:
628:
622:
621:
597:
591:
590:
580:
548:
542:
541:
531:
499:
490:
489:
479:
455:
449:
448:
438:
429:(2): e106–e116.
414:
408:
407:
382:
376:
375:
365:
347:
323:
317:
316:
301:Molecular Vision
296:
290:
289:
283:
275:
265:
239:
230:
164:choriocapillaris
156:autofluorescence
104:oxidative stress
48:choriocapillaris
28:advanced dry AMD
22:, also known as
3362:
3361:
3357:
3356:
3355:
3353:
3352:
3351:
3332:
3331:
3330:
3321:
3303:
3282:
3261:
3204:
3173:
3133:
3087:Color blindness
3053:
3045:
2992:
2966:Other binocular
2961:
2898:
2870:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2813:
2758:
2711:
2699:
2678:
2634:Ocular hypotony
2599:
2459:Chorioretinitis
2440:
2396:
2380:Chorioretinitis
2356:
2337:Rubeosis iridis
2315:
2284:
2255:Corneal opacity
2211:Corneal ectasia
2138:
2102:
2081:
2067:Pseudopterygium
2031:
1993:
1956:
1923:
1919:Ankyloblepharon
1875:
1831:
1818:
1817:
1807:
1777:
1776:
1770:
1766:
1756:
1754:
1749:
1748:
1744:
1734:
1732:
1719:
1718:
1714:
1707:
1703:
1658:
1654:
1617:JAMA Ophthalmol
1609:
1605:
1568:Am J Ophthalmol
1560:
1556:
1511:
1507:
1475:
1471:
1434:
1430:
1393:
1389:
1379:
1377:
1367:
1363:
1320:
1316:
1271:
1267:
1228:Br J Ophthalmol
1220:
1216:
1163:
1159:
1122:
1118:
1113:
1109:
1069:
1065:
1034:
1030:
1020:
1018:
1009:
1008:
1004:
959:
955:
910:
906:
869:JAMA Ophthalmol
861:
857:
814:
810:
779:(10): 600–610.
765:
761:
716:
712:
672:
668:
629:
625:
598:
594:
549:
545:
500:
493:
470:(1): 85–93.e3.
456:
452:
415:
411:
405:
383:
379:
324:
320:
297:
293:
277:
276:
237:
231:
227:
222:
200:
181:
172:
137:
99:
64:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3360:
3350:
3349:
3344:
3327:
3326:
3323:
3322:
3320:
3319:
3317:Onchocerciasis
3314:
3308:
3305:
3304:
3292:
3291:
3288:
3287:
3284:
3283:
3281:
3280:
3275:
3269:
3267:
3263:
3262:
3260:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3218:
3216:
3210:
3209:
3206:
3205:
3203:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3181:
3179:
3175:
3174:
3172:
3171:
3169:Quadrantanopia
3166:
3165:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3143:
3141:
3135:
3134:
3132:
3131:
3118:
3117:
3116:
3114:Oguchi disease
3106:
3105:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3063:
3057:
3047:
3046:
3044:
3043:
3038:
3029:
3024:
3023:
3022:
3017:
3006:
3004:
2998:
2997:
2994:
2993:
2991:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2969:
2967:
2963:
2962:
2960:
2959:
2957:Duane syndrome
2954:
2949:
2944:
2943:
2942:
2937:
2927:
2922:
2912:
2910:
2904:
2903:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2880:
2878:
2872:
2871:
2869:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2852:
2846:
2837:
2819:
2818:
2815:
2814:
2812:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2795:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2768:
2766:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2745:
2744:
2734:
2733:
2732:
2725:Optic neuritis
2721:
2715:
2701:
2700:
2688:
2687:
2684:
2683:
2680:
2679:
2677:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2656:
2654:Phthisis bulbi
2651:
2646:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2607:
2605:
2601:
2600:
2598:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2550:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2537:Coats' disease
2534:
2529:
2527:of prematurity
2524:
2519:
2514:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2485:
2480:
2479:
2478:
2468:
2467:
2466:
2461:
2450:
2448:
2442:
2441:
2439:
2438:
2436:Ectopia lentis
2433:
2428:
2427:
2426:
2421:
2410:
2408:
2402:
2401:
2398:
2397:
2395:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2383:
2382:
2372:
2366:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2355:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2318:
2316:
2314:
2313:
2308:
2302:
2296:
2294:Vascular tunic
2290:
2289:
2286:
2285:
2283:
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2251:
2250:
2240:
2239:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2201:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2180:
2179:
2177:Photokeratitis
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2148:
2146:
2140:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2131:
2125:
2123:
2114:
2104:
2103:
2091:
2090:
2087:
2086:
2083:
2082:
2080:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2058:
2057:
2050:Conjunctivitis
2047:
2041:
2039:
2033:
2032:
2030:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2003:
2001:
1995:
1994:
1992:
1991:
1986:
1984:Dacryocystitis
1981:
1976:
1974:Dacryoadenitis
1970:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1958:
1957:
1955:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1933:
1931:
1925:
1924:
1922:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1880:
1877:
1876:
1874:
1873:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1852:
1850:
1843:
1833:
1832:
1820:
1819:
1816:
1815:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1798:
1791:
1783:
1775:
1774:
1764:
1742:
1712:
1701:
1652:
1603:
1554:
1505:
1486:(10): 7640–6.
1469:
1448:(3): 369–390.
1428:
1387:
1361:
1334:(3): 238–248.
1314:
1265:
1234:(7): 911–917.
1214:
1177:(6): 478–488.
1157:
1136:(3): 369–390.
1116:
1107:
1063:
1028:
1002:
973:(4): 464–478.
953:
904:
855:
828:(3): 201–210.
808:
759:
730:(9): 1458–66.
710:
666:
623:
592:
543:
491:
450:
409:
403:
377:
338:(2): 413–424.
318:
291:
248:(9): 1168–74.
224:
223:
221:
218:
199:
196:
180:
177:
171:
168:
139:A plethora of
136:
133:
98:
95:
63:
60:
40:photoreceptors
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3359:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3339:
3337:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3309:
3306:
3302:
3297:
3293:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3271:
3270:
3268:
3264:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3237:Adie syndrome
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3219:
3217:
3215:
3211:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3182:
3180:
3176:
3170:
3167:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3149:
3148:
3145:
3144:
3142:
3140:
3136:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3119:
3115:
3112:
3111:
3110:
3107:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3092:Achromatopsia
3090:
3089:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3064:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3033:
3032:Anisometropia
3030:
3028:
3025:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3012:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3005:
3003:
2999:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2970:
2968:
2964:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2932:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2911:
2909:
2905:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2877:
2873:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2853:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2835:Accommodation
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2774:
2773:
2770:
2769:
2767:
2765:
2761:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2749:Optic atrophy
2747:
2743:
2740:
2739:
2738:
2735:
2731:
2728:
2727:
2726:
2723:
2722:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2693:
2689:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2649:Keratomycosis
2647:
2645:
2644:Globe rupture
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2609:
2608:
2606:
2602:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2574:Macular edema
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2509:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2483:Retinoschisis
2481:
2477:
2474:
2473:
2472:
2469:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2456:
2455:
2452:
2451:
2449:
2447:
2443:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2416:
2415:
2412:
2411:
2409:
2407:
2403:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2381:
2378:
2377:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2370:Choroideremia
2368:
2367:
2365:
2363:
2359:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2347:Iridodialysis
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2319:
2317:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2303:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2291:
2281:
2278:
2276:
2275:Arcus senilis
2273:
2271:
2270:Haab's striae
2268:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2244:
2241:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2213:
2212:
2209:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2184:Corneal ulcer
2182:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2162:acanthamoebic
2160:
2158:
2155:
2154:
2153:
2150:
2149:
2147:
2145:
2141:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2112:Fibrous tunic
2109:
2105:
2101:
2096:
2092:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2056:
2053:
2052:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2042:
2040:
2038:
2034:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1990:
1989:Xerophthalmia
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1967:
1963:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1932:
1930:
1926:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1894:Lagophthalmos
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1881:
1878:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1853:
1851:
1847:
1844:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1825:
1821:
1814:
1811:
1810:
1804:
1799:
1797:
1792:
1790:
1785:
1784:
1781:
1768:
1752:
1746:
1730:
1728:
1722:
1716:
1710:
1705:
1697:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1656:
1648:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1607:
1599:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1558:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1509:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1473:
1465:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1442:Ophthalmology
1439:
1432:
1424:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1406:
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3342:Eye diseases
3127: /
3123: /
3102:Monochromacy
3034: /
2930:Heterophoria
2918: /
2617: /
2613: /
2517:hypertensive
2490: /
2311:Ciliary body
2226:Keratoglobus
2134:Episcleritis
2012:Enophthalmos
2007:Exophthalmos
1952:Trichomegaly
1947:Distichiasis
1849:Inflammation
1767:
1755:. Retrieved
1745:
1733:. Retrieved
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97:Pathogenesis
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69:
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62:Presentation
56:
27:
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19:
18:
3252:Cycloplegia
3195:Photophobia
3190:Hemeralopia
3147:Hemianopsia
3125:Vision loss
3036:Aniseikonia
3027:Astigmatism
2947:Cyclotropia
2925:Hypertropia
2737:Papilledema
2709:Optic nerve
2542:Sickle cell
2522:Purtscher's
2507:Retinopathy
2375:Choroiditis
2216:Keratoconus
2037:Conjunctiva
1914:Xanthelasma
1866:Blepharitis
1574:: 321–331.
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1251:2434/721615
1021:18 February
612:(7): 4789.
128:Ferroptosis
115:over time.
52:neovascular
3336:Categories
3301:Infections
3222:Anisocoria
3185:Asthenopia
3178:subjective
3162:homonymous
3157:bitemporal
3109:Nyctalopia
3097:Dichromacy
3041:Presbyopia
3002:Refraction
2823:Strabismus
2713:Optic disc
2072:Pinguecula
1937:Trichiasis
1380:8 December
675:Sparing".
220:References
3273:Nystagmus
3247:Mydriasis
3121:Blindness
3067:Amblyopia
3055:Blindness
3015:Hyperopia
2940:Exophoria
2935:Esophoria
2920:Exotropia
2916:Esotropia
2454:Retinitis
2152:Keratitis
2129:Scleritis
2062:Pterygium
1942:Madarosis
1889:Ectropion
1884:Entropion
1861:Chalazion
1757:25 August
1735:25 August
1672:(6): 11.
1356:208226972
989:1549-4713
924:(5): 63.
697:0161-6420
618:1552-5783
354:1177-5467
170:Diagnosis
89:approved
3312:Trachoma
3077:Diplopia
2772:Ischemic
2697:Pathways
2611:Glaucoma
2512:diabetic
2414:Cataract
2352:Synechia
2204:Meesmann
2172:Exposure
2157:herpetic
2055:allergic
2045:Chemosis
1979:Epiphora
1696:32503052
1647:32789526
1598:33359715
1549:10855695
1541:28632841
1500:21873669
1464:29110945
1423:27220225
1375:AMD book
1348:31753808
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1301:30140905
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1209:86851083
1201:31174669
1192:11402513
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1102:28757961
1094:27135213
1058:24433969
1015:Archived
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653:12637832
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445:25104651
372:19668732
313:10562649
272:19752426
149:heat map
38:tissue (
3152:binasal
3139:Anopsia
3082:Scotoma
2876:palsies
2639:Red eye
2624:Floater
2431:Aphakia
2362:Choroid
2332:Hyphema
2322:Uveitis
1929:Eyelash
1687:7415285
1638:7426886
1589:8058170
1414:5712923
939:7405807
890:8485212
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578:6746569
529:5384792
363:2693982
263:6500457
187:en face
141:in vivo
36:retinal
3242:Miosis
3020:Myopia
2799:Kjer's
2547:photic
2446:Retina
2199:Fuchs'
2167:fungal
2144:Cornea
2121:Sclera
1904:Ptosis
1841:Eyelid
1829:Adnexa
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3266:Other
3214:Pupil
2604:Other
2248:sicca
2100:Globe
1999:Orbit
1729:(FDA)
1725:U.S.
1545:S2CID
1352:S2CID
1305:S2CID
1205:S2CID
1098:S2CID
846:S2CID
657:S2CID
238:(PDF)
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2406:Lens
2306:Iris
1856:Stye
1759:2023
1737:2023
1692:PMID
1643:PMID
1594:PMID
1537:PMID
1496:PMID
1460:PMID
1419:PMID
1382:2019
1344:PMID
1297:PMID
1256:PMID
1197:PMID
1148:PMID
1090:PMID
1054:PMID
1023:2023
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399:ISBN
368:PMID
350:ISSN
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286:link
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1287:doi
1246:hdl
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