Graphite - Knowledge

1096: 1899: 1793:. Herbert G. McPherson, a Berkeley trained physicist at National Carbon, a division of Union Carbide, was key in confirming a conjecture of Leo Szilard that boron impurities even in "pure" graphite were responsible for a neutron absorption cross-section in graphite that compromised U-235 chain reactions. McPherson was aware of the presence of impurities in graphite because, with the use of Technicolor in cinematography, the spectra of graphite electrode arcs used in movie projectors required impurities to enhance emission of light in the red region to display warmer skin tones on the screen. Thus, had it not been for color movies, chances are that the first sustained natural U chain reaction would have required a heavy water moderated reactor. 2150: 1923: 1112:

out. In an 1877 patent, the two brothers Bessel (Adolph and August) of Dresden, Germany, took this "floating" process a step further and added a small amount of oil to the tanks and boiled the mix – an agitation or frothing step – to collect the graphite, the first steps toward the future flotation process. Adolph Bessel received the Wohler Medal for the patented process that upgraded the recovery of graphite to 90% from the German deposit. In 1977, the German Society of Mining Engineers and Metallurgists organized a special symposium dedicated to their discovery and, thus, the 100th anniversary of flotation.

2386: 1132: 2158: 777: 789: 801: 762: 755:), differing in terms of the stacking of the graphene layers: stacking in alpha graphite is ABA, as opposed to ABC stacking in the energetically less stable beta graphite. Rhombohedral graphite cannot occur in pure form. Natural graphite, or commercial natural graphite, contains 5 to 15% rhombohedral graphite and this may be due to intensive milling. The alpha form can be converted to the beta form through shear forces, and the beta form reverts to the alpha form when it is heated to 1300 °C for four hours. 820: 1014: 45: 5337: 1420: 1575: 883: 1915: 2045:: No inhalation hazard in manufactured and shipped state. Dust and fumes generated from the material can enter the body by inhalation. High concentrations of dust and fumes may irritate the throat and respiratory system and cause coughing. Frequent inhalation of fume/dust over a long period of time increases the risk of developing lung diseases. Prolonged and repeated overexposure to dust can lead to 2588: 1080:, a major factor in the expansion of educational tools during the first great rise of education for the masses. The British Empire controlled most of the world's production (especially from Ceylon), but production from Austrian, German, and American deposits expanded by mid-century. For example, the Dixon Crucible Company of Jersey City, New Jersey, founded by 1954:

from the different fractions, each with a certain flake size distribution and carbon content. Custom blends can also be made for individual customers who want a certain flake size distribution and carbon content. If flake size is unimportant, the concentrate can be ground more freely. Typical end products include a fine powder for use as a slurry in

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produces a clean, professional look. It is also relatively inexpensive and widely available. Many artists use graphite in conjunction with other media, such as charcoal or ink, to create a range of effects and textures in their work. Graphite of various hardness or softness results in different qualities and tones when used as an

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lime-rich slag, and some iron. The iron is recycled on-site, leaving a mixture of graphite and slag. The best recovery process uses hydraulic classification (which utilizes a flow of water to separate minerals by specific gravity: graphite is light and settles nearly last) to get a 70% graphite rough concentrate.

2305:, unlike in well-explored areas, where they will have strong technology accumulation and large patent portfolios. The innovation focus of these three emerging areas is highly scattered and can be diverse, even for a single applicant. However, recent inventions are seen to leverage the development of graphite 1345:

Graphite is 'predominant anode material used today in lithium-ion batteries'. EV batteries contain four basic components: anode, cathode, electrolyte, and separator. While there is much focus on the cathode materials – lithium, nickel, cobalt, manganese, etc. – the predominant anode material used in

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and some plants had their equipment auctioned off. Since much of the lost capacity was for carbon-magnesite brick, graphite consumption within the refractories area moved towards alumina-graphite shapes and Monolithics, and away from the brick. The major source of carbon-magnesite brick is now China.

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A high-quality flake graphite product that closely resembles natural flake graphite can be made from steelmaking kish. Kish is a large-volume near-molten waste skimmed from the molten iron feed to a basic oxygen furnace and consists of a mix of graphite (precipitated out of the supersaturated iron),

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are sometimes also recycled, but often are not due to their low graphite content: the largest-volume items, such as carbon-magnesite bricks that contain only 15–25% graphite, usually contain too little graphite to be worthwhile to recycle. However, some recycled carbon–magnesite brick is used as the

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The most common way of recycling graphite occurs when synthetic graphite electrodes are either manufactured and pieces are cut off or lathe turnings are discarded for reuse, or the electrode (or other materials) are used all the way down to the electrode holder. A new electrode replaces the old one,

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In art, graphite is typically used to create detailed and precise drawings, as it allows for a wide range of values (light to dark) to be achieved. It can also be used to create softer, more subtle lines and shading. Graphite is popular among artists because it is easy to control, easy to erase, and

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are specialty items for use at very high or very low temperatures, as forging die lubricant, an antiseize agent, a gear lubricant for mining machinery, and to lubricate locks. Having low-grit graphite, or even better, no-grit graphite (ultra high purity), is highly desirable. It can be used as a dry

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any impurities that may be present, including hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, organics, and metals. This is why synthetic graphite is highly pure in excess of 99.9% C purity, but typically has lower density, conductivity and a higher porosity than its natural equivalent. Synthetic graphite can also be

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Global patenting activity relating to ultrasonic exfoliation has decreased over the years, indicating that this low-cost technique has become well established. Thermal exfoliation is a more recent process. Compared to ultrasonic exfoliation, this fast and solvent-free thermal approach has attracted

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propagate quickly along the tightly bound planes, but are slower to travel from one plane to another. Graphite's high thermal stability and electrical and thermal conductivity facilitate its widespread use as electrodes and refractories in high temperature material processing applications. However,

1942:. This makes the "marked" gangue particles float off with the graphite, yielding impure concentrate. There are two ways of obtaining a commercial concentrate or product: repeated regrinding and floating (up to seven times) to purify the concentrate, or by acid leaching (dissolving) the gangue with 1742:

above the temperature of graphitization, sometimes with minor modifications. The graphite scrap comes from pieces of unusable electrode material (in the manufacturing stage or after use) and lathe turnings, usually after crushing and sizing. Most synthetic graphite powder goes to carbon raising in

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article on the Dixon Crucible Company is a sketch of the "floating tanks" used in the age-old process of extracting graphite. Because graphite is so light, the mix of graphite and waste was sent through a final series of water tanks where a cleaner graphite "floated" off, which left waste to drop

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material to line molds for cannonballs, resulting in rounder, smoother balls that could be fired farther, contributing to the strength of the English navy. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and soft, and could easily be cut into sticks. Because of its military importance, this

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of 70° approximately), and it becomes hydrophobic (contact angle of 95° approximately) due to airborne pollutants (hydrocarbons) present in the atmosphere. Those contaminants also alter the electric equipotential surface of graphite by creating domains with potential differences of up to 200 mV as

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In milling, the incoming graphite products and concentrates can be ground before being classified (sized or screened), with the coarser flake size fractions (below 8 mesh, 8–20 mesh, 20–50 mesh) carefully preserved, and then the carbon contents are determined. Some standard blends can be prepared

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Crucibles began using very large flake graphite, and carbon-magnesite bricks requiring not quite so large flake graphite; for these and others there is now much more flexibility in the size of flake required, and amorphous graphite is no longer restricted to low-end refractories. Alumina-graphite

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applications. With over 8,000 patent families filed from 2012 to 2021, battery applications were a key driver of global graphite-related inventions. Innovations in this area are led by battery manufacturers or anode suppliers who have amassed sizable patent portfolios focused strongly on battery

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layers within graphite, has been extensively studied between 2012 and 2021. Specifically, ultrasonic and thermal exfoliation have been the two most popular approaches worldwide, with 4,267 and 2,579 patent families, respectively, significantly more than for either the chemical or electrochemical

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which keeps them cool while saving weight, and is made into a foil laminate that can be used in valve packings or made into gaskets. Old-style packings are now a minor member of this grouping: fine flake graphite in oils or greases for uses requiring heat resistance. A GAN estimate of current US

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or in sheet metal collars surrounding plastic pipe (during a fire, the graphite expands and chars to resist fire penetration and spread), or to make high-performance gasket material for high-temperature use. After being made into graphite foil, the foil is machined and assembled into the bipolar

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In the United States, in 1885, Hezekiah Bradford of Philadelphia patented a similar process, but it is uncertain if his process was used successfully in the nearby graphite deposits of Chester County, Pennsylvania, a major producer by the 1890s. The Bessel process was limited in use, primarily

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At the same time, innovations exploring new synthesis methods and uses for artificial graphite are gaining interest worldwide, as countries seek to exploit the superior material qualities associated with this man-made substance and reduce reliance on the natural material. Patenting activity is

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Li, Zhiting; Wang, Yongjin; Kozbial, Andrew; Shenoy, Ganesh; Zhou, Feng; McGinley, Rebecca; Ireland, Patrick; Morganstein, Brittni; Kunkel, Alyssa; Surwade, Sumedh P.; Li, Lei; Liu, Haitao (October 2013). "Effect of airborne contaminants on the wettability of supported graphene and graphite".

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mostly goes into raising the carbon content in molten steel; it can also serve to lubricate the dies used to extrude hot steel. Carbon additives face competitive pricing from alternatives such as synthetic graphite powder, petroleum coke, and other forms of carbon. A carbon raiser is added to

1703:(pitch). This is finally graphitized by heating it to temperatures approaching 3,000 °C (5,430 °F), at which the carbon atoms arrange into graphite. They can vary in size up to 3.5 m (11 ft) long and 75 cm (30 in) in diameter. An increasing proportion of global 1589:

with some metals and small molecules. In these compounds, the host molecule or atom gets "sandwiched" between the graphite layers, resulting in a type of compound with variable stoichiometry. A prominent example of an intercalation compound is potassium graphite, denoted by the formula

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applications was an innovation hot topic from 2012 to 2021, with over 8,000 patent families recorded worldwide. However, in recent years, in the top countries of applicant origin in this area, including China, Japan and the United States of America (US), patent filings have decreased.

1383:. This use has been important for quite some time, but nonasbestos organic (NAO) compositions are beginning to reduce graphite's market share. A brake-lining industry shake-out with some plant closures has not been beneficial, nor has an indifferent automotive market. According to the 4259:

Kato, Tomofumi; Yamada, Yasuhiro; Nishikawa, Yasushi; Otomo, Toshiya; Sato, Hayato; Sato, Satoshi (October 2021). "Origins of peaks of graphitic and pyrrolic nitrogen in N1s X-ray photoelectron spectra of carbon materials: quaternary nitrogen, tertiary amine, or secondary amine?".

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graphite consumption statistics indicates that 2,200 tonnes were used in this fashion in 2005. Metal can also be impregnated into graphite to create a self-lubricating alloy for application in extreme conditions, such as bearings for machines exposed to high or low temperatures.

1938:. This may be carried out by hand-picking the pieces of gangue (rock) and hand-screening the product or by crushing the rock and floating out the graphite. Beneficiation by flotation encounters the difficulty that graphite is very soft and "marks" (coats) the particles of 1243:

shapes are used as continuous casting ware, such as nozzles and troughs, to convey the molten steel from ladle to mold, and carbon magnesite bricks line steel converters and electric-arc furnaces to withstand extreme temperatures. Graphite blocks are also used in parts of

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Martinez-Martin, David; Longuinhos, Raphael; Izquierdo, Jesus G.; Marele, Antonela; Alexandre, Simone S.; Jaafar, Miriam; Gómez-Rodríguez, Jose M.; Bañares, Luis; Soler, Jose M.; Gomez-Herrero, Julio (September 2013). "Atmospheric contaminants on graphitic surfaces".

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Arregui-Mena, José David; Edmondson, Philip D.; Margetts, Lee; Griffiths, D.V.; Windes, William E.; Carroll, Mark; Mummery, Paul M. (December 2018). "Characterisation of the spatial variability of material properties of Gilsocarbon and NBG-18 using random fields".

1542:, which forces the crystal lattice planes apart, thus expanding the graphite. The expanded graphite can be used to make graphite foil or used directly as a "hot top" compound to insulate molten metal in a ladle or red-hot steel ingots and decrease heat loss, or as 1395:

A foundry-facing mold wash is a water-based paint of amorphous or fine flake graphite. Painting the inside of a mold with it and letting it dry leaves a fine graphite coat that will ease the separation of the object cast after the hot metal has cooled. Graphite

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Latychevskaia, Tataiana; Son, Seok-Kyun; Yang, Yaping; Chancellor, Dale; Brown, Michael; Ozdemir, Servet; Madan, Ivan; Berruto, Gabriele; Carbone, Fabrizio; Mishchenko, Artem; Novoselov, Kostya (2019-08-17). "Stacking transition in rhombohedral graphite".

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linings where the high thermal conductivity of the graphite is critical to ensuring adequate cooling of the bottom and hearth of the furnace. High-purity monolithics are often used as a continuous furnace lining instead of carbon-magnesite bricks.

936:). These valence electrons are free to move, so are able to conduct electricity. However, the electricity is primarily conducted within the plane of the layers. The conductive properties of powdered graphite allow its use as pressure sensor in 3224:

Hanaor, Dorian; Michelazzi, Marco; Chenu, Jeremy; Leonelli, Cristina; Sorrell, Charles C. (December 2011). "The effects of firing conditions on the properties of electrophoretically deposited titanium dioxide films on graphite substrates".

1609:, and it further increases under applied pressure (15.1 K at 8 GPa). Graphite's ability to intercalate lithium ions without significant damage from swelling is what makes it the dominant anode material in lithium-ion batteries. 1473:

Today, pencils are still a small but significant market for natural graphite. Around 7% of the 1.1 million tonnes produced in 2011 was used to make pencils. Low-quality amorphous graphite is used and sourced mainly from China.

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represent a long-explored graphite application area. There have been few inventions in this area over the last decade, with less than 300 patent families filed from 2012 to 2021, very significantly less than between 1992 and 2011.

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Kato, Tomofumi; Yamada, Yasuhiro; Nishikawa, Yasushi; Ishikawa, Hiroki; Sato, Satoshi (June 2021). "Carbonization mechanisms of polyimide: Methodology to analyze carbon materials with nitrogen, oxygen, pentagons, and heptagons".

986:, thus it will float in mid-air above a strong magnet. (If it is made in a fluidized bed at 1000–1300 °C then it is isotropic turbostratic, and is used in blood-contacting devices like mechanical heart valves and is called 3526: 1966:

industry (Synthetic graphite powder and powdered petroleum coke can also be used as carbon raiser). Environmental impacts from graphite mills consist of air pollution including fine particulate exposure of workers and also

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brick became important, and a bit later the alumina-graphite shape. As of 2017 the order of importance is: alumina-graphite shapes, carbon-magnesite brick, Monolithics (gunning and ramming mixes), and then crucibles.

1630:(also called silicon carbide). He discovered that overheating carborundum, as opposed to pure carbon, produced almost pure graphite. While studying the effects of high temperature on carborundum, he had found that 2263:

accounted for over one-third of ceramics-related graphite patent families in China and about one-fifth in the rest of the world. Other important graphite applications include high-value ceramic materials such as

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in 1845, opened mines in the Lake Ticonderoga district of New York, built a processing plant there, and a factory to manufacture pencils, crucibles and other products in New Jersey, described in the

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are emerging application areas for graphite that have attracted interest from both academia and commercial entities, including renowned universities and multinational corporations. Typically for an

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formed into very large flakes (cm) while maintaining its high purity unlike almost all sources of natural graphite. Synthetic graphite has also been known to be formed by other methods including by

1314:, and smartphone products have increased the demand for batteries. Electric-vehicle batteries are anticipated to increase graphite demand. As an example, a lithium-ion battery in a fully electric 4038: 2177:

was the top contributor with more than 47,000 patent families, accounting for four in every five graphite patent families filed worldwide in the last decade. Among other leading countries were

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Bundy, P.; Bassett, W. A.; Weathers, M. S.; Hemley, R. J.; Mao, H. K.; Goncharov, A. F. (1996). "The pressure-temperature phase and transformation diagram for carbon; updated through 1994".

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from its commercial entities and research institutions, China is the country most actively exploiting flake graphite and has contributed to 85 percent of global patent filings in this area.

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The equilibrium pressure and temperature conditions for a transition between graphite and diamond is well established theoretically and experimentally. The pressure changes linearly between

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are strongly influenced by the role of graphite in these materials. In this context, the term "(100%) graphite" is often loosely used to refer to a pure mixture of carbon reinforcement and

4798: 736:, which allows the graphene-like layers to be easily separated and to glide past each other. Electrical conductivity perpendicular to the layers is consequently about 1000 times lower. 993:

For a long time graphite has been considered to be hydrophobic. However, recent studies using highly ordered pyrolytic graphite have shown that freshly clean graphite is hydrophilic (

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From the 16th century, all pencils were made with leads of English natural graphite, but modern pencil lead is most commonly a mix of powdered graphite and clay; it was invented by

2065:: Not relevant, due to the form of the product in its manufactured and shipped state. However, ingestion of dusts generated during working operations may cause nausea and vomiting. 2110:

but a sizeable piece of the old electrode remains. This is crushed and sized, and the resulting graphite powder is mostly used to raise the carbon content of molten steel.

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Natural and crystalline graphites are not often used in pure form as structural materials, due to their shear-planes, brittleness, and inconsistent mechanical properties.

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Wang, C. X.; Yang, G. W. (2012). "Thermodynamic and kinetic approaches of diamond and related nanomaterials formed by laser ablation in liquid". In Yang, Guowei (ed.).

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Almost all of the above refractories are used to make steel and account for 75% of refractory consumption; the rest is used by a variety of industries, such as cement.

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Li, Yiwei; Li, Yawei; Sang, Shaobai; Chen, Xilai; Zhao, Lei; Li, Yuanbing; Li, Shujing (January 2014). "Preparation of Ceramic-Bonded Carbon Block for Blast Furnace".

1641:. In 1896, Acheson received a patent for his method of synthesizing graphite, and in 1897 started commercial production. The Acheson Graphite Co. was formed in 1899. 3326: 1707:

is made using electric arc furnaces, and the electric arc furnace itself is becoming more efficient, making more steel per tonne of electrode. An estimate based on

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exploded or low to intermediate-sized stars expelled their outer envelopes late in their lives. Graphite may be the second or third oldest mineral in the Universe.

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Zhang, Hao; Yang, Yang; Ren, Dongsheng; Wang, Li; He, Xiangming (April 2021). "Graphite as anode materials: Fundamental mechanism, recent progress and advances".

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because of the abundant cleaner deposits found around the globe, which needed not much more than hand-sorting to gather the pure graphite. The state of the art,

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Potential physical / chemical effects: Bulk material is non-combustible. The material may form dust and can accumulate electrostatic charges, which may cause an

1123:, is described in the Canadian Department of Mines report on graphite mines and mining when Canadian deposits began to become important producers of graphite. 2090: 2089:) for graphite exposure in the workplace as a time weighted average (TWA) of 15 million particles per cubic foot (1.5 mg/m) over an 8-hour workday. The 5603: 426:. Synthetic and natural graphite are consumed on a large scale (1.3 million metric tons per year in 2022) for uses in many critical industries including 5593: 5561: 4045: 1655:(HOPG) is the highest-quality synthetic form of graphite. It is used in scientific research, in particular, as a length standard for the calibration of 1321:

Radioactive graphite removed from nuclear reactors has been investigated as a source of electricity for low-power applications. This waste is rich in

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of steel underlying firm buyouts and many plant closures. Many of the plant closures resulted from the acquisition of Harbison-Walker Refractories by

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innovation. Besides industry players, academia and research institutions have been an essential source of innovation in graphite anode technologies.

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The US and European refractories industry had a crisis in 2000–2003, with an indifferent market for steel and a declining refractory consumption per

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Robinson, Gilpin R.; Hammarstrom, Jane M.; Olson, Donald W. (2017). Schulz, Klaus J.; Deyoung, John H.; Seal, Robert R.; Bradley, Dwight C. (eds.).

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between dissimilar metals (due to its electrical conductivity). It is also corrosive to aluminium in the presence of moisture. For this reason, the

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Deprez, N.; McLachlan, D. S. (1988). "The analysis of the electrical conductivity of graphite conductivity of graphite powders during compaction".

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When a large number of crystallographic defects bind these planes together, graphite loses its lubrication properties and becomes what is known as

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by applicants from over 60 countries and regions. However, graphite-related patent families originated predominantly from just a few countries.

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represents another area of intensive research, with over 6,000 patent families registered in the last decade alone. Specifically, graphite for

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vaporizes at about 4,150 °C (7,500 °F), leaving the carbon behind in graphitic carbon. This graphite became valuable as a lubricant.

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Natural graphite is mostly used for refractories, batteries, steelmaking, expanded graphite, brake linings, foundry facings, and lubricants.

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Lapshin, Rostislav V. (March 2019). "Drift-insensitive distributed calibration of probe microscope scanner in nanometer range: Real mode".

4553: 3944: 532:. The high temperatures are maintained for weeks, and are required not only to form the graphite from the precursor carbons but to also 1294:, caused a growth in demand for graphite in the late 1980s and early 1990s – a growth driven by portable electronics, such as portable 1076:

During the 19th century, graphite's uses greatly expanded to include stove polish, lubricants, paints, crucibles, foundry facings, and

866:, diamond rapidly converts to graphite. Rapid conversion of graphite to diamond requires pressures well above the equilibrium line: at 761: 963:

banned its use as a lubricant in aluminium aircraft, and discouraged its use in aluminium-containing automatic weapons. Even graphite

2545: 2352: 1747:, US synthetic graphite powder and scrap production were 95,000 t (93,000 long tons; 105,000 short tons) in 2001 (latest data). 4009: 2193:. Together, these top five countries of applicant origin accounted for 95 percent of global patenting output related to graphite. 1514:

or linseed oil to create a heat-resistant protective coating for the exposed portions of a steam locomotive's boiler, such as the

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with a bond length of 0.142 nm, and the distance between planes is 0.335 nm. Bonding between layers is relatively weak

728:. In each layer, each carbon atom is bonded to three other atoms forming a continuous layer of sp bonded carbon hexagons, like a 3309: 4782: 4763: 4744: 4723: 3576: 3264: 2930: 2641: 2059:

Skin contact: Under normal conditions of intended use, this material does not pose a risk to health. Dust may irritate skin.

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Sometime before 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), an enormous deposit of graphite was discovered on the approach to

858:, 20 °C (293 K) and 1 standard atmosphere (0.10 MPa), the stable phase of carbon is graphite, but diamond is 5721: 5716: 4121: 2717:"Is the Central Cordillera of Colombia a potential source of graphite?: Implications for the energy transition in Colombia" 3337: 1785:

graphite-based nuclear reactors. Since they could not isolate the difficulty they were forced to use far more expensive

1781:, widely used as the seed electrode in commercial graphite deposition systems – this caused the failure of the Germans' 1190:

in 1778 proved that these were at least three different minerals. Scheele's analysis showed that the chemical compounds

990:, and is not diamagnetic. Pyrolytic graphite and pyrolytic carbon are often confused but are very different materials.) 776: 5588: 4863: 4455: 3642: 3520: 2528: 2522: 2337: 2200:

has the highest number of patent families, with more than 5,600 filed worldwide from 2012 to 2021. Supported by active

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typically in the excess of hundred(s) of layers. Graphite occurs naturally and is the most stable form of carbon under

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for specific industries, ranging from electrical and electronics, aerospace and precision engineering to military and

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The ability to leave marks on paper and other objects gave graphite its name, given in 1789 by German mineralogist

1287: 1186:("writing stone") in 1789. He attempted to clear up the confusion between molybdena, plumbago and black lead after 471: 96: 3608: 2149: 5416: 4570: 4521: 3808:

Almeida, Bruno Vidal de; Neves, Elton Silva; Silva, Sidiney Nascimento; Vernilli Junior, Fernando (15 May 2017).

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Eye contact: Dust in the eyes will cause irritation. Exposed may experience eye tearing, redness, and discomfort.

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by various organizations without any players dominating. As a result, the top applicants have a small number of

1002:. Such contaminants can be desorbed by increasing the temperature of graphite to approximately 50 °C or higher. 708:. They are one of about 12 known types of minerals that predate the Solar System and have also been detected in 5706: 5696: 5269: 4726:, Asbury Graphite Mill, 2426–2500 Kirkham Street, Oakland, California, Earth Metrics report 10292.001 (Report). 1719: 574: 257: 2716: 1275:

The use of graphite in batteries has increased since the 1970s. Natural and synthetic graphite are used as an

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Arregui-Mena, José David; Bodel, William; Worth, Robert N.; Margetts, Lee; Mummery, Paul M. (December 2016).

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In 1893, Charles Street of Le Carbone discovered a process for making artificial graphite. In the mid-1890s,

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powder, in water or oil, or as colloidal graphite (a permanent suspension in a liquid). An estimate based on

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Lapshin, Rostislav V. (1 September 1998). "Automatic lateral calibration of tunneling microscope scanners".

2097:(REL) of TWA 2.5 mg/m respirable dust over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 1250 mg/m, graphite is 5731: 129: 3371: 2118:

basis for furnace-repair materials, and also crushed carbon–magnesite brick is used in slag conditioners.

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also uses graphitic carbon electrodes. On a much smaller scale, synthetic graphite electrodes are used in

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steel (competing with natural graphite), with some used in batteries and brake linings. According to the

752: 115: 4639: 1165:, gave its name to the English term for this grey metallic-sheened mineral and even to the leadworts or 442:(5%), among others (17%). Under extremely high pressures and extremely high temperatures it converts to 5608: 5236: 3746: 2094: 2086: 1890:

Graphite rods when filed into shape are used as a tool in glassworking to manipulate hot molten glass.

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Graphite and graphite powder are valued in industrial applications for their self-lubricating and dry

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Handbook of carbon, graphite, diamond, and fullerenes : properties, processing, and applications

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Handbook of carbon, graphite, diamond, and fullerenes : properties, processing, and applications

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Handbuch des oryktognostischen Theils der Mineralogie: Mit einer Farbentabelle und einer Kupfertafel

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Hazen, R. M.; Downs, R. T.; Kah, L.; Sverjensky, D. (13 February 2013). "Carbon Mineral Evolution".

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data indicates that graphite electrode consumption was 197,000 t (217,000 short tons) in 2005.

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Note: Peat is considered a precursor to coal. Graphite is only technically considered a coal type.

5478: 5391: 5386: 5002: 4471: 4071: 3544: 1922: 1862: 1813: 744: 111: 3885: 2026:. U.S. production of synthetic graphite in 2010 was 134,000 t valued at $ 1.07 billion. 1451: 5691: 5638: 4777:. Industrial Minerals and Rocks (7th ed.). Littleton, CO: AIME-Society of Mining Engineers. 3566: 2367: 1623: 1503: 1081: 86: 4813: 3176:

Laser ablation in liquids : principles and applications in the preparation of nanomaterials

2385: 1777:. Care must be taken that reactor-grade graphite is free of neutron absorbing materials such as 1510:

brushes, and various specialized applications. Railroads would often mix powdered graphite with

5613: 5421: 5062: 4542: 3107:"Recommended terminology for the description of carbon as a solid (IUPAC Recommendations 1995)" 1626:(1856–1931) accidentally invented another way to produce synthetic graphite after synthesizing 1519: 1428: 1179: 1131: 169: 4353:

Handbook of Carbon, Graphite, Diamonds and Fullerenes: Properties, Processing and Applications

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The Statutes at Large: From the ... Year of the Reign of ... to the ... Year of the Reign of .

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which project is supported by grants from interested parties including a forestry company in

431: 247: 237: 4824: 2517:. Vol. I (Elements, Sulfides, Sulfosalts). Chantilly, VA: Mineralogical Society of America. 2125:

have a high graphite content, the volume of crucibles used and then recycled is very small.

2053:, may possibly be aggravated by prolonged exposure to high concentrations of graphite dusts. 1835:. The mechanical properties of carbon fiber graphite-reinforced plastic composites and grey 5473: 5448: 4940: 4879: 4838: 4819: 4692: 4172: 3850: 3273: 3148: 3071: 2843: 2808: 2429: 2208:

strongly led by commercial entities, particularly world-renowned battery manufacturers and

1680: 1523: 1379:

for heavier (nonautomotive) vehicles, and became important with the need to substitute for

1187: 915: 862:

and its rate of conversion to graphite is negligible. However, at temperatures above about

545:

at temperatures above 2,500 K (2,230 °C), by decomposition of thermally unstable

459:

Graphite occurs naturally in ores that can be classified into one of two categories either

2506:

Anthony, John W.; Bideaux, Richard A.; Bladh, Kenneth W.; Nichols, Monte C., eds. (1990).

2022:

is in the development stages of creating a pilot plant for their Coosa Graphite Mine near

2014:, but there are many historical mine sites including ones in Alabama, Montana, and in the 8: 5551: 5411: 5311: 2256: 2232: 2019: 1873: 1844: 1832: 1761:

Special grades of synthetic graphite, such as Gilsocarbon, also find use as a matrix and

1676: 733: 423: 348: 280: 270: 209: 4696: 4176: 3991: 3854: 3277: 3152: 3075: 2847: 2812: 2624:

Marsh, Harry; Rodríguez-Reinoso, Francisco (2006). "Production and Reference Material".

2433: 724:

Graphite consists of sheets of trigonal planar carbon. The individual layers are called

5623: 5566: 5536: 5526: 5483: 5262: 4977: 4959: 4710: 4323: 4193: 4184: 4156: 4017: 3866: 3714: 3354: 3289: 3248: 3234: 3087: 3061: 2963: 2633: 2447: 2298: 2170: 2023: 1968: 1883:

Graphite composites are used as absorber for high-energy particles, for example in the

1715: 1330: 1191: 979: 967:

marks on aluminium parts may facilitate corrosion. Another high-temperature lubricant,

956: 227: 2157: 501:

is the typical source of amorphous graphite. Crystalline flake graphite is mined from

5676: 5628: 5556: 5503: 5356: 4778: 4759: 4740: 4733: 4451: 4356: 4198: 3870: 3638: 3572: 3516: 3486: 3415: 3293: 3285: 3204: 3179: 3160: 3091: 2998: 2988: 2967: 2926: 2899: 2874: 2779: 2637: 2518: 2451: 2134: 1983: 1947: 1943: 1869: 1825: 1762: 1700: 1148: 1085: 948: 937: 854:). However, the phases have a wide region about this line where they can coexist. At 729: 505: 490: 415: 4714: 3028: 1359:

increase the carbon content of the steel to a specified level. An estimate based on

5618: 5371: 5216: 5146: 5052: 4700: 4651: 4428: 4400: 4333: 4296: 4269: 4241: 4188: 4180: 4155:

Emery, Nicolas; Hérold, Claire; Marêché, Jean-François; Lagrange, Philippe (2008).

3912: 3858: 3826: 3821: 3809: 3710: 3478: 3450: 3306: 3281: 3244: 3156: 3118: 3079: 3032: 3023: 2955: 2851: 2816: 2730: 2629: 2577: 2437: 2372: 2275: 2269: 2236: 2213: 1851: 1790: 1756: 1556: 1467: 1267:, US natural graphite consumption in refractories comprised 12,500 tonnes in 2010. 1199: 987: 689: 614: 606: 570: 377: 300: 217: 70: 4432: 4039:"Electric Graphite Growing Demand From Electric Vehicles & Mobile Electronics" 1151:

mineral form. Both of these names arise from confusion with the similar-appearing

947:

properties. However, the use of graphite is limited by its tendency to facilitate

5316: 5101: 5057: 5023: 4965: 4829: 4478: 4404: 4366: 4337: 4245: 3686:. Spons' Workshop Receipts Vol. II: Dyeing to Japanning. Spon. 1921. p. 132. 3454: 3313: 2332: 1931: 1877: 1805: 1766: 1638: 1627: 1595: 1479: 1334: 1311: 1104: 952: 709: 693: 554: 550: 529: 4803: 3931:"EV batteries need graphite – here's what's forecast for supply | Electrek" 2488: 1820:, golf club shafts, bicycle frames, sports car body panels, the fuselage of the 1816:(RCC). Commercial structures made from carbon fiber graphite composites include 1644:

Synthetic graphite can also be prepared from polyimide and then commercialized.

5498: 5426: 5401: 5198: 5007: 4971: 4273: 3916: 2721: 2327: 2290: 2197: 2069: 2046: 1801: 1774: 1739: 1723: 1692: 1688: 1507: 1491: 929: 908: 521: 106: 63: 4843: 4605: 3862: 3083: 2959: 2855: 512:

regions. There are serious negative environmental impacts to graphite mining.

5670: 5255: 5231: 5085: 4984: 4950: 4834: 4758:. Financial Times Executive Commodity Reports. London: Mining Journal Books. 4217: 3027:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) " 2735: 2592: 2310: 2306: 2186: 2035: 2011: 1935: 1865:. It was mixed with rubber in Sumpf and Schornsteinfeger, which were used on 1855: 1684: 1539: 1444: 1387:, US natural graphite consumption in brake linings was 6,510 tonnes in 2005. 1244: 1034: 994: 968: 834: 824: 819: 498: 475: 407: 203: 122: 3970: 3122: 3036: 3002: 2869:

Delhaes, Pierre (2000). "Polymorphism of carbon". In Delhaes, Pierre (ed.).

2608:, Acheson, E. G., "Production of Graphite", published 1906-11-20 2507: 1637:

Acheson's technique for producing silicon carbide and graphite is named the

577:. It is produced from forestry waste and similar byproducts by a company in 508:, while lump or chip graphite is mined from veins which occur in high-grade 5643: 5221: 4370: 4202: 3490: 2771: 2390: 2153:

Distribution of graphite-related patent families by source type - 2012-2022

2138: 1972: 1955: 1782: 1535: 1534:

Expanded graphite is made by immersing natural flake graphite in a bath of

1458:, whose ores had a similar appearance, hence the continuation of the name. 1307: 960: 851: 705: 622: 618: 533: 502: 487: 483: 427: 3945:"Graphite/Metal Alloy Extends Material Life in High-Temperature Processes" 2834:

McCoy, T. J. (22 February 2010). "Mineralogical Evolution of Meteorites".

2820: 1176:

usually refers to a powdered or processed graphite, matte black in color.

645:. The principal export sources of mined graphite are in order of tonnage: 5576: 5571: 5513: 5463: 5438: 5183: 5162: 4905: 4637: 2982: 2362: 2357: 2282: 2219:

The exfoliation process for bulk graphite, which involves separating the

2182: 2015: 2007: 1817: 1786: 1470:

is normally restricted to 17th and 18th-century works, mostly portraits.

1376: 1355: 1315: 1195: 1065: 1045: 983: 933: 899: 578: 542: 525: 509: 328: 137: 4730: 4655: 3439: 2442: 2417: 5321: 4848: 3616: 2302: 2260: 2114: 2072:(ignition source). High dust levels may create potential for explosion. 2042: 1828: 1789:

moderators. Graphite used for nuclear reactors is often referred to as

1672: 1617: 1552: 1397: 1375:

Natural amorphous and fine flake graphite are used in brake linings or

1364: 1326: 1299: 1231: 1223: 1069: 1064:, which the locals found useful for marking sheep. During the reign of 1053: 971:, has the same molecular structure as graphite. It is sometimes called 859: 697: 662: 642: 479: 439: 338: 4417: 4300: 2476: 1073:

unique mine and its production were strictly controlled by the Crown.

1017:

Graphite plates and sheets, 10–15 cm high; mineral specimen from

358:

strongly anisotropic, conducts electricity, greasy feel, readily marks

5648: 5633: 5581: 5531: 5521: 5117: 4935: 4705: 4680: 3482: 2464: 2342: 2062: 2050: 1836: 1696: 1668: 1547: 1511: 1466:, typically as a lump of the mineral without a wood casing. The term 1322: 1295: 1280: 1235: 1030: 944: 922: 891: 807: 713: 681: 626: 590: 435: 3698: 2581: 1013: 5598: 5546: 5453: 5431: 5396: 5376: 5351: 5226: 5067: 4930: 4606:"CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Graphite (natural)" 4328: 3727: 3066: 2347: 2314: 2201: 2144: 2122: 1560:

natural graphite consumption in this end-use is 7,500 tonnes.

1543: 1515: 1380: 1227: 1166: 1018: 926: 919: 907:

in oxygen-containing atmospheres graphite readily oxidizes to form

725: 685: 666: 419: 27: 5336: 3239: 2573: 520:

Synthetic graphite is graphite of high purity produced by thermal

44: 5458: 5306: 5178: 4899: 4722:

C.Michael Hogan; Marc Papineau; et al. (December 18, 1989).

4386:"Spatial variability in the mechanical properties of Gilsocarbon" 4075: 3889: 2676:"CarbonScape Renewable Biographite Anode Material Ready to Scale" 2591:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

2265: 2248: 1959: 1727: 1631: 1463: 1161: 1061: 1057: 1038: 903: 701: 634: 586: 546: 482:. All naturally occurring graphite deposits are formed from the 443: 310: 3807: 2235:, graphite has drawn significant attention worldwide for use in 2169:

families in graphite technologies were filed from 2012 to 2021.

1574: 5443: 5361: 2396:

Patent Landscape Report - Graphite and its applications

2286: 2220: 2190: 2166: 2137:

gives a 95% graphite product with a flake size ranging from 10

2003: 1999: 1939: 1914: 1907: 1866: 1303: 1256: 1203: 1156: 1077: 964: 674: 658: 654: 650: 630: 558: 411: 344: 79: 4383: 3050: 2658:"Batteries made from woodchips could clean up the EV industry" 1893: 1107:

process are associated with graphite mining. Included in the

882: 569:

Biographite is a commercial product proposal for reducing the

5296: 4522:"How graphite is used in the glass and fibreglass industries" 3223: 2241: 2209: 2178: 2174: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1963: 1840: 1778: 1704: 1419: 1276: 1252: 646: 610: 4721: 4450:. New York, N.Y.: American Institute of Physics. Figure 11. 3542: 2776:

Stardust From Meteorites: An Introduction To Presolar Grains

1099:

Graphited Wood Grease 1908 ad in the Electric Railway Review

1092:

21 December 1878. The Dixon pencil is still in production.

665:. Significant unexploited graphite resources also exists in 5541: 5493: 5381: 5301: 5278: 4647: 4230: 2098: 1708: 1455: 1402: 1384: 1360: 1152: 895: 638: 494: 395: 4143:

True color/appearance of the "Graphite, or Smokebox colors

3138: 1226:(heat-resistant) material began before 1900 with graphite 704:

compositions, indicating that they were formed before the

5488: 4640:"Patent Landscape Report - Graphite and its applications" 1206:) and graphite were three different soft black minerals. 1026: 468: 389: 383: 4835:

Video lecture on the properties of graphite by M. Heggie

4519: 4258: 2571: 446:. It is a good conductor of both heat and electricity 198:

Iron-black to steel-gray; deep blue in transmitted light

5247: 2798: 2546:"Graphite global consumption share by end use and type" 2212:

material suppliers, with patenting interest focused on

2010:(6,000 t). Graphite is not currently mined in the 1230:

used to hold molten metal; this is now a minor part of

4044:. galaxycapitalcorp.com. July 20, 2011. Archived from 3664:. Ottawa: Canadian Department of Mines. p. passim 3661:

Graphite its Properties, Occurrence, Refining and Uses

3568:

A Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells, Western Fells

2623: 1367:

in the US used 10,500 tonnes in this fashion in 2005.

2091:

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

1329:, so it could potentially be used as the basis for a 392: 5604:

Health and environmental impact of the coal industry

3545:"Old Cumbria Gazetteer, black lead mine, Seathwaite" 2393:

work. Licensed under CC-BY. Text taken from

1618:

Invention of a process to produce synthetic graphite

1598:. The highest transition temperature (by June 2009) 1462:

is another older term for natural graphite used for

398: 386: 5594:

Environmental justice and coal mining in Appalachia

4731:Klein, Cornelis; Cornelius S. Hurlbut, Jr. (1985). 3810:"Blast Furnace Hearth Lining: Post Mortem Analysis" 3467: 3410:Marsh, Harry; Reinoso, Francisco Rodríguez (2007). 1926:

World graphite reserves and mine production in 2022

493:, and the ore type is due to its geologic setting. 380: 4732: 4638:World Intellectual Property Organization. (2023). 3564: 3558: 1363:'s graphite consumption statistics indicates that 1008: 528:materials most commonly by a process known as the 4772: 4753: 3744: 2714: 1454:in 1795. It is chemically unrelated to the metal 1390: 1169:, plants with flowers that resemble this colour. 886:Molar volume against pressure at room temperature 295:Opaque, transparent only in extremely thin flakes 5668: 4816:– Map of World Graphite Mines and Producers 2012 4157:"Synthesis and superconducting properties of CaC 3902: 3395:. Lotus Seven Club. 9 April 2003. Archived from 3327:"ASM Tech Notes – TN7-0506 – Galvanic Corrosion" 2682: 2145:Research and innovation in graphite technologies 1934:and underground methods. Graphite usually needs 1854:is coated in graphite to prevent the buildup of 1612: 1490:Graphite is probably the most-used lubricant in 1037:used graphite in a ceramic paint for decorating 712:. These minerals were formed in the ejecta when 467:(flake or lump/chip) which is determined by the 4586:"Westwater Resources acquires Alabama Graphite" 4472:What is the best material for a tennis racquet? 4344: 3513:The Cambridge ancient history, Volume 3, Part 1 3261: 1068:(1558–1603), Borrowdale graphite was used as a 4122:"Top 5 Speed Tips for Your Pinewood Derby Car" 3203:. University Science Books. pp. 257–260. 2604: 2567: 2565: 2563: 2561: 2559: 2557: 2555: 1990:, of which the following major exporters are: 1695:. They are extruded and shaped, then baked to 932:within the carbon layers (a phenomenon called 5263: 4864: 4280: 4031: 3989: 3547:. Geography Department, Portsmouth University 2083:Occupational Safety and Health Administration 925:. It can conduct electricity due to the vast 4844:CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards 4678: 3840: 3728:Widenmann, Johann Friedrich Wilhelm (1794). 3414:(1st ed.). Elsevier. pp. 497–498. 3409: 2389: This article incorporates text from a 2049:. Pre-existing pulmonary disorders, such as 1594:. Some graphite intercalation compounds are 1526:uses a graphite tip as its heating element. 629:. Minerals associated with graphite include 4082: 3699:"V.— the Meanings and Synonyms of Plumbago" 2946:Chung, D. D. L. (2002). "Review Graphite". 2918: 2598: 2552: 2240:performance improvements based on graphite 1894:Graphite mining, beneficiation, and milling 1812:, and in heat-resistant composites such as 1340: 1209: 700:. Some microscopic grains have distinctive 524:at temperatures in excess of 2,100 °C from 242:Flaky, otherwise rough when not on cleavage 5270: 5256: 4871: 4857: 4583: 4215:Acheson, E. G. "Manufacture of Graphite", 4014:University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign 3843:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 3684:Electro-Plating on Non-Metallic Substances 3192: 2778:. World Scientific. pp. 14, 154–157. 2231:As the most widespread anode material for 1986:of natural graphite in 2016 was 1,200,000 911:at temperatures of 700 °C and above. 4704: 4411: 4377: 4327: 4192: 4145:. List.nwhs.org. Retrieved on 2013-04-15. 4069: 3825: 3628: 3626: 3497: 3238: 3104: 3065: 3046: 3044: 2734: 2441: 2353:Graphitizing and non-graphitizing carbons 1861:Graphite has been used in at least three 1843:, while the term "composite" is used for 4878: 4445: 4439: 4307: 3703:Transactions of the Philological Society 3173: 3134: 3132: 2987:. Park Ridge, N.J.: Noyes Publications. 2156: 2148: 2099:immediately dangerous to life and health 1921: 1913: 1897: 1573: 1563: 1418: 1346:virtually all EV batteries is graphite. 1318:contains nearly 40 kg of graphite. 1130: 1094: 1012: 881: 818: 4350: 4313: 4286: 3883: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3776: 3774: 3772: 3770: 3768: 3766: 3764: 3543:Norgate, Martin; Norgate, Jean (2008). 3536: 3227:Journal of the European Ceramic Society 3014: 3012: 2980: 2893: 2868: 2754: 2752: 2750: 2748: 2746: 2465:Liquid method: pure graphene production 1831:and have been successfully employed in 1773:also recommends it for use in proposed 1738:The powder is made by heating powdered 1555:. The foil is made into heat sinks for 918:, hence useful in such applications as 16:Allotrope of carbon, mineral, substance 5669: 4571:"Wonder 5: Graphite Mines – Boom Town" 3657: 3632: 3623: 3178:. Pan Stanford Pub. pp. 164–165. 3041: 2898:. Noyes Publications. pp. 40–41. 2873:. Gordon & Breach. pp. 1–24. 2801:Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry 2770: 2196:Among the different graphite sources, 2161:Innovation Maturity Matrix of graphite 2029: 1647: 1135:Advert for Crane's Black Lead, c. 1905 739:There are two allotropic forms called 449: 5562:mining disasters in the United States 5251: 4852: 4724:Phase I Environmental Site Assessment 4633: 4631: 4629: 4627: 4625: 4490: 3788:"Graphite Statistics and Information" 3747:"Versuche mit Wasserbley; Molybdaena" 3696: 3435: 3433: 3431: 3393:"Good Engineering Practice/Corrosion" 3265:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 3129: 2945: 2833: 2501: 2499: 2497: 2104: 1876:. It was also used in tiles on early 982:. It is also highly anisotropic, and 595: 515: 4550:National Minerals Information Center 4148: 4072:"ART TECHNIQUE-GRAPHITE AS A MEDIUM" 3761: 3503: 3370:. September 16, 2005. Archived from 3198: 3009: 2743: 2715:Bustamante, C.; Cardona, A. (2024). 2696:. Minerals Education Coalition. 2018 2418:"IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols" 2415: 1750: 1529: 1286:The demand for batteries, primarily 1147:. Plumbago was commonly used in its 1103:The beginnings of the revolutionary 212:masses, granular to compacted masses 3949:Foundry Management & Technology 3751:Svenska Vetensk. Academ. Handlingar 1733: 1502:Natural graphite has found uses in 877: 454: 13: 5589:Environmental issues in Appalachia 4679:Lipson, H.; Stokes, A. R. (1942). 4672: 4622: 4543:"Mineral Commodity Summaries 2020" 3990:Ritter, Steve (October 15, 2001). 3968: 3715:10.1111/j.1467-968X.1908.tb00513.x 3428: 3249:10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2011.07.007 3024:Compendium of Chemical Terminology 2494: 2338:Exfoliated graphite nano-platelets 1653:Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite 1139:Historically, graphite was called 898:properties of graphite are highly 14: 5743: 4792: 4520:Olmec Advanced Materials (2019). 3506:"The Neolithic-Eneolithic Period" 3368:"Weapons Lubricant in the Desert" 2761:. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 1971:from powder spillages leading to 1745:United States Geographical Survey 1683:, which are the vast majority of 1671:carry the electricity that melts 1485: 975:, due to its similar properties. 814: 5335: 4735:Manual of Mineralogy: after Dana 4559:from the original on 2017-02-09. 4509:from the original on 2015-09-10. 4493:"Protecting the LHC from itself" 4289:Review of Scientific Instruments 2634:10.1016/B978-008044463-5/50023-6 2586: 2534:from the original on 2013-10-04. 2384: 2085:(OSHA) has set the legal limit ( 2076: 1810:carbon fiber reinforced plastics 1605:= 11.5 K is achieved in CaC 1370: 1325:, which emits electrons through 1090:Engineering & Mining Journal 1033:Age in southeastern Europe, the 799: 787: 775: 760: 673:in the form of graphite-bearing 410:allotrope (form) of the element 376: 127:Dihexagonal dipyramidal (6/mmm) 43: 4906:Lonsdaleite (hexagonal diamond) 4598: 4577: 4563: 4535: 4513: 4484: 4464: 4252: 4224: 4209: 4136: 4114: 4102:from the original on 2012-08-09 4063: 4002: 3983: 3962: 3937: 3923: 3896: 3877: 3834: 3801: 3738: 3721: 3690: 3676: 3651: 3601: 3585: 3461: 3403: 3385: 3360: 3355:Better Lubricants than Graphite 3347: 3319: 3300: 3255: 3217: 3167: 3105:E. Fitzer; et al. (1995). 3098: 2974: 2939: 2912: 2887: 2862: 2827: 2792: 2764: 2708: 2668: 2650: 1980:United States Geological Survey 1796: 1570:Graphite intercalation compound 1409: 1333:. This concept is known as the 1283:in major battery technologies. 1234:. In the mid-1980s, the carbon- 1217: 1009:History of natural graphite use 856:normal temperature and pressure 782:Side view of ABA layer stacking 692:. Small graphitic crystals in 583:thermo-catalytic graphitisation 5687:Non-petroleum based lubricants 4070:Not known (January 29, 2018). 3827:10.1590/1980-5373-mr-2016-0875 3635:Colloidal Science of Flotation 2617: 2538: 2482: 2470: 2458: 2409: 1720:electrical discharge machining 1391:Foundry facings and lubricants 1349: 1126: 564: 414:. It consists of many stacked 1: 4433:10.1016/j.jnucmat.2018.09.008 4090:"Module 6: Media for 2-D Art" 2402: 2228:greater commercial interest. 1904:Naturalis Biodiversity Center 1847:with additional ingredients. 1662: 1613:History of synthetic graphite 1497: 1117: 1000:kelvin probe force microscopy 850:(the diamond/graphite/liquid 768:Scanning tunneling microscope 600: 581:using a novel process called 252:Flexible non-elastic, sectile 4646:. Patent Landscape Reports. 4421:Journal of Nuclear Materials 4405:10.1016/j.carbon.2016.09.051 4338:10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.10.149 4262:Journal of Materials Science 4246:10.1016/j.carbon.2021.02.090 4221:, issued September 29, 1896. 4185:10.1088/1468-6996/9/4/044102 3455:10.1016/j.carbon.2013.04.056 3161:10.1016/0008-6223(96)00170-4 2948:Journal of Materials Science 1962:molds, carbon raiser in the 1270: 794:Plane view of layer stacking 719: 7: 5722:Minerals in space group 194 5717:Minerals in space group 186 4681:"A New Structure of Carbon" 4446:Weinberg, Alvin M. (1994). 4010:"The History of the Pencil" 3992:"Pencils & Pencil Lead" 3976:Online Etymology Dictionary 3884:Targray (August 27, 2020). 3571:. London: Frances Lincoln. 3565:Wainwright, Alfred (2005). 3353:Jones, Rick (USAF-Retired) 2320: 1946:(for a silicate gangue) or 1159:. The Latin word for lead, 573:of lithium iron phosphate 10: 5748: 5609:Health effects of coal ash 5417:power in the United States 5237:Aggregated diamond nanorod 4773:Taylor, Harold A. (2005). 4754:Taylor, Harold A. (2000). 4274:10.1007/s10853-021-06283-5 3917:10.1016/j.ensm.2020.12.027 3886:"Graphite Anode Materials" 3745:Scheele, C. W. K. (1779). 3286:10.1088/0022-3727/21/1/015 3111:Pure and Applied Chemistry 2467:. Phys.org (May 30, 2010). 2379: 2299:patent families were filed 2095:recommended exposure limit 2087:permissible exposure limit 1950:(for a carbonate gangue). 1930:Graphite is mined by both 1754: 1657:scanning probe microscopes 1567: 1414: 25: 18: 5657: 5512: 5344: 5333: 5285: 5207: 5137: 5076: 5043: 5035:(cyclo[18]carbon) 4993: 4914: 4886: 4825:giant covalent structures 4814:Mineral & Exploration 4584:Jeremy Law (2018-05-16). 4351:Pierson, Hugh O. (1993). 3996:American Chemical Society 3863:10.1007/s11661-013-1976-4 3637:. CRC Press. p. 11. 3613:Dixon Ticonderoga Company 3084:10.1007/s11467-018-0867-y 2981:Pierson, Hugh O. (1993). 2894:Pierson, Hugh O. (2012). 2856:10.2113/gselements.6.1.19 1902:Large graphite specimen. 1880:stealth strike fighters. 1863:radar absorbent materials 1675:and steel, and sometimes 1222:The use of graphite as a 770:image of graphite surface 539:chemical vapor deposition 362: 354: 337: 327: 319: 309: 299: 289: 279: 269: 256: 246: 236: 232:Basal – perfect on {0001} 226: 216: 202: 194: 189: 168: 136: 121: 105: 95: 85: 69: 59: 54: 42: 37: 21:Graphite (disambiguation) 5479:Greenhouse gas emissions 5277: 5019:(cyclo[6]carbon) 5003:Linear acetylenic carbon 4804:Graphite at Minerals.net 4739:(20th ed.). Wiley. 4165:Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater 3905:Energy Storage Materials 2736:10.5027/andgeoV51n2-3728 2309:, particularly graphite 1814:reinforced carbon-carbon 1722:(EDM), commonly to make 1341:Graphite Anode Materials 1210:Uses of natural graphite 823:Theoretically predicted 617:carbon compounds during 497:that has been thermally 130:Hermann–Mauguin notation 26:Not to be confused with 5682:Native element minerals 5639:Problems in coal mining 4316:Applied Surface Science 3734:. Crusius. p. 653. 3697:Evans, John W. (1908). 3201:Chemical Thermodynamics 3199:Rock, Peter A. (1983). 3123:10.1351/pac199567030473 3037:10.1351/goldbook.R05385 2960:10.1023/A:1014915307738 2922:Graphite and Precursors 2871:Graphite and precursors 2368:Passive fire protection 1975:contamination of soil. 1918:Graphite output in 2005 1802:Graphite (carbon) fiber 1691:after it is mixed with 1624:Edward Goodrich Acheson 1587:intercalation compounds 969:hexagonal boron nitride 684:, graphite occurs with 589:and a battery maker in 5614:History of coal mining 5063:Carbide-derived carbon 4945:(buckminsterfullerene) 4799:Battery Grade Graphite 4355:. Noyes Publications. 3658:Cirkel, Fritz (1907). 3334:Atlas Specialty Metals 2515:Handbook of Mineralogy 2422:Mineralogical Magazine 2257:manufacturing ceramics 2165:Globally, over 60,000 2162: 2154: 2133:this concentrate with 1927: 1919: 1911: 1582: 1429:Abraham Gottlob Werner 1424: 1279:material to construct 1180:Abraham Gottlob Werner 1136: 1100: 1025:In the 4th millennium 1022: 887: 828: 463:(microcrystalline) or 5707:Electrical conductors 5697:Visual arts materials 5469:Fossil fuel phase-out 5367:Black coal equivalent 4448:The First Nuclear Era 3399:on 16 September 2009. 3029:Rhombohedral graphite 2821:10.2138/rmg.2013.75.4 2233:lithium-ion batteries 2160: 2152: 1925: 1917: 1901: 1885:Large Hadron Collider 1822:Boeing 787 Dreamliner 1771:neutron cross-section 1687:. They are made from 1681:electric arc furnaces 1577: 1564:Intercalated graphite 1518:or lower part of the 1504:zinc-carbon batteries 1452:Nicolas-Jacques Conté 1422: 1292:lithium-ion batteries 1134: 1098: 1016: 885: 822: 432:lithium-ion batteries 355:Other characteristics 97:Strunz classification 5702:Refractory materials 5474:Great Smog of London 5407:pollution mitigation 4880:Allotropes of carbon 4839:University of Sussex 4124:. S&W Crafts Mfg 3633:Nguyen, Ahn (2003). 3532:on 25 February 2013. 3054:Frontiers of Physics 2919:Delhaes, P. (2001). 2664:. February 26, 2024. 2628:. pp. 454–508. 2270:nuclear applications 2216:anode applications. 2113:Graphite-containing 2006:(32,000 t) and 1538:, then concentrated 1524:Scope soldering iron 1433:γράφειν ("graphein") 1354:Natural graphite in 1288:nickel–metal hydride 1188:Carl Wilhelm Scheele 916:electrical conductor 621:. It also occurs in 19:For other uses, see 5732:Industrial minerals 5392:fired power station 5387:combustion products 5312:Sub-bituminous coal 5289:(lowest to highest) 5286:Coal types by grade 4820:Mindat w/ locations 4697:1942Natur.149Q.328L 4656:10.34667/tind.47589 4268:(28): 15798–15811. 4218:U.S. patent 568,323 4177:2008STAdM...9d4102E 3855:2014MMTA...45..477L 3278:1988JPhD...21..101D 3153:1996Carbo..34..141B 3076:2019FrPhy..1413608L 2848:2010Eleme...6...19M 2813:2013RvMG...75...79H 2443:10.1180/mgm.2021.43 2434:2021MinM...85..291W 2416:Warr, L.N. (2021). 2295:emerging technology 2030:Occupational safety 2020:Westwater Resources 1874:radar cross section 1845:composite materials 1833:reinforced concrete 1677:direct-reduced iron 1648:Scientific research 1155:ores, particularly 1048:from the hamlet of 734:van der Waals bonds 609:as a result of the 605:Graphite occurs in 450:Types and varieties 424:standard conditions 349:chlorosulfuric acid 208:Tabular, six-sided 5712:Hexagonal minerals 5527:Black lung disease 5504:Toxic heavy metals 5484:Metallurgical coal 5158:(cyclopropatriene) 5139:hypothetical forms 4960:Fullerene whiskers 4491:Yurkewicz, Katie. 4481:. tennis.about.com 4477:2011-07-07 at the 4051:on October 4, 2013 3814:Materials Research 3597:1764. p. 415. 3515:. pp. 31–32. 3312:2009-03-10 at the 3307:Galvanic Corrosion 2191:Russian Federation 2171:Patents were filed 2163: 2155: 2141:(2 mm) down. 2105:Graphite recycling 2093:(NIOSH) has set a 2024:Sylacauga, Alabama 1998:(170,000 t), 1994:(780,000 t), 1969:soil contamination 1928: 1920: 1912: 1716:aluminium smelting 1583: 1425: 1331:betavoltaic device 1192:molybdenum sulfide 1137: 1101: 1023: 980:pyrolytic graphite 957:galvanic corrosion 938:carbon microphones 888: 829: 671:Cordillera Central 516:Synthetic graphite 343:Soluble in molten 320:Optical properties 5664: 5663: 5422:preparation plant 5357:Asian brown cloud 5290: 5245: 5244: 5113:(diatomic carbon) 5045:mixed sp/sp forms 4830:The Graphite Page 4809:Mineral galleries 4784:978-0-87335-233-8 4765:978-1-84083-332-4 4746:978-0-471-80580-9 4500:Symmetry Magazine 4301:10.1063/1.1149091 3969:Harper, Douglas. 3578:978-0-7112-2460-5 3316:. keytometals.com 3233:(15): 2877–2885. 2932:978-90-5699-228-6 2694:Minerals Database 2643:978-0-08-044463-5 2491:. Webmineral.com. 2183:Republic of Korea 2135:hydrochloric acid 2002:(80,000 t), 1978:According to the 1958:and coatings for 1948:hydrochloric acid 1944:hydrofluoric acid 1808:are also used in 1763:neutron moderator 1751:Neutron moderator 1530:Expanded graphite 1263:According to the 1086:Orestes Cleveland 1054:Borrowdale parish 955:, and to promote 949:pitting corrosion 806:Alpha graphite's 730:honeycomb lattice 690:silicate minerals 607:metamorphic rocks 553:from metal melts 506:metamorphic rocks 491:sedimentary rocks 369: 368: 49:Graphite specimen 5739: 5619:Hydrogen sulfide 5339: 5288: 5272: 5265: 5258: 5249: 5248: 5217:Activated carbon 5173: 5172: 5171: 5157: 5156: 5155: 5128: 5127: 5126: 5112: 5111: 5110: 5096: 5095: 5094: 5053:Amorphous carbon 5034: 5033: 5032: 5018: 5017: 5016: 4873: 4866: 4859: 4850: 4849: 4788: 4769: 4750: 4738: 4727: 4718: 4708: 4706:10.1038/149328a0 4666: 4665: 4663: 4662: 4635: 4620: 4619: 4617: 4616: 4602: 4596: 4595: 4593: 4592: 4581: 4575: 4574: 4573:. 24 March 2015. 4567: 4561: 4560: 4558: 4547: 4539: 4533: 4532: 4530: 4528: 4517: 4511: 4510: 4508: 4497: 4488: 4482: 4468: 4462: 4461: 4443: 4437: 4436: 4415: 4409: 4408: 4390: 4381: 4375: 4374: 4348: 4342: 4341: 4331: 4311: 4305: 4304: 4295:(9): 3268–3276. 4284: 4278: 4277: 4256: 4250: 4249: 4228: 4222: 4220: 4213: 4207: 4206: 4196: 4152: 4146: 4140: 4134: 4133: 4131: 4129: 4118: 4112: 4111: 4109: 4107: 4101: 4094: 4086: 4080: 4079: 4067: 4061: 4060: 4058: 4056: 4050: 4043: 4035: 4029: 4028: 4026: 4025: 4016:. Archived from 4006: 4000: 3999: 3987: 3981: 3980: 3966: 3960: 3959: 3957: 3956: 3941: 3935: 3934: 3927: 3921: 3920: 3900: 3894: 3893: 3881: 3875: 3874: 3838: 3832: 3831: 3829: 3805: 3799: 3798: 3796: 3795: 3784: 3759: 3758: 3742: 3736: 3735: 3725: 3719: 3718: 3694: 3688: 3687: 3680: 3674: 3673: 3671: 3669: 3655: 3649: 3648: 3630: 3621: 3620: 3619:on 7 April 2018. 3615:. Archived from 3605: 3599: 3598: 3589: 3583: 3582: 3562: 3556: 3555: 3553: 3552: 3540: 3534: 3533: 3531: 3525:. Archived from 3510: 3504:Boardman, John. 3501: 3495: 3494: 3483:10.1038/nmat3709 3471:Nature Materials 3465: 3459: 3458: 3437: 3426: 3425: 3412:Activated carbon 3407: 3401: 3400: 3389: 3383: 3382: 3380: 3379: 3364: 3358: 3351: 3345: 3344: 3342: 3336:. Archived from 3331: 3323: 3317: 3304: 3298: 3297: 3259: 3253: 3252: 3242: 3221: 3215: 3214: 3196: 3190: 3189: 3171: 3165: 3164: 3136: 3127: 3126: 3102: 3096: 3095: 3069: 3048: 3039: 3016: 3007: 3006: 2978: 2972: 2971: 2954:(8): 1475–1489. 2943: 2937: 2936: 2916: 2910: 2909: 2891: 2885: 2884: 2866: 2860: 2859: 2831: 2825: 2824: 2796: 2790: 2789: 2768: 2762: 2756: 2741: 2740: 2738: 2712: 2706: 2705: 2703: 2701: 2686: 2680: 2679: 2672: 2666: 2665: 2654: 2648: 2647: 2626:Activated Carbon 2621: 2615: 2614: 2613: 2609: 2602: 2596: 2590: 2589: 2585: 2569: 2550: 2549: 2542: 2536: 2535: 2533: 2512: 2503: 2492: 2486: 2480: 2474: 2468: 2462: 2456: 2455: 2445: 2413: 2388: 2373:Pyrolytic carbon 2070:electrical spark 1984:world production 1872:to reduce their 1852:smokeless powder 1806:carbon nanotubes 1791:nuclear graphite 1767:nuclear reactors 1757:Nuclear graphite 1734:Powder and scrap 1578:Structure of CaC 1557:laptop computers 1546:fitted around a 1492:pinewood derbies 1468:plumbago drawing 1431:. It stems from 1423:Graphite pencils 1200:lead(II) sulfide 1182:coined the name 1122: 1119: 988:pyrolytic carbon 878:Other properties 873: 870:, a pressure of 869: 865: 849: 845: 841: 837: 803: 791: 779: 764: 710:molecular clouds 596:Natural graphite 571:carbon footprint 455:Natural graphite 405: 404: 401: 400: 397: 394: 391: 388: 385: 382: 301:Specific gravity 275:Metallic, earthy 262: 76: 75:(repeating unit) 47: 35: 34: 5747: 5746: 5742: 5741: 5740: 5738: 5737: 5736: 5727:Shades of black 5667: 5666: 5665: 5660: 5653: 5508: 5345:Coal combustion 5340: 5331: 5317:Bituminous coal 5287: 5281: 5276: 5246: 5241: 5203: 5194:Metallic carbon 5170: 5167: 5166: 5165: 5163: 5154: 5151: 5150: 5149: 5147: 5133: 5125: 5122: 5121: 5120: 5118: 5109: 5106: 5105: 5104: 5102: 5097:(atomic carbon) 5093: 5090: 5089: 5088: 5086: 5072: 5058:Carbon nanofoam 5039: 5031: 5028: 5027: 5026: 5024: 5015: 5012: 5011: 5010: 5008: 4989: 4954: 4944: 4910: 4900:Diamond (cubic) 4882: 4877: 4795: 4785: 4766: 4747: 4675: 4673:Further reading 4670: 4669: 4660: 4658: 4636: 4623: 4614: 4612: 4604: 4603: 4599: 4590: 4588: 4582: 4578: 4569: 4568: 4564: 4556: 4545: 4541: 4540: 4536: 4526: 4524: 4518: 4514: 4506: 4495: 4489: 4485: 4479:Wayback Machine 4469: 4465: 4458: 4444: 4440: 4416: 4412: 4388: 4382: 4378: 4363: 4349: 4345: 4312: 4308: 4285: 4281: 4257: 4253: 4229: 4225: 4216: 4214: 4210: 4160: 4153: 4149: 4141: 4137: 4127: 4125: 4120: 4119: 4115: 4105: 4103: 4099: 4092: 4088: 4087: 4083: 4068: 4064: 4054: 4052: 4048: 4041: 4037: 4036: 4032: 4023: 4021: 4008: 4007: 4003: 3988: 3984: 3967: 3963: 3954: 3952: 3943: 3942: 3938: 3929: 3928: 3924: 3901: 3897: 3882: 3878: 3839: 3835: 3806: 3802: 3793: 3791: 3786: 3785: 3762: 3743: 3739: 3726: 3722: 3695: 3691: 3682: 3681: 3677: 3667: 3665: 3656: 3652: 3645: 3631: 3624: 3607: 3606: 3602: 3591: 3590: 3586: 3579: 3563: 3559: 3550: 3548: 3541: 3537: 3529: 3523: 3508: 3502: 3498: 3477:(10): 925–931. 3466: 3462: 3438: 3429: 3422: 3408: 3404: 3391: 3390: 3386: 3377: 3375: 3366: 3365: 3361: 3352: 3348: 3340: 3329: 3325: 3324: 3320: 3314:Wayback Machine 3305: 3301: 3260: 3256: 3222: 3218: 3211: 3197: 3193: 3186: 3172: 3168: 3137: 3130: 3103: 3099: 3049: 3042: 3017: 3010: 2995: 2979: 2975: 2944: 2940: 2933: 2917: 2913: 2906: 2892: 2888: 2881: 2867: 2863: 2832: 2828: 2797: 2793: 2786: 2769: 2765: 2757: 2744: 2713: 2709: 2699: 2697: 2688: 2687: 2683: 2674: 2673: 2669: 2656: 2655: 2651: 2644: 2622: 2618: 2611: 2603: 2599: 2587: 2582:10.3133/pp1802J 2570: 2553: 2544: 2543: 2539: 2531: 2525: 2510: 2504: 2495: 2487: 2483: 2475: 2471: 2463: 2459: 2414: 2410: 2405: 2382: 2377: 2333:Carbon nanotube 2323: 2147: 2107: 2079: 2032: 1896: 1878:F-117 Nighthawk 1799: 1775:fusion reactors 1759: 1753: 1736: 1724:injection molds 1665: 1650: 1639:Acheson process 1620: 1615: 1608: 1604: 1596:superconductors 1593: 1585:Graphite forms 1581: 1572: 1566: 1532: 1500: 1488: 1480:artistic medium 1417: 1412: 1393: 1373: 1352: 1343: 1335:diamond battery 1273: 1220: 1212: 1129: 1120: 1105:froth flotation 1011: 953:stainless steel 914:Graphite is an 880: 871: 867: 863: 847: 843: 839: 832: 817: 810: 804: 795: 792: 783: 780: 771: 765: 722: 694:meteoritic iron 603: 598: 575:(LFP) batteries 567: 530:Acheson process 518: 457: 452: 379: 375: 260: 181:= 6.708 ; 159: 148: 132:: (6/m 2/m 2/m) 128: 74: 73: 50: 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5745: 5735: 5734: 5729: 5724: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5692:Dry lubricants 5689: 5684: 5679: 5662: 5661: 5658: 5655: 5654: 5652: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5624:Mining regions 5621: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5591: 5586: 5585: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5552:homogenization 5549: 5539: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5518: 5516: 5510: 5509: 5507: 5506: 5501: 5499:Sulfur dioxide 5496: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5446: 5441: 5436: 5435: 5434: 5429: 5424: 5419: 5414: 5412:power in China 5409: 5404: 5399: 5394: 5389: 5379: 5374: 5369: 5364: 5359: 5354: 5348: 5346: 5342: 5341: 5334: 5332: 5330: 5329: 5324: 5319: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5299: 5293: 5291: 5283: 5282: 5275: 5274: 5267: 5260: 5252: 5243: 5242: 5240: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5213: 5211: 5205: 5204: 5202: 5201: 5199:Penta-graphene 5196: 5191: 5186: 5181: 5176: 5168: 5160: 5152: 5143: 5141: 5135: 5134: 5132: 5131: 5123: 5115: 5107: 5099: 5091: 5082: 5080: 5074: 5073: 5071: 5070: 5065: 5060: 5055: 5049: 5047: 5041: 5040: 5038: 5037: 5029: 5021: 5013: 5005: 4999: 4997: 4991: 4990: 4988: 4987: 4982: 4952: 4942: 4933: 4928: 4920: 4918: 4912: 4911: 4909: 4908: 4903: 4895: 4893: 4884: 4883: 4876: 4875: 4868: 4861: 4853: 4847: 4846: 4841: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4811: 4806: 4801: 4794: 4793:External links 4791: 4790: 4789: 4783: 4770: 4764: 4751: 4745: 4728: 4719: 4674: 4671: 4668: 4667: 4621: 4597: 4576: 4562: 4534: 4512: 4483: 4470:Cooper, Jeff. 4463: 4457:978-1563963582 4456: 4438: 4410: 4376: 4361: 4343: 4306: 4279: 4251: 4223: 4208: 4158: 4147: 4135: 4113: 4095:. Saylor.org. 4081: 4062: 4030: 4001: 3982: 3961: 3936: 3922: 3895: 3876: 3849:(1): 477–481. 3833: 3820:(3): 814–818. 3800: 3760: 3737: 3720: 3709:(2): 133–179. 3689: 3675: 3650: 3644:978-0824747824 3643: 3622: 3600: 3584: 3577: 3557: 3535: 3522:978-0521224963 3521: 3496: 3460: 3427: 3420: 3402: 3384: 3359: 3346: 3343:on 2009-02-27. 3318: 3299: 3272:(1): 101–107. 3254: 3216: 3209: 3191: 3184: 3166: 3147:(2): 141–153. 3128: 3117:(3): 473–506. 3097: 3040: 3008: 2993: 2973: 2938: 2931: 2911: 2904: 2886: 2879: 2861: 2826: 2791: 2784: 2763: 2742: 2729:(2): 413–420. 2722:Andean Geology 2707: 2681: 2667: 2649: 2642: 2616: 2597: 2551: 2537: 2524:978-0962209703 2523: 2493: 2481: 2469: 2457: 2428:(3): 291–320. 2407: 2406: 2404: 2401: 2399:, WIPO. 2381: 2378: 2376: 2375: 2370: 2365: 2360: 2355: 2350: 2345: 2340: 2335: 2330: 2324: 2322: 2319: 2311:nanocomposites 2297:area, related 2291:conductive ink 2276:Carbon brushes 2224:alternatives. 2198:flake graphite 2146: 2143: 2106: 2103: 2078: 2075: 2074: 2073: 2066: 2060: 2057: 2054: 2047:pneumoconiosis 2036:health effects 2031: 2028: 1910:, Netherlands. 1895: 1892: 1798: 1795: 1755:Main article: 1752: 1749: 1740:petroleum coke 1735: 1732: 1693:coal tar pitch 1689:petroleum coke 1685:steel furnaces 1664: 1661: 1649: 1646: 1619: 1616: 1614: 1611: 1606: 1602: 1591: 1579: 1568:Main article: 1565: 1562: 1531: 1528: 1508:electric motor 1499: 1496: 1487: 1486:Pinewood derby 1484: 1416: 1413: 1411: 1408: 1392: 1389: 1372: 1369: 1351: 1348: 1342: 1339: 1272: 1269: 1219: 1216: 1211: 1208: 1128: 1125: 1035:Marița culture 1010: 1007: 998:measured with 973:white graphite 930:delocalization 909:carbon dioxide 879: 876: 816: 815:Thermodynamics 813: 812: 811: 805: 798: 796: 793: 786: 784: 781: 774: 772: 766: 759: 721: 718: 602: 599: 597: 594: 566: 563: 555:supersaturated 522:graphitization 517: 514: 456: 453: 451: 448: 367: 366: 364: 360: 359: 356: 352: 351: 341: 335: 334: 331: 325: 324: 321: 317: 316: 315:2.09–2.23 g/cm 313: 307: 306: 303: 297: 296: 293: 287: 286: 283: 277: 276: 273: 267: 266: 263: 254: 253: 250: 244: 243: 240: 234: 233: 230: 224: 223: 220: 214: 213: 206: 200: 199: 196: 192: 191: 190:Identification 187: 186: 185: = 4 172: 166: 165: 157: 146: 140: 134: 133: 125: 119: 118: 109: 107:Crystal system 103: 102: 99: 93: 92: 89: 83: 82: 77: 67: 66: 64:Native mineral 61: 57: 56: 52: 51: 48: 40: 39: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5744: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5693: 5690: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5674: 5672: 5656: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5567:mining region 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5544: 5543: 5540: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5519: 5517: 5515: 5511: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5440: 5437: 5433: 5430: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5420: 5418: 5415: 5413: 5410: 5408: 5405: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5384: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5355: 5353: 5350: 5349: 5347: 5343: 5338: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5294: 5292: 5284: 5280: 5273: 5268: 5266: 5261: 5259: 5254: 5253: 5250: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5214: 5212: 5210: 5206: 5200: 5197: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5187: 5185: 5182: 5180: 5177: 5175: 5174:(prismane C8) 5161: 5159: 5145: 5144: 5142: 5140: 5136: 5130: 5116: 5114: 5100: 5098: 5084: 5083: 5081: 5079: 5075: 5069: 5066: 5064: 5061: 5059: 5056: 5054: 5051: 5050: 5048: 5046: 5042: 5036: 5022: 5020: 5006: 5004: 5001: 5000: 4998: 4996: 4992: 4986: 4985:Glassy carbon 4983: 4980: 4979: 4974: 4973: 4968: 4967: 4962: 4961: 4956: 4955: 4947: 4946: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 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USGS. 4504:Archived 4475:Archived 4371:8048799M 4203:27878015 4128:July 28, 4097:Archived 3491:23872731 3310:Archived 3003:49708274 2836:Elements 2774:(2005). 2759:graphite 2662:euronews 2529:Archived 2489:Graphite 2477:Graphite 2348:Graphene 2321:See also 2315:graphene 2266:carbides 2202:research 2189:and the 2131:Leaching 2018:of NY. 1982:(USGS), 1932:open pit 1870:snorkels 1728:plastics 1516:smokebox 1460:Plumbago 1437:to write 1381:asbestos 1184:graphite 1145:plumbago 1109:E&MJ 1021:, Canada 1019:Kimmirut 951:in some 927:electron 920:arc lamp 902:, since 892:acoustic 840:0 K 726:graphene 702:isotopic 686:troilite 667:Colombia 547:carbides 534:vaporize 420:graphene 372:Graphite 261:hardness 248:Tenacity 238:Fracture 228:Cleavage 218:Twinning 210:foliated 101:1.CB.05a 60:Category 38:Graphite 28:Graphene 5459:Fly ash 5307:Lignite 5209:related 5179:Chaoite 4693:Bibcode 4194:5099629 4173:Bibcode 4106:2 April 4076:Sybaris 3890:Targray 3851:Bibcode 3668:6 April 3274:Bibcode 3149:Bibcode 3072:Bibcode 2844:Bibcode 2809:Bibcode 2430:Bibcode 2380:Sources 2249:polymer 2237:battery 2214:battery 1960:foundry 1850:Modern 1765:within 1632:silicon 1520:firebox 1464:drawing 1415:Pencils 1312:tablets 1304:Laptops 1162:plumbum 1149:massive 1078:pencils 1062:England 1058:Cumbria 1039:pottery 904:phonons 896:thermal 675:schists 635:calcite 625:and in 587:Finland 444:diamond 438:(10%), 434:(18%), 430:(50%), 406:) is a 347:, warm 311:Density 305:1.9–2.3 222:Present 71:Formula 55:General 5577:slurry 5572:refuse 5444:Coking 5362:Asthma 4781: 4762: 4743: 4713: 4685:Nature 4454: 4393:Carbon 4369: 4359: 4234:Carbon 4201: 4191: 3869: 3790:. 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