228:
5843:
3884:
537:. The villages of Ōkagō and Mitsune in the northwest are Downhill, while the villages of Nakanogō, Kashitate, and Sueyoshi in the south are Uphill—though the Sueyoshi dialect is not particularly close to those of the other "Uphill" villages. Therefore, the Sueyoshi dialect is often excluded from the term "Uphill dialects."
858:, though the majority of them vary in quality based on region, being long monophthongs in some dialects and diphthongs in others. Therefore, in this article, the term "long vowel" will be used to include diphthongs as well. There are relatively straightforward correspondences between the dialectsʼ long vowels:
485:
The dialects of
Aogashima and Utsuki are quite distinct from the other varieties (and each other). The Aogashima dialect exhibits slight grammatical differences from other varieties, as well as noticeable lexical differences. The Utsuki dialect, on the other hand, is lexically similar to the Toriuchi
3980:
Hachijō contains a large number of vocabulary words whose phonetic shapes are not predictable from their
Japanese cognates. These differences often reflect forms Hachijō inherited from Eastern Old Japanese (rather than from mainland Japanese’s ancestor of Western-Central Old Japanese) or irregular
540:
As the number of remaining speakers of Hachijō as a whole is unknown, the numbers of remaining speakers of each dialect are also unknown. Since the abandonment of Hachijō-kojima in 1969, some speakers of the Utsuki and
Toriuchi dialects have moved to Hachijō-jima and continue to speak the Hachijō
404:
is its own group. The dialects of Ōkagō and
Mitsune are very similar, as are those of Nakanogō and Kashitate, while the Aogashima and Sueyoshi dialects are distinct from these two groups. The Utsuki and Toriuchi dialects have not been subcategorized within Hachijō, though the Toriuchi dialect has
2436:
Hachijō generally disallows vocalic segments in hiatus except for in the long vowels listed above. Where such a hiatus would appear (from compounding, affixation, consonant elision, etc.), coalescence generally occurs instead. For combinations of two vowels, the following chart gives a general
676:
Unlike light and heavy syllables, superheavy syllables are strongly avoided in Hachijō, and they are forbidden outright in most verbal inflections. Where they would occur, they are generally resolved by deletion of the coda or by shortening of the long vowel. Where the latter occurs, it can be
611:, these changes can also be analyzed phonemically using separate sets of palatalized and non-palatalized consonants. However, from a morphological and cross-dialectal perspective, it is more straightforward to treat palatalized consonants as sequences of consonants and
681:
or as a short vowel, e.g., ⟨kogo͡oN⟩ or ⟨kogoN⟩ "in this way"; the former practice will be followed here. Though these shortened vowels are pronounced the same length as short vowels, they still follow the dialectal correspondences for long vowels (listed below).
1439:, this shift generally triggers palatalization of the preceding consonant. Palatalization is more prevalent in the Kashitate dialect than the Nakanogō dialect. These shifted vowels are often transcribed as ⟨ea⟩, ⟨ia⟩, or ⟨jaa⟩.
367:; it is not clear if these indicate that the southern Izu islands were settled from that region, if they are loans brought by sailors traveling among the southern islands, or if they might be independent retentions from
541:
language, though their speech seems to have converged with that of the
Downhill dialects. As late as 2009, the Toriuchi dialect had at least one remaining speaker, while the Utsuki dialect had at least five.
388:
games, and Hachijō-language theater productions. Nevertheless, native speakers are estimated to number in the "low hundreds," and younger generations are not learning or using the language at home.
3395:
Lastly, in the Uphill dialects (and occasionally for other dialect speakers as well), a sound shift has occurred wherein /N/ has become /Q/ when followed by a voiced obstruent:
3577:
Hachijō preserves several grammatical features from Old
Japanese—particularly Eastern Old Japanese (EOJ)—that are not reflected in Modern Standard Japanese, for example:
5679:
2253:
respectively, which is also reflected in orthography (as shown here). This change happens in addition to the palatalization of coronal consonants described below.
409:
5663:
5051:
The comparative study of the
Japonic languages. Approaches to endangered languages in Japan and Northeast Asia: Description, documentation and revitalization
7287:
1606:
Hachijō contains roughly the same consonants as
Standard Japanese, with most consonants able to be followed by all vowels as well as by the medial glide
400:. On Hachijō-jima, these are Ōkagō, Mitsune, Nakanogō, Kashitate, and Sueyoshi; on Hachijō-kojima, these were Utsuki and Toriuchi; and the village of
340:
7138:
7381:
7334:
2158:, but if it is immediately followed by an obstruent or nasal consonant, then it assimilates to the place of articulation of that consonant.
6081:
5797:
3475:, wherein word-initial voiceless obstruents alternate with voiced ones in some compounds. The alternation is straightforward in Hachijō:
1533:. Kaneda (2001) states that they are distinct, separating them in his transcription, whereas NINJAL (1950) lists only the pronunciations
7133:
1795:
3948:
3920:
405:
been noted to be very similar to the Ōkagō dialect in phonology. The dialect(s) of the Daitō Islands also remain uncategorized.
6760:
615:, as is done in this article, following the phonemic analysis made by Kaneda (2001). Furthermore, when a vowel begins with the
5742:
5720:
5594:
5207:
3927:
5646:
3901:
6755:
1816:
486:
dialect and those of Hachijō-jima, but has undergone several unique sound shifts such as the elimination of the phonemes
396:
The Izu
Islands dialects of Hachijō are classified into eight groups according to the various historical villages within
2198:
In addition to the variations described above, Hachijō also exhibits a handful of other conditioned sound alternations:
5632:
3934:
6239:
3967:
6640:
5884:
7374:
7346:
7065:
3916:
7019:
7014:
6540:
6074:
5790:
781:
7188:
3905:
7029:
6745:
3547:
5762:
382:
has supported efforts to educate its younger generations about the language through primary school classes,
7160:
6999:
6558:
6246:
1896:
is not distinctive, and they are highly variant. This article will consistently use the affricate notation.
1770:
1700:
790:
214:
3234:
3038:
2963:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2266:
2262:
2250:
2243:
2232:
2225:
2218:
2214:
2207:
2203:
2171:
2141:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2076:
2065:
2037:
2027:
2017:
2009:
2002:
1980:
1958:
1936:
1932:
1916:
1909:
1862:
1838:
1607:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1436:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1155:
1150:
1145:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1110:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1090:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1050:
1045:
1040:
1035:
1025:
1020:
1015:
1010:
1005:
1000:
995:
990:
985:
980:
970:
965:
960:
955:
950:
945:
940:
935:
930:
925:
826:
623:
619:
612:
592:
585:
580:
574:
564:
491:
487:
7647:
7367:
6893:
6873:
6677:
6630:
5939:
5862:
3563:
2917:
As an exception to the vowel coalescence rules given above, there are special situations where the vowel
1779:
758:
616:
293:
289:
7652:
7642:
7616:
7009:
6067:
5899:
5783:
4885:
Lastly, Hachijō also has unique vocabulary words whose relationship to
Japonic are unclear or unknown:
1823:
1693:
1686:
806:
596:
6883:
5053:, National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics, Aug 2018, Tachikawa, Japan. ffhal-01856152
7294:
7272:
7060:
3233:. However, there are a few main exceptions. These first exceptions usually arise by the prefixing of
1742:
360:
5200:(A Disappearing Island Language ~Wishing for the Inheritance and Survival of the Hachijō Language~),
3215:
The majority of consonants undergo no special changes when geminated, merely becoming longer, e.g.:
7567:
7329:
7267:
7257:
7221:
7119:
7070:
6994:
6969:
6578:
3941:
3555:
2069:
767:
7442:
6635:
5879:
397:
6713:
5969:
5642:
5613:
3894:
3551:
3335:
2746:
And although these rules are usually followed etymologically as well, there are some exceptions:
1787:
1735:
1728:
1710:
147:
7621:
7611:
7572:
6730:
4531:
Hachijō also preserves vocabulary that has become obsolete in most Japanese dialects, such as:
2906:
604:
329:
6914:
378:
with a small and dwindling population of primarily elderly speakers. Since at least 2009, the
7211:
7100:
6573:
6119:
6109:
6048:
6031:
5711:
4346:
4071:
1656:
1649:
600:
332:, Hachijō may be considered a distinct Japonic language, rather than a dialect of Japanese.
7505:
7472:
7262:
7085:
6989:
6863:
6665:
6600:
6114:
6043:
6024:
5894:
4556:
3778:
1752:
429:
336:
126:
8:
7578:
7562:
7557:
7467:
7311:
7193:
7165:
7080:
6660:
3815:
Hachijō has also had developments and innovations not found in Modern Standard Japanese:
2236:
1636:
3800:, as seen in EOJ. Contrast Western Old Japanese, which usually merged these vowels into
7547:
7437:
7390:
7341:
7282:
7203:
7090:
7024:
6909:
6622:
6364:
6036:
6011:
5853:
5006:
4720:
There are some words which do occur in standard Japanese, but with different meanings:
4181:
3571:
3567:
2294:
1621:
686:
475:
364:
317:
6610:
6446:
6395:
3541:
206:
7510:
7482:
7462:
7452:
7409:
7404:
7170:
7105:
7075:
6878:
6697:
6682:
6655:
6650:
6588:
6526:
6501:
6436:
6310:
6148:
6138:
6129:
6090:
5982:
5954:
5925:
5920:
5825:
5820:
5806:
5738:
5716:
5628:
5590:
5203:
5001:
4996:
4096:
4041:
4015:
3559:
3445:
3436:
3387:
3378:
3357:
3348:
3339:
3303:
3294:
3254:
3229:
3220:
3198:
3191:
3174:
3167:
3150:
3143:
3126:
3119:
3102:
3095:
3057:
3051:
3021:
3015:
3009:
2968:
2919:
2420:
2411:
2365:
2352:
2339:
2322:
2298:
2154:
2120:
2048:
2042:
2032:
2022:
1985:
1975:
1966:
1953:
1947:
1941:
1888:
1882:
1867:
1721:
1626:
1556:
1541:
1535:
1501:
1483:
1459:
1453:
1431:
843:
837:
831:
698:
608:
505:
The dialects of Hachijō-jima are, like its villages, often referred as being "Uphill"
463:
375:
345:
285:
278:
91:
86:
6354:
6153:
588:
can only be present word-medially, and syllable nuclei can be short or long vowels.
379:
325:
7552:
7542:
7537:
7530:
7477:
7299:
7277:
7055:
6851:
6692:
6494:
6484:
6479:
6467:
6320:
6256:
6212:
5977:
5706:
1583:
678:
401:
356:
6820:
6415:
6359:
6197:
313:
59:
7525:
7457:
7324:
6984:
6979:
6974:
6687:
6460:
6371:
6271:
6232:
6227:
6188:
6168:
5959:
5871:
5730:
5698:
5302:(Dialect in a South Seas Plantation Society: From Fieldwork on Minami Daito-jima)
4522:
4440:
3699:
3004:). The frequency of such contracted forms depends on the dialect and individual.
1643:
1631:
630:
219:
78:
6453:
305:
7487:
7447:
7319:
6670:
6645:
6568:
6548:
6521:
6472:
6424:
6388:
6342:
6286:
6281:
6261:
5904:
5889:
5770:
2909:
and reversed or altered by influence from other dialects or mainland Japanese.
2013:
140:
4705:
verb to a Class 1.1B verb, most likely via the Old Japanese attributive form *
2186:
can be found preceding not only voiceless obstruents, but voiced ones as well.
1517:
Descriptions of the Mitsune dialect differ as to whether speakers distinguish
7636:
7595:
7427:
7110:
6856:
6835:
6553:
6405:
6349:
6217:
6207:
6183:
6173:
6163:
6006:
3703:
3373:"to tie." This feature occurs in all dialects except for Sueyoshi, which has
1679:
740:
417:
408:
The Hachijō language and its dialects are classified by John Kupchik and the
339:, retaining several unique grammatical and phonetic features recorded in the
115:
1951:. In addition, some speakers of the Nakanogō dialect also retain a bilabial
7095:
6924:
6489:
6383:
6327:
6296:
6291:
6104:
6019:
4030:
622:, the preceding consonant (if any) becomes palatalized just as if a medial
457:
368:
321:
120:
2144:
is only found in the syllable coda and corresponds to the syllable onsets
1429:
For speakers where the first component of these diphthongs has shifted to
7150:
6378:
5300:
Nakai Seiichi, Daniel Long, et al. 南洋プランテーション社会における方言—南大東島のフィールドワークをもとに—
3007:
Non-coalescing vowels are comparatively common in the Utsuki dialect, as
1810:
1587:
752:
735:
297:
234:
55:
2174:
represents gemination of the following consonant, just as the character
634:
7179:
7145:
6954:
6949:
6944:
6939:
6934:
6825:
5842:
3908: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2379:
is already palatal in articulation, reducing any would-be sequences of
1842:
798:
745:
5501:
3861:
Several verb affixes have arisen based around an optative-like suffix
3781:, and it was lost entirely in Standard Japanese around the Edo Period.
7515:
7359:
6959:
6888:
6868:
6810:
5735:
A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Western Old Japanese, Part 2
5260:
5258:
1762:
1673:
855:
775:
309:
284:, depending on classification, either are the most divergent form of
227:
199:
185:
173:
6830:
6815:
6059:
5775:
3883:
2016:
depending on the phonemic environment. Specifically, Common Hachijō
159:
7124:
6805:
6800:
6795:
6722:
6563:
5606:
The Hachijō Language of Japan: Phonology and Historical Development
2571:
Synchronic combinations of a vowel with the topic-marking particle
2179:
155:
151:
7239:
5255:
7520:
7216:
7155:
6772:
3667:
3462:
2658:, seen in the inflection of Class 1.1Aʼ verbs whose stems end in
1668:
5270:
288:, or comprise a branch of Japonic (alongside mainland Japanese,
7234:
6767:
6735:
2620:
In the Aogashima and Sueyoshi dialects, modern combinations of
723:
There are five short vowels found in all varieties of Hachijō:
384:
351:
32:
5441:
3603:, from EOJ. Contrast Western Old Japanese and Modern Japanese
2959:. Many notable examples of this occur when the light syllable
412:(NINJAL), respectively, within the Japonic family as follows:
7229:
6777:
6740:
5513:
4378:
2847:"the day before yesterday" (related to Standard Japanese 一昨日
2175:
599:
of the consonant it follows, which also involves a change in
301:
44:
5419:
5417:
5368:
5366:
5182:
5180:
6787:
5549:
3865:, related in some way to the Middle Japanese optative ～ま欲し
2301:
one. This change happens in addition to the affrication of
5233:
5231:
5229:
5227:
5056:
1579:
are comparatively rare, arising mainly from contractions.
5561:
5537:
5525:
5477:
5429:
5414:
5402:
5378:
5363:
5351:
5212:
5177:
5165:
5129:
5198:山田平右エ門 (Yamada Heiuemon), 2010. 消えていく島言葉～八丈語の継承と存続を願って～
5105:
5093:
5031:
2265:(short or long), or when combined with the medial glide
685:
Finally, there are a small number of words that contain
410:
National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics
5282:
5243:
5224:
3777:). This phenomenon started disappearing in Japanese in
2256:
1463:
are often transcribed as ⟨i⟩ and ⟨e⟩~⟨ė⟩, respectively.
27:
5465:
5390:
5339:
1945:, whereas when palatalized, it is realized as palatal
5453:
5327:
5315:
5019:
3562:
that can be understood from context, and has default
6014:
5153:
2935:
without coalescing with it, forming the long vowels
328:, which is now abandoned. Based on the criterion of
5608:(PhD dissertation). University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.
5489:
5117:
2684:, seen on personal pronouns with the topic-marking
2628:. However, etymological *io have regularly yielded
443:
Nakanogō & Kashitate dialects (Uphill dialects)
2398:have a tendency to be sporadically palatalized to
2005:has been lost in the Utsuki dialect, merging into
5141:
2647:Noteworthy irregularities or exceptions include:
2095:
2093:
494:; the loss of the latter is referred to as being
359:. Hachijō also has lexical similarities with the
324:. It was also previously spoken on the island of
7634:
5081:
1880:The difference between affricate pronunciations
440:Ōkagō & Mitsune dialects (Downhill dialects)
5664:Inter-University Research Institute Corporation
4698:
3725:"why." Contrast the Japanese cognates based on
2706:, seen in the verbal inflection of the stative
2107:phonetically disappear if they are followed by
2068:is uncommon word-initially (most noticeably in
530:
514:
255:
5672:A Grammar of the Eastern Old Japanese Dialects
5625:Basic Research on Verbs in the Hachijō Dialect
4692:
3750:
3468:
2090:
1865:is sometimes realized as a bilabial fricative
1513:
1511:
1447:
1445:
707:
554:Like Standard Japanese, Hachijō syllables are
524:
508:
391:
320:, which were settled from Hachijō-jima in the
271:
249:
7375:
6075:
5791:
3640:). This affix is obsolete in Modern Japanese.
3581:Verbal adjectives use the attributive ending
3460:Like all Japonic languages, Hachijō exhibits
2201:
1495:
1493:
1477:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1469:
654:have either a short vowel with a coda (e.g.,
498:"cut-tongued" by those of other villages, or
296:). Hachijō is currently spoken on two of the
5701:(2017). "Origins of the Japanese Language".
4557:
4031:
3685:) has only its original meaning of "to sit."
2055:
1425:
1423:
5703:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics
2824:"to set" (related to Standard Japanese 据える
2789:"to disappear" (related to Old Japanese 消ゆ
2575:are usually blocked by morpheme boundaries.
1548:
1508:
1442:
854:Many of Hachijō’s long vowels are properly
558:, that is, with an optional syllable onset
7382:
7368:
6082:
6068:
5798:
5784:
5674:(PhD dissertation). University of Hawaiʻi.
5584:
5519:
3709:Many interrogative particles are based on
3614:, from EOJ. Contrast Western Old Japanese
3585:, from EOJ. Contrast Western Old Japanese
2923:can diphthongize with another short vowel
2583:
2581:
2273:as well as all coronal obstruents—namely,
1490:
1466:
226:
5771:Database of Endangered Languages of Japan
5710:
4683:
3968:Learn how and when to remove this message
3850:, in contrast to most Japanese dialectsʼ
2781:, seen in several Class 2 verbs such as *
2424:"sewer, drainage," cognate to Japanese 溝
2193:
2072:vocabulary), but tends to be merged into
1582:Lastly, there are a very small number of
1420:
841:, as in Japanese, but will be denoted as
819:
668:have both a long vowel and a coda (e.g.,
644:end in a short vowel with no coda (e.g.,
5603:
5567:
5555:
5483:
5471:
5447:
5435:
5423:
5408:
5396:
5384:
5357:
5345:
5276:
5218:
5186:
5099:
5062:
5037:
3981:sound changes in one or both languages.
3757:still occurs with the question particle
3025:often occur in place of other dialectsʼ
2221:(short or long), the plosive consonants
5763:Sound clip and transcription of Hachijō
5669:
5495:
5123:
4072:
4016:
3823:has been replaced by a new declarative
3666:is used with all subjects, without the
3528:All other consonants are unaffected by
3403:: In the Uphill dialects, etymological
3210:
2587:It is noteworthy that the combinations
2578:
2182:. Unlike in Standard Japanese, Hachijō
2115:, respectively, such as in the variant
1992:
1899:
1852:
658:), or a long vowel with no coda (e.g.,
7635:
7389:
5712:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.277
5678:
5627:]. 笠間書院 (Kasama Shoin Co., Ltd.).
5612:
5543:
5531:
5507:
5459:
5372:
5333:
5321:
5288:
5264:
5249:
5237:
5171:
5159:
5135:
5111:
5025:
4689:Has irregularly changed from a bigrade
4182:
3744:The Japonic grammatical phenomenon of
3431:"to read" in the Kashitate dialect is
2766:"hoe" (related to Standard Japanese 鍬
2614:
7363:
6089:
6063:
5805:
5779:
5729:
5697:
5618:Hachijō-kata gen dōshi no kiso kenkyū
5087:
3444:
3435:
3386:
3377:
3356:
3347:
3338:
3302:
3293:
3253:
3228:
3219:
3197:
3190:
3173:
3166:
3149:
3142:
3125:
3118:
3101:
3094:
3056:
3050:
3020:
3014:
3008:
2967:
2918:
2897:"to destroy" (related to Japanese 壊す
2874:"to attempt," related to Japanese 試す
2565:
2419:
2410:
2364:
2351:
2338:
2321:
2153:
2119:
2047:
2041:
2031:
2021:
1984:
1974:
1965:
1952:
1946:
1940:
1887:
1881:
1874:
1866:
1555:
1540:
1534:
1500:
1482:
1458:
1452:
1430:
842:
836:
830:
697:
277:
5641:
5147:
3991:
3906:adding citations to reliable sources
3877:
3643:Verbs use the conjectural extension
3440:in contrast to most other dialectsʼ
3069:. Compare the following vocabulary:
2431:
2257:Palatalization of coronal consonants
2152:. Its default realization is dorsal
1935:is followed by the close back vowel
1858:In the Utsuki dialect, intervocalic
3041:word-medially. As a result, former
2161:
1505:is often transcribed as ⟨o⟩ or ⟨u⟩.
13:
5841:
5753:
5656:Research Report on Hachijo Dialect
5587:A History of the Japanese language
5310:(Regional Language Research Group)
2912:
2131:
1922:
1560:is often transcribed ⟨au⟩ or ⟨ao⟩.
343:-dialect poems of the 8th-century
14:
7664:
5648:Hachijō-kata gen chōsa hōkoku-sho
4357:"to cook by steaming or boiling"
3610:Verbs use the stative derivation
3599:Verbs use the attributive ending
3566:word order. Nouns do not exhibit
3411:have often changed into geminate
2870:"attempting" (participle form of
2213:When followed by the high vowels
1822:
1815:
1794:
1778:
1769:
1751:
1741:
1734:
1727:
1709:
1699:
1692:
1685:
1655:
1648:
805:
789:
780:
766:
757:
460:(including Western Old Japanese)
5510:, pp. 3–14, 35–38, 109–120.
5306:(Regional Linguistics, issue 15)
3882:
3773:(perhaps related to Japanese こそ
3651:. Contrast Western Old Japanese
2079:in that position, e.g., Hachijō
607:for certain consonants. Like in
5691:Language Survey of Hachijō-jima
5294:
5192:
3893:needs additional citations for
3570:, nor do they usually indicate
3427:For example, the participle of
3037:due to the loss of the phoneme
2390:Lastly, the coronal affricates
568:, a mandatory syllable nucleus
549:
5589:. Cambridge University Press.
5577:
5068:
5043:
4849:"(of a dog) to bark, to howl"
3784:Many cases of Proto-Japanese *
3622:, obsolete in Modern Japanese.
3049:have merged into the reflexes
2905:Coalescence can be blocked by
2124:of the allative case particle
1614:Consonant Phonemes in Hachijō
1:
5312:, 26 Oct 2003. Toyama, Japan.
5012:
3873:
3289:is made geminate, it becomes
3249:is made geminate, it becomes
1979:"belly". In all other cases,
1939:, it is realized as bilabial
1886:and fricative pronunciations
1601:
7226:Kanji pronunciation sources
7000:Katakana Phonetic Extensions
5921:Kunigami (Northern Okinawan)
5267:, pp. 129–134, 191–201.
4879:"to collapse, to fall down"
4576:"to tingle, to sting" (EMJ)
3361:, respectively—for example,
3307:, respectively—for example,
3237:-final suffixes onto words:
2309:mentioned previously. Thus,
1487:is often transcribed as ⟨a⟩.
692:instead of a vowel, such as
544:
33:
7:
7335:Speculative fiction writers
6894:Transcription into Japanese
5705:. Oxford University Press.
5604:Iannucci, David J. (2019).
5585:Frellesvig, Bjarke (2010).
5074:Masayoshi Shibatani, 1990.
4990:
4699:
4199:"to descend, to disembark"
3674:made in Standard Japanese.
2297:place of articulation to a
2261:When followed by the vowel
862:Long Vowel Correspondences
531:
515:
392:Classification and dialects
335:Hachijō is a descendant of
256:
10:
7669:
6253:Nagano-Yamanashi-Shizuoka
4904:to invite, to call out to
3765:) and the focus particles
3698:are both used to mark the
3539:
3535:
3453:
2889:, seen in a single word: *
2862:, seen in a single word: *
28:
7604:
7588:
7498:
7420:
7397:
7310:
7250:
7202:
7044:
6902:
6844:
6786:
6721:
6712:
6621:
6596:
6587:
6539:
6512:
6435:
6309:
6137:
6128:
6097:
5999:
5968:
5947:
5938:
5913:
5870:
5861:
5852:
5839:
5813:
5684:Hachijōjima no gengochōsa
5670:Kupchik, John E. (2011).
4693:
3792:are reflected as Hachijo
3751:
3625:Verbs use the past tense
3518:
3512:
3469:
2996:"despite drinking" (from
2666:"to sing" → attributive *
1837:
1834:
1821:
1809:
1793:
1786:
1768:
1761:
1667:
1654:
1642:
1625:
1618:
718:
708:
525:
509:
272:
250:
225:
213:
197:
183:
171:
166:
137:
108:
75:
65:
50:
40:
26:
21:
7499:Non-Indigenous languages
7120:Sino-Japanese vocabulary
6579:Yokohama Pidgin Japanese
5686:
5650:
5620:
5279:, pp. 100, 149–151.
4804:"detestable, difficult"
2947:instead of the expected
2636:"tide" ← Old Japanese 潮
1545:for the Mitsune dialect.
727:Short Vowels in Hachijō
629:Hachijō contrasts three
562:, optional medial glide
7066:Godan and ichidan verbs
6884:Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai
4857:"to sleep (honorific)"
4842:"to shout, to cry out"
4617:"known, evident" (WOJ)
3761:(related to Japanese か
3473:, "sequential voicing")
829:is typically unrounded
572:, and an optional coda
148:Japanese writing system
5846:
5450:, pp. 52–54, 264.
5076:The Languages of Japan
4984:strawberry, raspberry
3819:The final verb ending
3399:Special gemination of
3096:[od͡ʑaɾʲijaɾe]
3078:Mitsune Pronunciation
2839:, seen in words like *
2816:, seen in words like *
2758:, seen in words like *
2194:Phonological processes
2020:usually become Utsuki
1919:in the Utsuki dialect.
706:, cognate to Japanese
605:manner of articulation
330:mutual intelligibility
7171:Court lady language (
6641:Southern Amami Ōshima
6574:Yilan Creole Japanese
6049:Early Modern Japanese
6032:Early Middle Japanese
5845:
5308:, pp. 51–60. 地域言語研究会
4834:"to tease, to bully"
4591:"to emit heat" (EMJ)
3681:(cognate to Japanese
3647:, descended from EOJ
3633:(attributive form of
3592:, Modern Japanese ～い
3334:is made geminate, an
3081:Utsuki Pronunciation
2730:), new-type negative
1957:before the low vowel
690:as a syllable nucleus
398:Hachijō Subprefecture
71:< 1000 (2011)
7421:Indigenous languages
6990:Small Kana Extension
6601:Eastern Old Japanese
6240:Northern Izu Islands
6044:Late Middle Japanese
6025:Eastern Old Japanese
4924:pretty, clean, tidy
4864:"to stay the night"
4709:being reanalyzed as
4569:"to hurt, to sting"
4326:"to lean, to slant"
4107:"hold in the mouth"
3902:improve this article
3779:Late Middle Japanese
3677:Relatedly, the verb
3629:, from Old Japanese
3343:causes it to become
3211:Consonant gemination
3180:"when (he) awakens"
2269:, the coronal nasal
699:[m̩ː.ma.kʲa]
666:Superheavy syllables
430:Eastern Old Japanese
337:Eastern Old Japanese
312:) as well as on the
279:[ɕimakotoba]
127:Eastern Old Japanese
6541:Pidgins and creoles
5737:. Global Oriental.
5558:, pp. 147–269.
5546:, pp. 147–158.
5534:, pp. 159–168.
5522:, pp. 358–361.
5375:, pp. 192–194.
5174:, pp. 191–201.
5138:, pp. 162–166.
5114:, pp. 196–198.
5065:, pp. 100–120.
4954:lunch, midday meal
4819:"to chew, to bite"
4782:"tired, exhausted"
4774:"parent and child"
4589:fotofor- ~ fotobor-
3842:-stem verbs end in
3668:animate–inanimate (
3662:The existence verb
3564:subject–object–verb
3156:"died," "has died"
3103:[od͡ʑɐijɐe]
2421:[mʲid͡ʑoma]
2412:[mʲid͡zoma]
2237:sibilant affricates
2083:versus Japanese 来年
1615:
863:
728:
633:depending on their
244:The small group of
7648:Languages of Japan
7391:Languages of Japan
7342:Classical Japanese
7189:Gender differences
7025:Extended shinjitai
6037:Classical Japanese
6012:Peninsular Japonic
5847:
5007:Japanese phonology
3917:"Hachijō language"
3755:, "hanging-tying")
3655:, Modern Japanese
3572:grammatical number
3568:grammatical gender
3204:"wear (the hat)!"
3168:[okʲiɾeba]
3144:[maɾubara]
3061:of Common Hachijō
2688:in some dialects (
2046:or non-coalescing
1613:
861:
726:
476:Ryukyuan languages
365:Ryukyuan languages
361:dialects of Kyushu
318:Okinawa Prefecture
282:, "island speech")
263:, natively called
7653:Japonic languages
7643:Japanese dialects
7630:
7629:
7617:Amami Oshima Sign
7398:National language
7357:
7356:
7061:Verb conjugations
7040:
7039:
6708:
6707:
6589:Japonic languages
6535:
6534:
6527:Okinawan Japanese
6091:Japanese language
6057:
6056:
5995:
5994:
5991:
5990:
5934:
5933:
5826:Japanese dialects
5807:Japonic languages
5744:978-1-905246-82-3
5722:978-0-19-938465-5
5596:978-1-107-40409-0
5570:, pp. 71–92.
5520:Frellesvig (2010)
5486:, pp. 59–63.
5438:, pp. 44–50.
5426:, pp. 52–61.
5411:, pp. 62–63.
5387:, pp. 50–51.
5360:, pp. 41–42.
5291:, pp. 27–28.
5252:, pp. 17–28.
5240:, pp. 15–16.
5221:, pp. 63–66.
5208:978-4-87302-477-6
5189:, pp. 95–96.
5102:, pp. 13–15.
5040:, pp. 13–14.
5002:Japanese dialects
4997:Japanese language
4988:
4987:
4883:
4882:
4767:"relatives, kin"
4729:Japanese Cognate
4679:
4678:
4647:"to groan" (EMJ)
4529:
4528:
4455:"one, one thing"
3978:
3977:
3970:
3952:
3526:
3525:
3208:
3207:
3175:[okʲɪeba]
2966:is contracted to
2561:
2560:
2432:Vowel coalescence
2406:; compare Utsuki
2180:Japanese hiragana
2030:, non-coalescing
2023:[ja,jo,j]
1883:[d͡z~d͡ʑ]
1848:
1847:
1800:⟨r⟩
1747:⟨z⟩
1724:
1705:⟨c⟩
1682:
1584:discourse markers
1416:
1415:
815:
814:
617:close front vowel
591:The medial glide
464:Japanese language
449:Aogashima dialect
376:moribund language
294:Southern Ryukyuan
290:Northern Ryukyuan
242:
241:
7660:
7589:Creole languages
7384:
7377:
7370:
7361:
7360:
7300:Polivanov system
7161:Honorific speech
7056:Japanese grammar
6719:
6718:
6594:
6593:
6135:
6134:
6084:
6077:
6070:
6061:
6060:
6016:
5945:
5944:
5868:
5867:
5859:
5858:
5800:
5793:
5786:
5777:
5776:
5769:
5761:
5748:
5731:Vovin, Alexander
5726:
5714:
5699:Vovin, Alexander
5694:
5675:
5666:
5661:
5638:
5609:
5600:
5571:
5565:
5559:
5553:
5547:
5541:
5535:
5529:
5523:
5517:
5511:
5505:
5499:
5493:
5487:
5481:
5475:
5469:
5463:
5457:
5451:
5445:
5439:
5433:
5427:
5421:
5412:
5406:
5400:
5394:
5388:
5382:
5376:
5370:
5361:
5355:
5349:
5343:
5337:
5331:
5325:
5319:
5313:
5298:
5292:
5286:
5280:
5274:
5268:
5262:
5253:
5247:
5241:
5235:
5222:
5216:
5210:
5196:
5190:
5184:
5175:
5169:
5163:
5157:
5151:
5145:
5139:
5133:
5127:
5121:
5115:
5109:
5103:
5097:
5091:
5085:
5079:
5072:
5066:
5060:
5054:
5049:Thomas Pellard.
5047:
5041:
5035:
5029:
5028:, pp. 3–14.
5023:
4888:
4887:
4789:"scary, scared"
4723:
4722:
4714:
4704:
4702:
4696:
4695:
4687:
4632:"to hide" (EMJ)
4559:
4555:"to get dizzy" (
4534:
4533:
4316:ʔɴjuchuɴ, ʔɴjuk-
4302:"to move" (ModJ)
4282:asibuɴ ~ ashibuɴ
4184:
4119:"contain" (ModJ)
4097:Nakijin Kunigami
4074:
4033:
4018:
3993:
3984:
3983:
3973:
3966:
3962:
3959:
3953:
3951:
3910:
3886:
3878:
3830:The participle (
3756:
3754:
3753:
3478:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3471:
3448:
3439:
3390:
3381:
3365:(intensifier) +
3360:
3351:
3342:
3311:(intensifier) +
3306:
3297:
3262:(intensifier) +
3257:
3236:
3232:
3223:
3201:
3194:
3192:[kabuɾe]
3177:
3170:
3153:
3151:[mɐubaː]
3146:
3129:
3122:
3105:
3098:
3072:
3071:
3060:
3054:
3040:
3024:
3018:
3012:
2971:
2965:
2922:
2641:
2618:
2612:
2585:
2576:
2569:
2440:
2439:
2423:
2414:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2368:
2355:
2342:
2325:
2293:—change from an
2268:
2264:
2252:
2245:
2234:
2227:
2220:
2216:
2209:
2205:
2187:
2173:
2165:
2159:
2157:
2143:
2135:
2129:
2123:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2097:
2088:
2078:
2067:
2059:
2053:
2051:
2045:
2039:
2035:
2029:
2025:
2019:
2011:
2004:
1996:
1990:
1988:
1982:
1978:
1969:
1960:
1956:
1950:
1944:
1938:
1934:
1926:
1920:
1918:
1912:has merged into
1911:
1903:
1897:
1891:
1885:
1878:
1872:
1870:
1864:
1856:
1840:
1826:
1819:
1801:
1798:
1782:
1773:
1755:
1748:
1745:
1738:
1731:
1720:
1713:
1706:
1703:
1696:
1689:
1678:
1659:
1652:
1616:
1612:
1609:
1598:"Oh?" or "Oho!"
1567:The long vowels
1561:
1559:
1552:
1546:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1515:
1506:
1504:
1497:
1488:
1486:
1479:
1464:
1462:
1456:
1449:
1440:
1438:
1434:
1427:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1337:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1302:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1257:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1217:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1192:
1187:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1167:
1162:
1157:
1152:
1147:
1137:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1057:
1052:
1047:
1042:
1037:
1027:
1022:
1017:
1012:
1007:
1002:
997:
992:
987:
982:
972:
967:
962:
957:
952:
947:
942:
937:
932:
927:
864:
860:
848:
846:
840:
834:
828:
823:
809:
793:
784:
770:
761:
729:
725:
711:
710:
701:
631:syllable weights
625:
621:
614:
594:
587:
582:
576:
566:
536:
534:
528:
527:
520:
518:
512:
511:
493:
489:
446:Sueyoshi dialect
436:Hachijō language
357:Hitachi Province
308:and the smaller
283:
281:
275:
274:
261:
259:
253:
252:
246:Hachijō dialects
233:Location of the
230:
209:
193:
188:
176:
143:
81:
36:
31:
30:
19:
18:
16:Japonic language
7668:
7667:
7663:
7662:
7661:
7659:
7658:
7657:
7633:
7632:
7631:
7626:
7600:
7584:
7568:Zainichi Korean
7494:
7416:
7393:
7388:
7358:
7353:
7306:
7251:Transliteration
7246:
7222:Sound symbolism
7198:
7180:Role language (
7139:from Portuguese
7071:Irregular verbs
7049:
7047:
7036:
6985:Kana Supplement
6980:Kana Extended-B
6975:Kana Extended-A
6898:
6874:Historical kana
6840:
6782:
6761:by stroke count
6752:Kanji radicals
6746:by stroke count
6704:
6617:
6583:
6559:Hawaiian Creole
6531:
6508:
6431:
6305:
6124:
6093:
6088:
6058:
6053:
5987:
5964:
5930:
5909:
5848:
5837:
5809:
5804:
5767:
5759:
5756:
5754:Further reading
5751:
5745:
5723:
5688:
5659:
5652:
5635:
5622:
5614:Kaneda, Akihiro
5597:
5580:
5575:
5574:
5568:Iannucci (2019)
5566:
5562:
5556:Iannucci (2019)
5554:
5550:
5542:
5538:
5530:
5526:
5518:
5514:
5506:
5502:
5494:
5490:
5484:Iannucci (2019)
5482:
5478:
5472:Iannucci (2019)
5470:
5466:
5462:, pp. 155.
5458:
5454:
5448:Iannucci (2019)
5446:
5442:
5436:Iannucci (2019)
5434:
5430:
5424:Iannucci (2019)
5422:
5415:
5409:Iannucci (2019)
5407:
5403:
5397:Iannucci (2019)
5395:
5391:
5385:Iannucci (2019)
5383:
5379:
5371:
5364:
5358:Iannucci (2019)
5356:
5352:
5346:Iannucci (2019)
5344:
5340:
5332:
5328:
5320:
5316:
5299:
5295:
5287:
5283:
5277:Iannucci (2019)
5275:
5271:
5263:
5256:
5248:
5244:
5236:
5225:
5219:Iannucci (2019)
5217:
5213:
5197:
5193:
5187:Iannucci (2019)
5185:
5178:
5170:
5166:
5158:
5154:
5146:
5142:
5134:
5130:
5122:
5118:
5110:
5106:
5100:Iannucci (2019)
5098:
5094:
5086:
5082:
5073:
5069:
5063:Iannucci (2019)
5061:
5057:
5048:
5044:
5038:Iannucci (2019)
5036:
5032:
5024:
5020:
5015:
4993:
4718:
4717:
4690:
4688:
4684:
4672:
4668:
4663:
4645:niyof- ~ niyob-
4630:nabar- ~ namar-
4615:
4611:
4607:
4513:
4504:
4494:
4490:
4486:
4479:
4475:
4470:
4435:
4430:
4428:
4423:
4400:
4373:
4368:
4337:
4314:
4312:
4308:
4303:
4280:
4278:
4274:
4269:
4257:asub- "to play"
4247:
4245:
4240:
4217:
4215:
4210:
4187:
4179:
4174:
4151:
4145:
4120:
4091:
4088:firiɴ ~ firiyuɴ
4086:
4082:
4077:
4065:
4036:
4026:
4021:
3974:
3963:
3957:
3954:
3911:
3909:
3899:
3887:
3876:
3805:
3748:
3638:
3619:
3590:
3556:topic-prominent
3544:
3542:Hachijō grammar
3538:
3466:
3458:
3446:[jonde]
3437:[jodde]
3391:in these cases.
3213:
3199:[kabʊe]
3075:Common Hachijō
2915:
2913:Non-coalescence
2802:
2794:
2645:
2644:
2619:
2615:
2586:
2579:
2570:
2566:
2434:
2259:
2239:, merging into
2211:
2202:Affrication of
2196:
2191:
2190:
2166:
2162:
2136:
2132:
2098:
2091:
2060:
2056:
1997:
1993:
1983:is realized as
1927:
1923:
1904:
1900:
1879:
1875:
1857:
1853:
1799:
1746:
1704:
1672:
1604:
1565:
1564:
1553:
1549:
1516:
1509:
1498:
1491:
1480:
1467:
1450:
1443:
1428:
1421:
852:
851:
824:
820:
721:
677:written with a
652:Heavy syllables
642:Light syllables
552:
547:
522:
506:
496:sitagirecjaQcja
472:Proto-Ryukyuan
394:
380:town of Hachijō
269:
247:
238:
237:
205:
191:
184:
172:
144:
139:
133:
111:
104:
82:
79:Language family
77:
68:
67:Native speakers
17:
12:
11:
5:
7666:
7656:
7655:
7650:
7645:
7628:
7627:
7625:
7624:
7619:
7614:
7608:
7606:
7605:Sign languages
7602:
7601:
7599:
7598:
7592:
7590:
7586:
7585:
7583:
7582:
7576:
7570:
7565:
7560:
7555:
7550:
7545:
7540:
7535:
7534:
7533:
7528:
7523:
7518:
7508:
7502:
7500:
7496:
7495:
7493:
7492:
7491:
7490:
7485:
7480:
7475:
7470:
7465:
7460:
7455:
7450:
7445:
7435:
7430:
7424:
7422:
7418:
7417:
7415:
7414:
7413:
7412:
7401:
7399:
7395:
7394:
7387:
7386:
7379:
7372:
7364:
7355:
7354:
7352:
7351:
7350:
7349:
7339:
7338:
7337:
7327:
7322:
7316:
7314:
7308:
7307:
7305:
7304:
7303:
7302:
7292:
7291:
7290:
7285:
7280:
7275:
7270:
7265:
7254:
7252:
7248:
7247:
7245:
7244:
7243:
7242:
7237:
7232:
7224:
7219:
7214:
7208:
7206:
7200:
7199:
7197:
7196:
7191:
7186:
7177:
7168:
7163:
7158:
7153:
7148:
7143:
7142:
7141:
7136:
7122:
7117:
7111:Native words (
7108:
7103:
7098:
7093:
7088:
7083:
7078:
7073:
7068:
7063:
7058:
7052:
7050:
7045:
7042:
7041:
7038:
7037:
7035:
7034:
7033:
7032:
7027:
7022:
7017:
7012:
7004:
7003:
7002:
6997:
6992:
6987:
6982:
6977:
6972:
6964:
6963:
6962:
6957:
6952:
6947:
6942:
6937:
6929:
6928:
6927:
6919:
6918:
6917:
6906:
6904:
6900:
6899:
6897:
6896:
6891:
6886:
6881:
6876:
6871:
6866:
6861:
6860:
6859:
6848:
6846:
6842:
6841:
6839:
6838:
6833:
6828:
6823:
6818:
6813:
6808:
6803:
6798:
6792:
6790:
6784:
6783:
6781:
6780:
6775:
6770:
6765:
6764:
6763:
6758:
6750:
6749:
6748:
6738:
6733:
6727:
6725:
6716:
6714:Writing system
6710:
6709:
6706:
6705:
6703:
6702:
6701:
6700:
6695:
6690:
6685:
6675:
6674:
6673:
6668:
6663:
6658:
6653:
6648:
6643:
6638:
6627:
6625:
6619:
6618:
6616:
6615:
6614:
6613:
6603:
6597:
6591:
6585:
6584:
6582:
6581:
6576:
6571:
6569:Pseudo-Chinese
6566:
6561:
6556:
6551:
6549:Bamboo English
6545:
6543:
6537:
6536:
6533:
6532:
6530:
6529:
6524:
6522:Amami Japanese
6518:
6516:
6510:
6509:
6507:
6506:
6499:
6498:
6497:
6492:
6487:
6482:
6477:
6476:
6475:
6458:
6457:
6456:
6443:
6441:
6433:
6432:
6430:
6429:
6422:
6421:
6420:
6419:
6418:
6410:
6409:
6408:
6393:
6392:
6391:
6386:
6381:
6369:
6368:
6367:
6362:
6357:
6352:
6340:
6339:
6338:
6337:
6336:
6333:
6317:
6315:
6307:
6306:
6304:
6303:
6302:
6301:
6300:
6299:
6294:
6289:
6284:
6276:
6275:
6274:
6266:
6265:
6264:
6259:
6244:
6243:
6242:
6237:
6236:
6235:
6230:
6222:
6221:
6220:
6215:
6210:
6195:
6194:
6193:
6192:
6191:
6186:
6178:
6177:
6176:
6171:
6166:
6151:
6145:
6143:
6132:
6126:
6125:
6123:
6122:
6117:
6112:
6107:
6101:
6099:
6095:
6094:
6087:
6086:
6079:
6072:
6064:
6055:
6054:
6052:
6051:
6046:
6041:
6040:
6039:
6029:
6028:
6027:
6017:
6009:
6003:
6001:
5997:
5996:
5993:
5992:
5989:
5988:
5986:
5985:
5980:
5974:
5972:
5966:
5965:
5963:
5962:
5957:
5951:
5949:
5942:
5936:
5935:
5932:
5931:
5929:
5928:
5923:
5917:
5915:
5911:
5910:
5908:
5907:
5902:
5897:
5892:
5887:
5885:Southern Amami
5882:
5876:
5874:
5865:
5856:
5850:
5849:
5840:
5838:
5836:
5835:
5830:
5829:
5828:
5817:
5815:
5811:
5810:
5803:
5802:
5795:
5788:
5780:
5774:
5773:
5765:
5755:
5752:
5750:
5749:
5743:
5727:
5721:
5695:
5676:
5667:
5645:, ed. (2013),
5639:
5634:978-4305702326
5633:
5610:
5601:
5595:
5581:
5579:
5576:
5573:
5572:
5560:
5548:
5536:
5524:
5512:
5500:
5496:Kupchik (2011)
5488:
5476:
5464:
5452:
5440:
5428:
5413:
5401:
5389:
5377:
5362:
5350:
5338:
5336:, p. 195.
5326:
5324:, p. 196.
5314:
5293:
5281:
5269:
5254:
5242:
5223:
5211:
5191:
5176:
5164:
5152:
5140:
5128:
5124:Kupchik (2011)
5116:
5104:
5092:
5080:
5067:
5055:
5042:
5030:
5017:
5016:
5014:
5011:
5010:
5009:
5004:
4999:
4992:
4989:
4986:
4985:
4982:
4976:
4975:
4972:
4966:
4965:
4962:
4956:
4955:
4952:
4946:
4945:
4942:
4936:
4935:
4932:
4926:
4925:
4922:
4916:
4915:
4912:
4906:
4905:
4902:
4896:
4895:
4892:
4881:
4880:
4873:
4866:
4865:
4858:
4851:
4850:
4843:
4836:
4835:
4828:
4821:
4820:
4813:
4806:
4805:
4798:
4791:
4790:
4783:
4776:
4775:
4768:
4761:
4760:
4753:
4746:
4745:
4738:
4731:
4730:
4727:
4716:
4715:
4681:
4680:
4677:
4676:
4670:
4666:
4656:
4649:
4648:
4641:
4634:
4633:
4626:
4619:
4618:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4600:
4593:
4592:
4585:
4578:
4577:
4570:
4563:
4562:
4549:
4542:
4541:
4538:
4527:
4526:
4488:
4484:
4477:
4473:
4459:
4456:
4445:
4444:
4416:
4413:
4406:
4405:
4393:
4390:
4383:
4382:
4361:
4358:
4351:
4350:
4330:
4327:
4320:
4319:
4306:
4296:
4293:
4286:
4285:
4272:
4262:
4259:
4253:
4252:
4233:
4230:
4223:
4222:
4203:
4200:
4193:
4192:
4167:
4164:
4157:
4156:
4138:
4133:
4126:
4125:
4113:
4108:
4101:
4100:
4080:
4058:
4053:
4046:
4045:
4024:
4008:
4005:
3998:
3997:
3994:
3988:
3976:
3975:
3958:September 2024
3890:
3888:
3881:
3875:
3872:
3871:
3870:
3859:
3828:
3827:for many uses.
3813:
3812:
3803:
3782:
3742:
3737:"why," and なぜ
3707:
3704:genitive cases
3690:The particles
3688:
3687:
3686:
3660:
3641:
3636:
3623:
3617:
3608:
3597:
3588:
3552:left-branching
3540:Main article:
3537:
3534:
3524:
3523:
3520:
3517:
3514:
3511:
3504:
3503:
3500:
3497:
3494:
3491:
3488:
3485:
3457:
3452:
3451:
3450:
3393:
3392:
3358:[tt͡ɕ]
3349:[tt͡s]
3322:Gemination of
3320:
3273:Gemination of
3271:
3258:—for example,
3241:Gemination of
3212:
3209:
3206:
3205:
3202:
3195:
3188:
3182:
3181:
3178:
3171:
3164:
3158:
3157:
3154:
3147:
3140:
3134:
3133:
3130:
3123:
3120:[taɾu]
3116:
3110:
3109:
3106:
3099:
3092:
3086:
3085:
3082:
3079:
3076:
2914:
2911:
2903:
2902:
2879:
2852:
2829:
2806:
2800:
2792:
2771:
2744:
2743:
2697:
2675:
2643:
2642:
2613:
2577:
2563:
2562:
2559:
2558:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2546:
2543:
2539:
2538:
2535:
2532:
2529:
2526:
2523:
2519:
2518:
2515:
2512:
2509:
2506:
2503:
2499:
2498:
2495:
2492:
2489:
2486:
2483:
2479:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2469:
2466:
2463:
2459:
2458:
2455:
2452:
2449:
2446:
2443:
2433:
2430:
2415:and Kashitate
2372:The consonant
2258:
2255:
2210:
2200:
2195:
2192:
2189:
2188:
2160:
2130:
2089:
2054:
2014:zero consonant
1991:
1976:[ɸaɾa]
1921:
1898:
1873:
1850:
1849:
1846:
1845:
1836:
1835:Special morae
1832:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1820:
1813:
1807:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1792:
1790:
1784:
1783:
1776:
1774:
1767:
1765:
1759:
1758:
1756:
1749:
1739:
1732:
1725:
1717:
1716:
1714:
1707:
1697:
1690:
1683:
1676:
1665:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1653:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1603:
1600:
1563:
1562:
1547:
1507:
1489:
1465:
1441:
1418:
1417:
1414:
1413:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1363:
1359:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1308:
1304:
1303:
1298:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1249:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1223:
1218:
1213:
1208:
1203:
1198:
1194:
1193:
1188:
1183:
1178:
1173:
1168:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1148:
1143:
1139:
1138:
1133:
1128:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1108:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1084:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1033:
1029:
1028:
1023:
1018:
1013:
1008:
1003:
998:
993:
988:
983:
978:
974:
973:
968:
963:
958:
953:
948:
943:
938:
933:
928:
923:
919:
918:
913:
908:
903:
898:
893:
888:
883:
878:
873:
868:
850:
849:
835:or compressed
817:
816:
813:
812:
810:
803:
801:
795:
794:
787:
785:
778:
772:
771:
764:
762:
755:
749:
748:
743:
738:
733:
720:
717:
674:
673:
663:
649:
626:were present.
597:palatalization
551:
548:
546:
543:
483:
482:
481:
480:
479:
478:
470:
469:
468:
467:
466:
454:
453:
452:
451:
450:
447:
444:
441:
424:Proto-Japanese
393:
390:
326:Hachijō-kojima
240:
239:
232:
231:
223:
222:
217:
211:
210:
203:
195:
194:
189:
181:
180:
177:
169:
168:
167:Language codes
164:
163:
145:
141:Writing system
138:
135:
134:
132:
131:
130:
129:
114:
112:
109:
106:
105:
103:
102:
101:
100:
85:
83:
76:
73:
72:
69:
66:
63:
62:
52:
48:
47:
42:
41:Native to
38:
37:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7665:
7654:
7651:
7649:
7646:
7644:
7641:
7640:
7638:
7623:
7622:Miyakubo Sign
7620:
7618:
7615:
7613:
7610:
7609:
7607:
7603:
7597:
7596:Bonin English
7594:
7593:
7591:
7587:
7580:
7577:
7574:
7573:Sakhalin Ainu
7571:
7569:
7566:
7564:
7561:
7559:
7556:
7554:
7551:
7549:
7546:
7544:
7541:
7539:
7536:
7532:
7529:
7527:
7524:
7522:
7519:
7517:
7514:
7513:
7512:
7509:
7507:
7504:
7503:
7501:
7497:
7489:
7486:
7484:
7481:
7479:
7476:
7474:
7471:
7469:
7466:
7464:
7461:
7459:
7456:
7454:
7451:
7449:
7446:
7444:
7441:
7440:
7439:
7436:
7434:
7431:
7429:
7428:Hokkaido Ainu
7426:
7425:
7423:
7419:
7411:
7408:
7407:
7406:
7403:
7402:
7400:
7396:
7392:
7385:
7380:
7378:
7373:
7371:
7366:
7365:
7362:
7348:
7345:
7344:
7343:
7340:
7336:
7333:
7332:
7331:
7328:
7326:
7323:
7321:
7318:
7317:
7315:
7313:
7309:
7301:
7298:
7297:
7296:
7295:Cyrillization
7293:
7289:
7286:
7284:
7283:Wāpuro rōmaji
7281:
7279:
7276:
7274:
7271:
7269:
7266:
7264:
7261:
7260:
7259:
7256:
7255:
7253:
7249:
7241:
7238:
7236:
7233:
7231:
7228:
7227:
7225:
7223:
7220:
7218:
7215:
7213:
7210:
7209:
7207:
7205:
7201:
7195:
7192:
7190:
7187:
7185:
7183:
7178:
7176:
7174:
7169:
7167:
7164:
7162:
7159:
7157:
7154:
7152:
7149:
7147:
7144:
7140:
7137:
7135:
7132:
7131:
7130:
7128:
7123:
7121:
7118:
7116:
7114:
7113:yamato kotoba
7109:
7107:
7104:
7102:
7101:Counter words
7099:
7097:
7094:
7092:
7089:
7087:
7084:
7082:
7079:
7077:
7074:
7072:
7069:
7067:
7064:
7062:
7059:
7057:
7054:
7053:
7051:
7043:
7031:
7028:
7026:
7023:
7021:
7018:
7016:
7013:
7011:
7008:
7007:
7005:
7001:
6998:
6996:
6993:
6991:
6988:
6986:
6983:
6981:
6978:
6976:
6973:
6971:
6968:
6967:
6965:
6961:
6958:
6956:
6953:
6951:
6948:
6946:
6943:
6941:
6938:
6936:
6933:
6932:
6930:
6926:
6923:
6922:
6920:
6916:
6913:
6912:
6911:
6908:
6907:
6905:
6901:
6895:
6892:
6890:
6887:
6885:
6882:
6880:
6877:
6875:
6872:
6870:
6867:
6865:
6862:
6858:
6855:
6854:
6853:
6850:
6849:
6847:
6843:
6837:
6836:Kana ligature
6834:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6812:
6809:
6807:
6804:
6802:
6799:
6797:
6794:
6793:
6791:
6789:
6785:
6779:
6776:
6774:
6771:
6769:
6766:
6762:
6759:
6757:
6754:
6753:
6751:
6747:
6744:
6743:
6742:
6739:
6737:
6734:
6732:
6731:Script reform
6729:
6728:
6726:
6724:
6720:
6717:
6715:
6711:
6699:
6696:
6694:
6691:
6689:
6686:
6684:
6681:
6680:
6679:
6676:
6672:
6669:
6667:
6664:
6662:
6659:
6657:
6654:
6652:
6649:
6647:
6644:
6642:
6639:
6637:
6634:
6633:
6632:
6629:
6628:
6626:
6624:
6620:
6612:
6609:
6608:
6607:
6604:
6602:
6599:
6598:
6595:
6592:
6590:
6586:
6580:
6577:
6575:
6572:
6570:
6567:
6565:
6562:
6560:
6557:
6555:
6554:Bonin English
6552:
6550:
6547:
6546:
6544:
6542:
6538:
6528:
6525:
6523:
6520:
6519:
6517:
6515:
6511:
6505:
6504:
6500:
6496:
6493:
6491:
6488:
6486:
6483:
6481:
6478:
6474:
6471:
6470:
6469:
6466:
6465:
6464:
6463:
6459:
6455:
6452:
6451:
6450:
6449:
6445:
6444:
6442:
6440:
6439:
6434:
6428:
6427:
6423:
6417:
6414:
6413:
6411:
6407:
6404:
6403:
6401:
6400:
6399:
6398:
6394:
6390:
6387:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6376:
6375:
6374:
6370:
6366:
6363:
6361:
6358:
6356:
6353:
6351:
6348:
6347:
6346:
6345:
6341:
6334:
6331:
6330:
6329:
6326:
6325:
6324:
6323:
6319:
6318:
6316:
6314:
6313:
6308:
6298:
6295:
6293:
6290:
6288:
6285:
6283:
6280:
6279:
6277:
6273:
6270:
6269:
6267:
6263:
6260:
6258:
6255:
6254:
6252:
6251:
6250:
6249:
6245:
6241:
6238:
6234:
6231:
6229:
6226:
6225:
6223:
6219:
6216:
6214:
6211:
6209:
6206:
6205:
6203:
6202:
6201:
6200:
6196:
6190:
6187:
6185:
6182:
6181:
6179:
6175:
6172:
6170:
6167:
6165:
6162:
6161:
6159:
6158:
6157:
6156:
6152:
6150:
6147:
6146:
6144:
6142:
6141:
6136:
6133:
6131:
6127:
6121:
6118:
6116:
6113:
6111:
6108:
6106:
6103:
6102:
6100:
6098:Earlier forms
6096:
6092:
6085:
6080:
6078:
6073:
6071:
6066:
6065:
6062:
6050:
6047:
6045:
6042:
6038:
6035:
6034:
6033:
6030:
6026:
6023:
6022:
6021:
6018:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6007:Proto-Japonic
6005:
6004:
6002:
5998:
5984:
5981:
5979:
5976:
5975:
5973:
5971:
5970:Macro-Yaeyama
5967:
5961:
5958:
5956:
5953:
5952:
5950:
5946:
5943:
5941:
5937:
5927:
5924:
5922:
5919:
5918:
5916:
5912:
5906:
5903:
5901:
5898:
5896:
5893:
5891:
5888:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5878:
5877:
5875:
5873:
5869:
5866:
5864:
5860:
5857:
5855:
5851:
5844:
5834:
5831:
5827:
5824:
5823:
5822:
5819:
5818:
5816:
5812:
5808:
5801:
5796:
5794:
5789:
5787:
5782:
5781:
5778:
5772:
5766:
5764:
5760:(in Japanese)
5758:
5757:
5746:
5740:
5736:
5732:
5728:
5724:
5718:
5713:
5708:
5704:
5700:
5696:
5692:
5685:
5681:
5677:
5673:
5668:
5665:
5657:
5653:
5649:
5644:
5640:
5636:
5630:
5626:
5619:
5615:
5611:
5607:
5602:
5598:
5592:
5588:
5583:
5582:
5569:
5564:
5557:
5552:
5545:
5544:Kaneda (2001)
5540:
5533:
5532:Kaneda (2001)
5528:
5521:
5516:
5509:
5508:Kaneda (2001)
5504:
5497:
5492:
5485:
5480:
5474:, p. 39.
5473:
5468:
5461:
5460:Kaneda (2001)
5456:
5449:
5444:
5437:
5432:
5425:
5420:
5418:
5410:
5405:
5399:, p. 62.
5398:
5393:
5386:
5381:
5374:
5373:NINJAL (1950)
5369:
5367:
5359:
5354:
5348:, p. 59.
5347:
5342:
5335:
5334:NINJAL (1950)
5330:
5323:
5322:NINJAL (1950)
5318:
5311:
5307:
5303:
5297:
5290:
5289:Kaneda (2001)
5285:
5278:
5273:
5266:
5265:NINJAL (1950)
5261:
5259:
5251:
5250:Kaneda (2001)
5246:
5239:
5238:Kaneda (2001)
5234:
5232:
5230:
5228:
5220:
5215:
5209:
5205:
5202:pp. 181–182.
5201:
5195:
5188:
5183:
5181:
5173:
5172:NINJAL (1950)
5168:
5162:, p. 39.
5161:
5160:Kaneda (2001)
5156:
5149:
5144:
5137:
5136:NINJAL (1950)
5132:
5125:
5120:
5113:
5112:NINJAL (1950)
5108:
5101:
5096:
5089:
5084:
5077:
5071:
5064:
5059:
5052:
5046:
5039:
5034:
5027:
5026:Kaneda (2001)
5022:
5018:
5008:
5005:
5003:
5000:
4998:
4995:
4994:
4983:
4981:
4978:
4977:
4973:
4971:
4968:
4967:
4963:
4961:
4958:
4957:
4953:
4951:
4948:
4947:
4943:
4941:
4938:
4937:
4933:
4931:
4928:
4927:
4923:
4921:
4918:
4917:
4913:
4911:
4908:
4907:
4903:
4901:
4898:
4897:
4893:
4890:
4889:
4886:
4878:
4874:
4871:
4868:
4867:
4863:
4859:
4856:
4853:
4852:
4848:
4844:
4841:
4838:
4837:
4833:
4829:
4826:
4823:
4822:
4818:
4814:
4811:
4808:
4807:
4803:
4799:
4796:
4793:
4792:
4788:
4784:
4781:
4778:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4766:
4763:
4762:
4758:
4754:
4751:
4748:
4747:
4743:
4739:
4736:
4733:
4732:
4728:
4725:
4724:
4721:
4712:
4708:
4701:
4686:
4682:
4674:
4661:
4657:
4654:
4651:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4639:
4636:
4635:
4631:
4627:
4624:
4621:
4620:
4616:
4601:
4598:
4595:
4594:
4590:
4586:
4583:
4580:
4579:
4575:
4571:
4568:
4565:
4564:
4560:
4554:
4550:
4547:
4544:
4543:
4539:
4536:
4535:
4532:
4524:
4520:
4516:
4511:
4507:
4502:
4498:
4492:
4480:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4457:
4454:
4450:
4447:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4433:
4426:
4421:
4417:
4414:
4411:
4408:
4407:
4404:(Early ModJ)
4403:
4398:
4394:
4391:
4388:
4385:
4384:
4381:" (Okinawan)
4380:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4362:
4359:
4356:
4353:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4335:
4331:
4328:
4325:
4322:
4321:
4317:
4310:
4301:
4297:
4294:
4291:
4288:
4287:
4283:
4276:
4267:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4254:
4250:
4243:
4238:
4234:
4231:
4228:
4225:
4224:
4220:
4213:
4208:
4204:
4201:
4198:
4195:
4194:
4190:
4185:
4177:
4172:
4168:
4165:
4162:
4159:
4158:
4154:
4149:
4143:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4131:
4128:
4127:
4123:
4118:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4106:
4103:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4075:
4069:
4063:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4051:
4048:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4034:
4028:
4019:
4013:
4009:
4006:
4003:
4000:
3999:
3995:
3989:
3986:
3985:
3982:
3972:
3969:
3961:
3950:
3947:
3943:
3940:
3936:
3933:
3929:
3926:
3922:
3919: –
3918:
3914:
3913:Find sources:
3907:
3903:
3897:
3896:
3891:This section
3889:
3885:
3880:
3879:
3868:
3864:
3860:
3857:
3853:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3817:
3816:
3810:
3806:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3783:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3747:
3746:kakari-musubi
3743:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3675:
3673:
3672:) distinction
3671:
3665:
3661:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3639:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3621:
3613:
3609:
3606:
3602:
3598:
3595:
3591:
3584:
3580:
3579:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3543:
3533:
3531:
3521:
3515:
3510:
3506:
3505:
3501:
3498:
3495:
3492:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3480:
3479:
3476:
3465:
3464:
3456:
3447:
3443:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3397:
3396:
3389:
3385:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3359:
3355:
3350:
3346:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3305:
3301:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3239:
3238:
3231:
3227:
3222:
3218:
3203:
3200:
3196:
3193:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3183:
3179:
3176:
3172:
3169:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3159:
3155:
3152:
3148:
3145:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3135:
3131:
3128:
3127:[tɐu]
3124:
3121:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3111:
3107:
3104:
3100:
3097:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3087:
3083:
3080:
3077:
3074:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3064:
3059:
3053:
3048:
3044:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3023:
3017:
3011:
3005:
3003:
3001:
2995:
2993:
2987:
2985:
2979:
2977:
2972:, such as in
2970:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2921:
2910:
2908:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2804:
2796:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2748:
2747:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2698:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2676:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2650:
2649:
2648:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2617:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2584:
2582:
2574:
2568:
2564:
2556:
2553:
2550:
2547:
2544:
2541:
2540:
2536:
2533:
2530:
2527:
2524:
2521:
2520:
2516:
2513:
2510:
2507:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2496:
2493:
2490:
2487:
2484:
2481:
2480:
2476:
2473:
2470:
2467:
2464:
2461:
2460:
2456:
2453:
2450:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2441:
2438:
2429:
2427:
2422:
2418:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2388:
2375:
2370:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2341:
2340:[d͡ʑ]
2337:
2333:
2329:
2324:
2323:[t͡ɕ]
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2254:
2249:
2242:
2238:
2231:
2224:
2199:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2170:
2164:
2156:
2155:[ɴ~ŋ]
2151:
2147:
2140:
2134:
2127:
2122:
2118:
2099:The phonemes
2096:
2094:
2086:
2082:
2075:
2071:
2064:
2058:
2050:
2044:
2034:
2033:[i,u]
2024:
2015:
2008:
2001:
1995:
1987:
1977:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1961:, such as in
1955:
1949:
1943:
1931:
1925:
1915:
1908:
1902:
1895:
1890:
1889:[z~ʑ]
1884:
1877:
1869:
1861:
1855:
1851:
1844:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1818:
1814:
1812:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1797:
1791:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1766:
1764:
1760:
1757:
1754:
1750:
1744:
1740:
1737:
1733:
1730:
1726:
1723:
1719:
1718:
1715:
1712:
1708:
1702:
1698:
1695:
1691:
1688:
1684:
1681:
1677:
1675:
1670:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1651:
1647:
1645:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1623:
1620:
1617:
1611:
1599:
1597:
1594:"Oh my!" and
1593:
1589:
1586:that contain
1585:
1580:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1558:
1551:
1543:
1537:
1514:
1512:
1503:
1496:
1494:
1485:
1478:
1476:
1474:
1472:
1470:
1461:
1455:
1448:
1446:
1433:
1426:
1424:
1419:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1369:
1364:
1362:Minami Daitō
1361:
1360:
1354:
1349:
1344:
1339:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1306:
1305:
1299:
1294:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1251:
1250:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1196:
1195:
1189:
1184:
1179:
1174:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1141:
1140:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1109:
1104:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1086:
1085:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1031:
1030:
1024:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1004:
999:
994:
989:
984:
979:
976:
975:
969:
964:
959:
954:
949:
944:
939:
934:
929:
924:
921:
920:
917:
914:
912:
909:
907:
904:
902:
899:
897:
894:
892:
889:
887:
884:
882:
879:
877:
874:
872:
869:
867:This Article
866:
865:
859:
857:
845:
839:
833:
822:
818:
811:
808:
804:
802:
800:
797:
796:
792:
788:
786:
783:
779:
777:
774:
773:
769:
765:
763:
760:
756:
754:
751:
750:
747:
744:
742:
739:
737:
734:
731:
730:
724:
716:
714:
705:
700:
695:
691:
689:
683:
680:
671:
667:
664:
661:
657:
653:
650:
647:
643:
640:
639:
638:
636:
632:
627:
618:
610:
606:
602:
598:
589:
583:
577:
571:
567:
561:
557:
542:
538:
533:
521:or "Downhill"
517:
503:
501:
497:
477:
474:
473:
471:
465:
462:
461:
459:
455:
448:
445:
442:
439:
438:
437:
434:
433:
432:
431:
427:
426:
425:
422:
421:
420:
419:
418:Proto-Japonic
415:
414:
413:
411:
406:
403:
399:
389:
387:
386:
381:
377:
374:Hachijō is a
372:
370:
366:
363:and even the
362:
358:
354:
353:
348:
347:
342:
338:
333:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
314:Daitō Islands
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
280:
268:
267:
262:
258:
257:Hachijō hōgen
236:
229:
224:
221:
218:
216:
212:
208:
204:
202:
201:
196:
190:
187:
182:
178:
175:
170:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
146:
142:
136:
128:
125:
124:
122:
119:
118:
117:
116:Proto-Japonic
113:
107:
99:
96:
95:
93:
90:
89:
88:
84:
80:
74:
70:
64:
61:
60:Daitō Islands
57:
53:
49:
46:
43:
39:
35:
25:
20:
7443:Amami Ōshima
7432:
7288:In Esperanto
7258:Romanization
7212:Pitch accent
7194:Dictionaries
7181:
7173:nyōbō kotoba
7172:
7126:
7125:Loan words (
7112:
7096:Topic marker
7010:ARIB STD B24
6756:by frequency
6636:Amami Ōshima
6605:
6513:
6502:
6461:
6447:
6437:
6425:
6412:East San'in
6396:
6372:
6343:
6321:
6311:
6247:
6198:
6154:
6139:
6120:Early Modern
6110:Early Middle
6020:Old Japanese
5832:
5768:(in English)
5734:
5702:
5690:
5683:
5671:
5655:
5647:
5643:Kibe, Nobuko
5624:
5617:
5605:
5586:
5563:
5551:
5539:
5527:
5515:
5503:
5491:
5479:
5467:
5455:
5443:
5431:
5404:
5392:
5380:
5353:
5341:
5329:
5317:
5309:
5305:
5304:. 地域言語 第１５号
5301:
5296:
5284:
5272:
5245:
5214:
5199:
5194:
5167:
5155:
5150:, p. 9.
5143:
5131:
5126:, p. 7.
5119:
5107:
5095:
5088:Vovin (2017)
5083:
5075:
5070:
5058:
5050:
5045:
5033:
5021:
4979:
4969:
4959:
4949:
4939:
4930:kucukawasime
4929:
4919:
4909:
4899:
4884:
4876:
4869:
4861:
4854:
4846:
4839:
4831:
4824:
4816:
4809:
4801:
4794:
4786:
4779:
4771:
4764:
4756:
4749:
4741:
4734:
4719:
4710:
4706:
4685:
4664:
4659:
4652:
4644:
4637:
4629:
4622:
4603:
4596:
4588:
4584:"to be hot"
4581:
4573:
4566:
4552:
4545:
4530:
4518:
4514:
4509:
4505:
4500:
4496:
4482:
4471:
4466:
4462:
4453:tecu ~ teQcu
4452:
4448:
4436:
4431:
4424:
4419:
4409:
4401:
4396:
4386:
4374:
4369:
4364:
4354:
4342:
4338:
4333:
4323:
4315:
4304:
4299:
4289:
4281:
4270:
4265:
4256:
4248:
4246:*memezu (PR)
4241:
4236:
4229:"earthworm"
4226:
4218:
4211:
4206:
4196:
4188:
4175:
4170:
4160:
4152:
4147:
4141:
4135:
4129:
4121:
4116:
4110:
4104:
4092:
4087:
4078:
4067:
4061:
4055:
4049:
4037:
4022:
4011:
4001:
3979:
3964:
3955:
3945:
3938:
3931:
3924:
3912:
3900:Please help
3895:verification
3892:
3866:
3862:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3825:-owa ~ -rowa
3824:
3820:
3814:
3808:
3801:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3745:
3738:
3734:
3733:"what," なんで
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3695:
3691:
3682:
3678:
3669:
3663:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3615:
3611:
3604:
3600:
3593:
3586:
3582:
3576:
3545:
3529:
3527:
3508:
3482:
3461:
3459:
3454:
3441:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3400:
3394:
3388:[ɕɕ]
3383:
3379:[ss]
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3353:
3344:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3316:
3315:"to bend" →
3312:
3308:
3304:[mm]
3299:
3295:[nn]
3290:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3267:
3266:"to push" →
3263:
3259:
3255:[pp]
3250:
3246:
3242:
3230:[tt]
3225:
3216:
3214:
3185:
3161:
3137:
3113:
3089:
3066:
3062:
3058:[ɐu]
3052:[ɐi]
3046:
3042:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3006:
2999:
2997:
2991:
2989:
2983:
2981:
2975:
2973:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2916:
2904:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2798:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2745:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2646:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2616:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2572:
2567:
2435:
2425:
2416:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2389:
2373:
2371:
2361:
2357:
2348:
2344:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2260:
2247:
2240:
2229:
2222:
2212:
2197:
2183:
2168:
2167:The phoneme
2163:
2149:
2145:
2138:
2137:The phoneme
2133:
2125:
2121:[iː]
2116:
2087:"next year."
2084:
2080:
2073:
2070:Sino-Japonic
2062:
2061:The phoneme
2057:
2043:[je]
2006:
1999:
1998:The phoneme
1994:
1971:
1970:"tooth" and
1967:[ɸa]
1962:
1929:
1924:
1913:
1906:
1905:The phoneme
1901:
1893:
1876:
1859:
1854:
1605:
1595:
1591:
1588:nasal vowels
1581:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1566:
1557:[ɔu]
1550:
1542:[ou]
1536:[ei]
1460:[e̝]
915:
910:
905:
900:
895:
890:
885:
880:
875:
870:
853:
838:[ɯᵝ]
821:
722:
712:
703:
693:
687:
684:
675:
669:
665:
659:
655:
651:
645:
641:
628:
590:
579:
573:
569:
563:
559:
555:
553:
550:Phonotactics
539:
504:
499:
495:
484:
458:Old Japanese
435:
428:
423:
416:
407:
395:
383:
373:
369:Old Japanese
350:
344:
334:
322:Meiji period
306:Hachijō-jima
266:Shima Kotoba
265:
264:
245:
243:
198:
121:Old Japanese
97:
7473:Tokunoshima
7268:Nihon-shiki
7151:Wasei-kango
7086:Possessives
7046:Grammar and
6879:Modern kana
6864:Punctuation
6845:Orthography
6666:Tokunoshima
6278:Gifu-Aichi
6248:Tōkai–Tōsan
6115:Late Middle
5895:Tokunoshima
5621:八丈方言動詞の基礎研究
5578:Works cited
5148:Kibe (2013)
4827:"to scold"
4752:"firewood"
4744:"mountain"
4640:"to groan"
4608:~ (iti)siro
4548:"to faint"
4540:Cognate(s)
4318:(Okinawan)
4313:*igok- (PR)
4284:(Okinawan)
4279:*asub- (PR)
4251:(Okinawan)
4221:(Okinawan)
4191:(Okinawan)
4155:(Okinawan)
4004:"to climb"
3996:Cognate(s)
3721:"why," and
3560:omits nouns
3546:Hachijō is
3405:Nb, Nd, Ng,
3371:hiQcimerowa
3369:"to tie" →
3340:[t]
3317:hiNmagarowa
3221:[t]
3108:"welcome!"
3022:[e]
3016:[u]
3010:[i]
2980:"we" (from
2969:[i]
2920:[i]
2632:such as in
2366:[ɲ]
2353:[ɕ]
2049:[e]
1986:[h]
1954:[ɸ]
1948:[ç]
1942:[ɸ]
1868:[β]
1811:Approximant
1502:[ʊ]
1484:[ɐ]
1454:[ɪ]
1451:The vowels
1435:or a glide
1432:[i]
844:[u]
832:[ɯ]
595:represents
584:. The coda
502:in Utsuki.
298:Izu Islands
235:Izu Islands
110:Early forms
56:Izu Islands
34:sima kotoba
7637:Categories
7579:Kuril Ainu
7563:Vietnamese
7558:Indonesian
7506:Portuguese
7468:Okinoerabu
7312:Literature
7182:yakuwarigo
7166:Honorifics
7146:Wasei-eigo
7134:from Dutch
7081:Adjectives
7048:vocabulary
6826:Hentaigana
6821:Man'yōgana
6661:Okinoerabu
6365:Okuyoshino
5900:Okinoerabu
5013:References
4914:to forget
4655:"to love"
4625:"to hide"
4512:(Okinawan)
4434:(Okinawan)
4389:"to bear"
4347:Early ModJ
4292:"to work"
4216:*ore- (PR)
4163:"to fall"
4090:(Okinawan)
4052:"pick up"
3928:newspapers
3874:Vocabulary
3834:-form) of
3713:, such as
3700:nominative
3548:head-final
3401:b, d, g, z
3336:excrescent
3326:: When an
3319:"to bend."
3281:: When an
3270:"to push."
3245:: When an
3090:ozjarijare
2864:tame(s)ite
2718:), copula
2662:, such as
2624:now yield
2437:overview:
2383:to simply
2018:/ɾa,ɾo,ɾj/
1602:Consonants
1590:, such as
1554:Aogashima
1499:The vowel
1481:The vowel
1307:Aogashima
922:Kashitate
856:diphthongs
825:The vowel
556:(C)(j)V(C)
7548:Esperanto
7516:Cantonese
7204:Phonology
7091:Particles
7030:Half/Full
6960:Shift JIS
6889:Yotsugana
6869:Kanazukai
6811:Okurigana
6723:Logograms
6335:Shiramine
6180:Southern
6160:Northern
5651:八丈方言調査報告書
5078:, p. 207.
4940:keebjoome
4872:"to die"
4825:izimerowa
4812:"to eat"
4429:*iyo (PR)
4425:uwo ~ iwo
4375:kashichii
3867:-(a)maosi
3627:-ci ~ -zi
3132:"barrel"
2428:"ditch."
2040:, either
1763:Fricative
1680:Voiceless
1674:Affricate
1637:Laryngeal
1197:Toriuchi
1032:Sueyoshi
1001:ɪː~e̝ː~eː
977:Nakanogō
946:iː~ɪː~e̝ː
545:Phonology
532:sakashita
402:Aogashima
346:Man'yōshū
310:Aogashima
300:south of
200:Glottolog
186:ISO 639-6
174:ISO 639-3
54:Southern
7612:Nihonshu
7531:Mandarin
7483:Yonaguni
7463:Okinawan
7453:Kunigami
7438:Ryukyuan
7410:Variants
7405:Japanese
7127:gairaigo
7106:Numerals
7076:Pronouns
7015:Enclosed
6995:Katakana
6970:Hiragana
6966:Unicode
6921:ISO/IEC
6903:Encoding
6806:Furigana
6801:Katakana
6796:Hiragana
6698:Yonaguni
6678:Southern
6656:Okinawan
6651:Kunigami
6631:Northern
6623:Ryukyuan
6564:Kyowa-go
6495:Tsushima
6485:Nagasaki
6480:Kumamoto
6468:Chikuzen
6332:Kanazawa
6322:Hokuriku
6257:Shizuoka
6224:Eastern
6213:Kanagawa
6204:Western
6149:Hokkaidō
6130:Dialects
5983:Yonaguni
5955:Miyakoan
5948:Miyakoan
5940:Southern
5926:Okinawan
5914:Okinawan
5863:Northern
5854:Ryukyuan
5821:Japanese
5814:Japanese
5733:(2009).
5687:八丈島の言語調査
5682:(1950).
5616:(2001).
4991:See also
4920:deecikja
4910:kasurowa
4900:togirowa
4894:Meaning
4891:Hachijō
4870:marubowa
4855:jadorowa
4759:"trash"
4737:"field"
4726:Hachijō
4599:"known"
4574:fifirak-
4537:Hachijō
4519:pɿtiitsɿ
4227:memezume
4093:pʰurūruɴ
4042:Okinawan
3990:Eastern
3987:Hachijō
3821:-u ~ -ru
3717:"what,"
3605:-u ~ -ru
3601:-o ~ -ro
3558:, often
3481:Without
3367:simerowa
3313:magarowa
3268:oQpesowa
3138:marubara
3084:Meaning
2907:leveling
2891:kowasowa
2872:tamesowa
2736:-Nnakowa
2732:-Nn(ak)-
2603:, not **
2557:uwa, uu
2537:owa, oo
2517:iwa, ja
2497:ewa, ja
2477:awa, oo
2360:becomes
2347:becomes
2295:alveolar
2178:does in
1622:Bilabial
1087:Mitsune
696:"tasty"
609:Japanese
500:citagije
456:Central
349:and the
286:Japanese
207:hach1239
156:hiragana
152:katakana
92:Japanese
58:and the
7553:Turkish
7543:Russian
7538:English
7526:Hoochew
7521:Hokkien
7511:Chinese
7478:Yaeyama
7433:Hachijō
7330:Writers
7263:Hepburn
7217:Rendaku
7156:Engrish
6852:Braille
6773:Ryakuji
6693:Yaeyama
6611:grammar
6606:Hachijō
6503:Satsugū
6462:Hichiku
6448:Hōnichi
6402:San'yō
6397:Chūgoku
6373:Shikoku
6312:Western
6272:Nagaoka
6268:Echigo
6233:Tochigi
6228:Ibaraki
6189:Nairiku
6169:Tsugaru
6140:Eastern
6000:History
5978:Yaeyama
5833:Hachijō
4944:lizard
4934:cicada
4840:heirowa
4832:ijimeru
4797:"ugly"
4795:nikukja
4780:kowakja
4711:kopur-o
4707:kop-uro
4623:nabure-
4604:siru-ki
4582:hotour-
4567:heirak-
4553:magure-
4546:magure-
4467:hitotsu
4412:"fish"
4397:katsug-
4365:kashig-
4339:kashig-
4334:kashig-
4324:kasjag-
4219:ʔuriyuɴ
4189:ʔutiyuɴ
4180:*ote- (
4153:nuguyuɴ
4132:"wipe"
4038:nubuyuɴ
3942:scholar
3670:iru–aru
3536:Grammar
3530:rendaku
3509:Rendaku
3483:Rendaku
3463:rendaku
3455:Rendaku
3162:okireba
2895:kousowa
2868:tameete
2822:seirowa
2818:suerowa
2787:keirowa
2783:kierowa
2742:), etc.
2690:ware-wa
2417:mizjoma
2334:become
2317:become
2299:palatal
2235:become
2028:/ɾi,ɾu/
1669:Plosive
1627:Coronal
1252:Utsuki
741:Central
694:NNmakja
220:Hachijo
98:Hachijō
87:Japonic
22:Hachijō
7458:Miyako
7325:Poetry
7273:Kunrei
7235:Kan-on
7006:Other
6915:EUC-JP
6831:Sōgana
6816:Gojūon
6768:Kokuji
6736:Kanbun
6688:Tarama
6683:Miyako
6473:Hakata
6438:Kyūshū
6426:Umpaku
6389:Sanuki
6355:Banshū
6344:Kansai
6287:Mikawa
6282:Nagoya
6262:Narada
6155:Tōhoku
5960:Tarama
5741:
5719:
5693:].
5680:NINJAL
5658:]
5631:
5593:
5206:
4970:zokume
4950:hjoura
4877:marobu
4862:yadoru
4810:kamowa
4675:(WOJ)
4597:sjo-ke
4523:Miyako
4510:tiitsi
4501:pitetu
4469:(ModJ)
4441:Miyako
4422:(ModJ)
4402:katug-
4399:(ModJ)
4387:katog-
4370:kasik-
4367:(ModJ)
4355:kasik-
4343:katag-
4336:(ModJ)
4268:(ModJ)
4249:mimiji
4242:mimidu
4239:(ModJ)
4237:mimizu
4209:(ModJ)
4173:(ModJ)
4148:nogof-
4144:(ModJ)
4142:nuguw-
4136:nogop-
4130:nogow-
4124:(WOJ)
4122:pupum-
4117:fukum-
4111:popom-
4068:firof-
4064:(ModJ)
4062:hirow-
4056:pirop-
4050:horow-
4012:nobor-
4002:nubur-
3944:
3937:
3930:
3923:
3915:
3838:- and
3741:"why".
3429:jomowa
3423:, and
3264:hesowa
3186:kabure
3019:, and
2988:) and
2899:kowasu
2876:tamesu
2849:ototoi
2740:-Nnaka
2724:darowa
2712:-arowa
2668:utaw-o
2660:...aw-
2607:and **
2595:yield
2408:mizoma
2381:**/jj/
2356:, and
2085:rainen
2081:deeneN
2036:; and
1722:Voiced
1575:, and
1142:Ōkagō
996:ea~jaː
941:ia~jaː
732:
719:Vowels
702:(stem
516:sakaue
385:karuta
352:Fudoki
292:, and
160:rōmaji
51:Region
7488:Yoron
7448:Kikai
7347:texts
7320:Books
7240:Tō-on
7230:Go-on
6857:Kanji
6778:Ateji
6741:Kanji
6671:Yoron
6646:Kikai
6514:Other
6416:Inshū
6406:Bingo
6360:Kishū
6350:Awaji
6218:Tokyo
6208:Gunma
6199:Kantō
6184:Kesen
6174:Akita
6164:Nanbu
5905:Yoron
5890:Kikai
5880:Amami
5872:Amami
5689:[
5660:(PDF)
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4974:bull
4964:roof
4847:hoeru
4802:nikui
4787:kowai
4772:oyako
4765:oyako
4700:nidan
4662:(EMJ)
4660:kofi-
4653:kour-
4638:njow-
4493:(WOJ)
4465:, 一つ
4427:(EMJ)
4379:okowa
4372:(EMJ)
4311:(WOJ)
4300:ugok-
4290:igok-
4277:(WOJ)
4266:asob-
4244:(EMJ)
4214:(WOJ)
4178:(WOJ)
4171:ochi-
4150:(EMJ)
4105:houm-
4085:(WOJ)
3949:JSTOR
3935:books
3863:-oosi
3788:and *
3735:nande
3723:aNsei
3679:irowa
3664:arowa
3653:-ram-
3649:-nam-
3645:-naw-
3507:With
3442:joNde
3433:joQde
2998:nomar
2990:nomar
2955:, or
2943:, or
2931:, or
2845:uQcei
2841:uttui
2826:sueru
2664:utaw-
2251:/d͡z/
2244:/t͡s/
2126:i~jii
2012:or a
1928:When
1917:/t͡s/
1644:Nasal
1632:Velar
1525:from
1391:(oː?)
1386:(eː?)
1331:ei~eː
1116:oː~ou
1106:eː~ei
1011:ʊː~oː
956:ʊː~oː
847:here.
753:Close
736:Front
713:uma-i
704:NNma-
635:rimes
601:place
341:Azuma
302:Tokyo
45:Japan
6955:0213
6950:0212
6945:0211
6940:0208
6935:0201
6931:JIS
6925:2022
6788:Kana
6490:Saga
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6384:Tosa
6328:Kaga
6297:Hida
6292:Mino
5739:ISBN
5717:ISBN
5629:ISBN
5591:ISBN
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4960:cube
4845:吠える
4830:苛める
4817:kamu
4757:gomi
4750:gomi
4742:yama
4735:jama
4643:呻吟ふ
4572:疼らく
4515:pɿtu
4503:(PR)
4497:pito
4463:hito
4449:hito
4432:ʔiyu
4212:ori-
4207:ori-
4205:降りる
4197:ore-
4176:oti-
4169:落ちる
4161:ote-
4083:rip-
4027:bor-
4017:ModJ
3921:news
3856:-ide
3854:and
3852:-ite
3848:-Nde
3846:and
3844:-Qte
3807:and
3796:and
3775:koso
3769:and
3752:係り結び
3739:naze
3731:nani
3729:: 何
3727:nan-
3719:aNde
3702:and
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3612:-ar-
3407:and
3382:and
3363:hiQ-
3309:hiQ-
3277:and
3114:taru
3065:and
3055:and
3045:and
3033:and
2964:/ɾe/
2768:kuwa
2760:kuwa
2728:dara
2720:dara
2716:-ara
2708:-ar-
2700:o-wa
2694:wara
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2426:mizo
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2330:and
2313:and
2305:and
2246:and
2228:and
2206:and
2148:and
2111:and
2103:and
2038:/ɾe/
1972:hara
1894:z~zj
1539:and
1531:/ou/
1529:and
1527:/ei/
1523:/oː/
1521:and
1519:/eː/
1457:and
799:Open
746:Back
670:kooN
490:and
251:八丈方言
192:hhjm
7278:JSL
7020:EIS
6910:EUC
6379:Iyo
6105:Old
5707:doi
4980:abi
4875:転ぶ
4860:宿る
4815:噛む
4800:憎い
4785:怖い
4770:親子
4755:ゴミ
4658:恋ふ
4628:隠る
4612:-ki
4602:著き
4587:熱る
4558:LMJ
4551:眩る
4506:chu
4499:, *
4437:ɿɿu
4395:担ぐ
4363:炊ぐ
4332:傾ぐ
4305:ugo
4298:動く
4271:aso
4264:遊ぶ
4235:蚯蚓
4146:拭ふ
4140:拭う
4115:含む
4073:EMJ
4066:拾ふ
4060:拾う
4032:WOJ
4010:上る
3904:by
3771:koo
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3352:or
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3298:or
3285:or
3260:oQ-
3235:/Q/
3224:→
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3043:ari
3039:/ɾ/
3031:ru,
3002:dou
3000:are
2994:dou
2984:are
2883:owa
2803:ye-
2752:uwa
2686:-wa
2634:sjo
2630:jo,
2622:i-o
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2066:/ɾ/
2010:/j/
2003:/ɾ/
1981:/h/
1959:/a/
1937:/u/
1933:/h/
1910:/s/
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709:美味い
679:tie
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620:/i/
613:/j/
603:or
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586:/Q/
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578:or
575:/N/
565:/j/
492:/ɾ/
488:/s/
355:of
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215:ELP
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