Hauran - Knowledge

1930: 455:, though altitude and soil vary between the Hauran's subregions. The Nuqrah, Jaydur and Jabal Hauran consist of arable land derived from decomposed basaltic, volcanic rock. The Nuqrah is a relatively low plateau measuring roughly 100 by 75 kilometers (62 mi × 47 mi) with an average elevation of 600 meters (2,000 ft) above sea level. Its land is characterized by vast, contiguous tracts of fertile, basalt-derived soil. In contrast to the Nuqrah, the Jaydur's landscape is more fractured and rocky. Its average elevation ranges between 600 and 900 meters (2,000 and 3,000 ft) above sea level, with some volcanic cones reaching above 1,000 meters (3,300 ft) above sea level, including 463:, the Jaydur is a topographic continuation of the Golan Heights. The Jabal Hauran was formed by large lava flows into a roughly 60 by 30 kilometers (37 mi × 19 mi) massif of volcanic hills, the highest point of which is over 1,800 meters (5,900 ft) above sea level in the range's center. The Lajat comprises a topography of depressions, rifts and ridges with scattered arable patches, and is characterized by rocky soil and scarce vegetation. Its average elevation is between 600–700 meters (2,000–2,300 ft) above sea level, though some of the area's volcanic cones are over 1,000 meters (3,300 ft) with the highest over 1,150 meters (3,770 ft). 1025: 2285: 2320: 1678: 1578: 29: 1481: 2004: 1661:

with the neighboring Druze, Ottoman irregulars and between themselves. Many southern plainsmen migrated to the northern Hauran plain, where the soil was more productive in comparison to the drier south and was less often overrun by the Bedouin and their herds. According to the historian Norman Lewis, southern Haurani plainsmen "had been moving northwards for generations". Thus, by the start of the 19th century, the northern plains contained several full or half-empty villages, while the south had been all but deserted, with the exception of the larger towns of

5103: 4796: 4691: 4581: 2209: 1470: 1197:, which only ended when the latter was allowed by the Byzantines to reestablish the Ghassanid phylarchy. This only lasted until al-Nu'man was exiled in 584, after which the empire dissolved the phylarchy into numerous, smaller Ghassanid and other Arab Christian units. Some of these units continued to fight alongside the Byzantines, but their overall power had diminished, leaving the area more vulnerable to invasion. In 613, the Sassanian Persians invaded Syria and defeated the Byzantines in a battle between Adraa and Bosra. 2218: 266: 2387: 2070: 1041: 2198: 363: 2189: 2352:

place in the Hauran between the Nabatean period in the 1st century to the Umayyad period in the 7th century. The region's pre-Islamic architectural tradition became the basis for later Islamic buildings in the Hauran, particularly in Bosra in the 12th–14th centuries. However, the Muslim patrons of these works also introduced outside elements, mostly inspired by Damascene architecture, to give their projects their own stately character.

1065:(Philippopolis) into an imperial city. Though Shahba and Auranitis prospered, the general state of the empire was marked by decline. Philip was killed in 249 and Auranitis was largely abandoned in the late 3rd century. By the early 3rd century, Auranitis, Batanea and Trachonitis had been annexed to Arabia, bringing the entire Hauran under the jurisdiction of a single province. This also coincided with the completion of the north–south 1864:, the Hauran also lost much of its importance within Syria's national economy. Though it continues to supply grain to Damascus, its role as the 'granary of Syria' was eclipsed by the country's northern and northeastern regions. Grain production in the Hauran has been limited by dependence on rain and underground reservoirs. Moreover, the region's economic potential has been curtailed by the creation of international borders and the 910: 1791: 5186: 5161: 4830: 4629: 4608: 4448: 437: 1765:

secured and continued into the 20th century. To illustrate the extent of the Hauran's cultivation in the mid-1890s, Schumacher noted that "no hectare of good land was without its owner". The central plain had become entirely cultivated or settled, Daraa and Bosra grew significantly and many of the hamlets established or reestablished in the 1850s had become large villages. In 1891–95,

1363: 383: 1704:. attempted to integrate and reorganize the region. There followed other largely unsuccessful attempts by four successive Ottoman governors. At the time, the Hauran's leadership consisted of the chiefs of the largely pacified clans of the plains, such as Al Miqdad and Al Hariri; the more rebellious chiefs of the Druze clans of Jabal Hauran, such as Al Hamdan and 2374:

wall-paintings and mosaics, are in a better state of preservation; but there is no region where numbers of towns of undoubted antiquity stand unburied, and still preserving their public and private buildings and their tombs in such a condition that, in many cases, they could be restored, with a small outlay, to their original state.

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monasteries and large homes for their chieftains. Although a Christian presence in some cities of Auranitis was established in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, by the 5th century nearly all the villages in the Hauran had churches, most of them dedicated to saints favored by the Arabs. The Ghassanids played a significant role in promoting

1946:, smuggling funds and weapons to sustain the rebellion. According to historian Nicholas Heras, "the major tribes of Dar`a are reported to share common grievances... ...against the al-Assad government in Dar`a". During the course of the war, they formed loosely-coordinated rebel militias, fighting under the banner of the 2155:

mostly in the southern parts of Jabal Hauran. In the northern parts, the Bani 'Amer predominate in eleven villages, while the other major clan in the northern Jabal Hauran was the Halabiya family. Though the Bani al-Atrash and Bani ‘Amer were the more powerful clans in the governorate, members of the Banu Assaf of

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The architecture of the Byzantine era was influenced by the spread of Christianity and the consequent construction of churches and monasteries, the majority dating between the 4th century and early 6th century. Surveys of the region indicated that a long period of uninterrupted building activity took

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The Hauran plains declined economically and demographically during the 17th and 18th centuries. Factors that caused this decline included the taxation of the peasantry by both the government and the Bedouin, periodic raids by the Bedouin and the encroachments of their livestock, and occasional strife

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into the army. However, as state authority receded, the region effectively became autonomous. An exception to this virtual autonomy came during the annual thirty- to sixty-day Hajj season, during which the state mobilized its forces to organize, protect and supply the annual Muslim pilgrim caravan to

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For the first time since the Hellenistic age the Hawran in its entirety came under one administrative system. The road network and the settlements it linked were the framework upon which the economic and social infrastructure of the region was built. Secure towns and safe, well-maintained roads meant

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to Bosra. The Nabateans were avid builders who had their own distinctive architectural tradition. After the Romans annexed the Kingdom of the Nabateans in 106, the area experienced a building boom that lasted until the onset of strife and instability in the mid-3rd century. Though the Romans greatly

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and auctioned massive tracts of state land. From 1869, many Damascene merchants and landowners and entrepreneurial Haurani farmers invested in these lands, which increased agricultural production. With these investments came a reinforced military presence and a consequent reduction in Bedouin raids.

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in 1711. The new arrivals were concentrated in the northwestern corner of Jabal Hauran and the Lajat and established roots in abandoned villages with extensive ancient ruins. The area was chosen by the Druze because it was well-watered, defensible and relatively close to the Druze settlements in the

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in the coastal regions of Bilad al-Sham in 1099 had repercussions for the Hauran and the region was periodically targeted by Crusaders in plundering campaigns. These occurred when the Crusaders captured Muslim-held fortresses in the Hauran or passed by the region after raids against Damascus. In the

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The advent of Islam in Arabia and its expansion northward to Syria was countered by the Byzantines and their Arab Christian allies. However, the region's defenses had been significantly weakened as a consequence of the Ghassanids' decline in status in 582–584. The first Arab Muslim forces arrived in

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and others. They were entrusted by the Byzantines to secure the Hauran's agricultural production and stave off nomadic marauders. The region prospered under Ghassanid supervision and the tribe itself built or patronized secular and religious architecture in the region's villages, including churches,

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troops. Herod ultimately stabilized the area after establishing permanent colonies and a network of forts in the less vulnerable Batanea district, from which Herod's forces could keep order without fear of attack by the nomads of Auranitis and Trachonitis. Through the establishment of security, land

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Renewed interest in the Hauran's ancient sites began in the 1970s. Umm al-Jimal was surveyed between 1972 and 1981 by the American archaeologist Bert de Vries and reports from that expedition were published in 1998. Surveys of the Hauran plain in Syria were carried out by French expeditionary teams

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The Hauran is distinguished by the large-scale preservation of its ancient structures. This preservation extends to public and religious buildings, but also to simpler structures, such as village dwellings. The durability of basalt is generally credited with their well-preserved state. As a result,

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During the 1850s, increased demand for grain in the Damascene and European markets led to a resurgence of grain cultivation in the Hauran. This in turn brought about the mass resettlement of abandoned villages and the establishment of new settlements. By the end of the decade, resettlement caused a

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The Bedouin used the Hauran for access to water, to graze their camels and sheep and to stock up on supplies for the winter. They traded their livestock and meats for grains from the plainsmen, and wares from other Syrian merchants. The Hajj caravan was a major source of income for the Bedouin, who

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following its conquest of Mamluk Syria in 1517. In the early Ottoman era, during the 16th and 17th centuries, there were numerous agrarian, primarily grain-growing villages in the Hauran plain and the western slopes of Jabal Hauran. Most of the inhabitants paid taxes on wheat and barley. The Hauran

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have historically allowed the Nuqrah and Jabal Hauran to become major grain-growing regions. The Hauran plain receives an average 250 millimetres (9.8 in) of rainfall, which allows the plains to support stable, grain-based agriculture. Jabal Hauran receives considerably greater rainfall, which

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stone for building material. Known for its hardness and black color, basalt is readily available throughout the region and until recent decades, was used for nearly all construction work done in the Hauran. Due to a lack of timber, basalt took the usual place of wood and was used for doors, window

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did centralization efforts take hold. Rashid sought to change the general view in the Hauran that the government was an alien power that was only intent on collecting taxes and conscripting its youth. He accomplished this change by according the chiefs of Wuld Ali and Rwala adequate grazing lands;

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This hinterland political system had its own internal checks and, of course, its strains, but it appears to have existed with a fair degree of equilibrium for a very long period of time. The low pressure of population on the land and the natural economies that existed between steppe and cultivated

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During the 12th and 13th centuries, the Hauran continued to be administratively divided into the Hauran and Bathaniyya districts of Damascus. In general, both districts were well-populated and prosperous, benefiting particularly from grain production. Though mostly Muslim, a significant portion of

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veterans who upon returning to their villages in the Hauran invested money in land, houses, tombs, temples and public buildings and filled high-ranking local positions. Agriculture was the main economic sector, with Batanea and Auranitis mainly producing grain and wine, respectively, both of which

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to the southwest and the desert steppe to the south and southeast. To the west is the Golan plateau and to the east are the uplands of Jabal Hauran. The plain has historically been divided into the northern Jaydur and the southern Nuqrah. The former is identified with the ancient Iturea, while the

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was sparked in the Hauran town of Daraa on 6 March 2011 when anti-government demonstrations were organized in response to the detention and alleged torture of a group of teenagers by the local branch of the security forces. As the revolt spread in the Hauran, anti-government forces utilized their

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extended its influence to all of Syria and initially charged local princes with keeping order in Auranitis (Jabal Hauran), Batanea (Nuqrah) and Trachonitis (Lajat). However, the districts remained largely in the hands of nomadic tribes. To supplement their meager income, these nomads often raided

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Into the 1870s and 1880s, the peasants of the Hauran, including the Druze, persisted in their agitation against the central government, European commercial interests and their own leaders. However, increased security in the plains as well as an end to Bedouin tribute collection were both largely

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and a coalition he formed, that included the Bedouin and many of the Haurani plainsmen. This coalition was defeated in 1862 and the government came to terms with al-Atrash, entrusting him to collect taxes from the entire Hauran and to pay heavy fines in place of conscription. Though this did not

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confederation increasingly took advantage of the security vacuum. The Bedouin encamped in the Hauran in the spring and retreated into the desert as soon as the autumn rains began. The Anaza's entry into the Hauran caused the exodus of the semi-nomadic tribes of the Banu Rabi'a confederation. The

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process was well underway and by the 4th century Greek supplanted the Hauran's native languages at the official level. Though the particularly wealthy and army veterans engaged in Hellenistic activities, such as visiting theaters and bathhouses, much of the population held on to Arab and Aramaic

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Like the agrarian Sunni clans of the plains, the Druze in Jabal Hauran were traditionally organized in a hierarchical clan order that saw a disparity in the distribution of social influence and prestige. The Bani al-Atrash are the leading clan and predominate in some sixteen towns and villages,

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After Herod quelled resistance in the Hauran during the early years of his rule, the brigandage of the nomads largely ceased. Their rebellion resumed in 12 BC and two years later Herod renewed his efforts to bring the nomads to heel. This resulted in an alliance formed between the nomads of

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98–117) no longer saw the need for local intermediaries. The deaths of the Herodian and Nabatean monarchs in relatively quick succession provided an opportunity for the Romans to absorb their domains. In 106, the empire formally annexed the entire Hauran, incorporating its southern part in

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There is no other country in the world where the architectural monuments of antiquity have been preserved in such large numbers, in such perfection, and in so many varieties as in North Central Syria and in the Hauran. There are many places where the minor details of buildings, such as

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as its capital. Settlement within the Hauran continued and in some cases "thrived" in the early Islamic period, with "no perceptible change in activity or cultural patterns under the Umayyad caliphs", according to historian Moshe Hartal. According to the 10th-century Muslim geographer

185:'s grain. The region saw a decline in the 17th century until increased demand for Syrian grain and improved security led to the agricultural revival and re-population of the Hauran in the mid-19th century. The region also historically benefited as a key transit area on the traditional 1908:(1970–2000). Politically, many of the clans that dominated local politics under the French continued to do so under the Ba'ath. Economically and socially, however, the higher levels of leadership within the clans declined and lower-ranking members gradually became more influential. 1641:, caused by the increased turbulence they faced, continued throughout the 18th century: historian Kais Firro stated that "each sign of danger in their traditional lands of settlement seemed to instigate a new Druze migration to the Hauran". During the final years of the decade-long 153:

client kings until it was formally annexed by the empire in the 2nd century AD. The Hauran prospered under Roman rule (106–395 AD) and its villages functioned as largely self-governing units, some of which developed into imperial cities. The region continued to prosper in the

2418:, which contained numerous ruins, some as high as three storeys high. The period in which these surveys were carried out coincided with the Hauran's mass resettlement. This resulted in the partial damage of some sites due to their occupation as homes or as a source of 1086:

After Rome's annexation, the rural villages of the Hauran exercised considerable self-rule. Each village had common areas and buildings, a law council and a treasury. Between the late 1st and 5th centuries, several underwent urbanization and became cities, including

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Unlike other rural regions in Syria, most land in the Hauran was not concentrated in the hands of large owners, being owned instead by small or medium-sized proprietors. Thus, the region was not as affected by the Agrarian Reform Law passed in 1958 during the

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Following its incorporation into the Mamluk Sultanate, the Hauran continued to be divided into the two districts of the Bosra-centered Hauran and the Adhri'at-centered Bathaniyya. However, within the region were the two smaller administrative units of

1915:(2000–present), the Hauran has remained an important agricultural region. Its principal city, Daraa, is a major transit hub for commercial traffic between Syria, Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Turkey, as well as for smuggled goods between these countries. 1981:

to recapture the rebel-held areas of the Daraa and Quneitra governorates. By the end of the following month, the entire Hauran was under government control, including a pocket of territory in the Yarmouk basin that had previously been held by the

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The Byzantine era in the Hauran was marked by the dual processes of rapid Arabization and the growth of Christianity. The region's Ghassanid rulers were semi-nomadic and established permanent encampments throughout the Hauran, chief of which was

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form a majority in the Hauran plain in Syria and Jordan and are known as Ḥawarna (singular: Ḥawrānī). In addition to the indigenous Ḥawarna, the plains are also populated by communities of former Bedouin tribes who gradually became settled, and

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and facilitating the Hajj caravan. Tax concessions were also granted, but an Ottoman military presence was retained, as Rashid Pasha viewed it as a stabilising force. As part of the Hauran's reorganization, a new administrative district, the

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The civil war of 1860, which spilled over into Damascus, where thousands of Christians were massacred, spurred the Ottomans to expand their centralization efforts in Syria. Prior to 1860, the Hauran had been largely excluded from the

2300:. Among these methods was the cutting of long, narrow beams from basalt to roof large areas spanning 10 meters (33 ft) or longer. Because of the size restrictions of the beams, a distinctive system of traverse, semi-circular 1399:(fief), which he held until his death in 1146. Under his patronage the region, and Bosra in particular, saw a renewal of building activity after a roughly 300-year hiatus. The population of the Hauran at the time was largely 1176:

tribal confederation, the Ghassanids established themselves in Arabia Province and like the Salihids, embraced Christianity. They became formal military allies of the Byzantines in 502, contributing troops in the wars with

1860:. It remained a significant source of the country's grain and point of transit between Syria and Jordan. It was often a place where Bedouin came to trade their wool and butter for other commodities. However, following 1777:

and established there a Jewish village, but in 1896 the authorities evicted the non-Ottoman Jewish families. In 1904, the annual Hajj caravan and Muzayrib's role in it was replaced by the construction of the

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led by François Villeneuve in 1985 and Jean-Marie Dentzer in 1986. Early photographs of Hauran's archaeological sites, taken in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by the German explorer and photographer

1354:. The villages of Hawran and Bathaniyya were rehabilitated by Abu Mahmud Ibrahim, the nominal Fatimid governor of Damascus, in the early 980s, after the damage inflicted on the area by the Fazara and Murra. 1609:('mountain of the Druze'). Their arrival pushed the mountain's previous inhabitants to the Hauran plains and introduced a new element of instability to the region. A small group of Druze led by the 329:

begins the country of Hauran. It is bordered on the east by the rocky district of Lajat, and by the Jabal Hauran, both of which are sometimes comprised within the Hauran ... To the southeast, where

2112:. The Miqdad are predominant in many of the villages southwest of Daraa. They are also the largest clan in the city of Bosra, but are predated there by the smaller al-Hamd clan. The tribesmen of 1990:, most rebel factions surrendered in reconciliation deals with the government and remained in their hometowns. A number of rebel groups also joined the Syrian Army offensive against ISIL. 232:

styles. The durability of basalt is credited for the Hauran's possession of one of the highest concentrations of well-preserved Classical-era monuments in the world. Hauran towns such as

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distribution and early tax incentives, Batanea prospered under Herod and his successors and became Syria's main source of grain. Auranitis began to similarly prosper during the reign of

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with Bosra, the provincial capital, and an east–west road connecting the cities of the Adraa–Bosra–Salkhad line. Commenting on this development, historian Henry Innes MacAdam writes:

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secured revenue from the region's population to fund the Hajj caravan, escorted the caravan and other travelers and policed the region. The principal restriction on the power of the

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The second largest clan are the Hariri, who generally inhabit eighteen villages, including many that are inhabited by the Zu'bi. They are mostly concentrated just north of Daraa in

2638: 2101:. They form the predominant group in the city of Daraa and many of its surrounding villages. Altogether, they number some 160,000 members in southern Syria and northern Jordan. 1303:, the Hauran and Bathaniyya were "...two great districts of the Damascus Province. Their fields are rain-watered. The frontiers of these two districts extend down to... ...the 1294:. The Hauran subdistrict roughly corresponded to the ancient Auranitis and its capital was Bosra, while the Bathaniyya subdistrict corresponded to the ancient Batanea and had 273:

Though its geographic definition may vary, the Hauran generally consists of the following subregions: the Hauran plain, which forms the heart of the region; the mountains of

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until being largely supplanted by northern Syria in the mid-20th century, which coincided with its separation from interdependent areas due to international borders and the

1012:–Bosra–Salkhad line that had separated the Herodian and Nabatean kingdoms. This administrative division remained intact for much of the 2nd century. This period, under the 3938:

Separation of Trans-Jordan from Palestine, Yitzhak Gil-Har, The Jerusalem Cathedra, ed. Lee Levine, Yad Yitzhak Ben Zvi and Wayne State University, Jerusalem, 1981, p.306

2050:(Melkite), in the Hauran region as a whole, though most Christians are concentrated in the towns and villages straddling the western foothills of Jabal Hauran. A sizable 884:. By the end of the 2nd century BC, Seleucid control of the Hauran had become largely nominal and the region became a contested area between the Nabataean Kingdom, the 252:

and numerous others contain Roman temples and theaters, Byzantine-era churches and monasteries, and forts, mosques and bathhouses built by successive Muslim dynasties.

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had conquered the region in the late 12th century, but their rule collapsed in Syria following the Mongol invasion in 1260. That year the Mongols were defeated by the

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Under the Romans, the grain of Batanea and the wine of Auranitis were important for imperial trade, and throughout its history, the Hauran was the major source of the

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is a relatively recent appellation, meaning "the cavity" in Arabic. The Jaydur extends northwest from al-Sanamayn to the minor lava field located at the foothills of

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Much of the settled population consisted of Arameans, Jews and a larger Arab population, consisting of Nabateans and Safaitic groups. These groups continued to use

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translate into the ultimate goal of integrating the Hauran, and the Bedouin continued their rebellions in 1863–1864, it still ended the region's virtual autonomy.

1152:, the Byzantines turned to certain powerful Arab tribes to maintain internal order and guard the Hauran. Beginning in the 4th century, this role was played by the 4435: 4333: 4303: 4265: 2308:, typically no longer than 4 meters (13 ft), were used to expand the intervals between the arches and the walls. This method "gave rise to the distinctive, 2760: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2281:

seals and ceilings. The reliance upon basalt in the Hauran "formed a truly lithic architecture“, according to the architectural anthropologist Fleming Aalund.

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Bedouin and their camels on the move to better pastures in the Syrian desert steppe. Beginning in the 18th century the Anaza seasonally encamped in the Hauran.

1825:, which began in the Hauran, the area experienced increased prosperity and security, as its inhabitants were now protected from incursions by Bedouin tribes. 2348:

influenced the region's architecture, the Hauran's Nabatean inhabitants largely maintained their own building traditions, particularly in the smaller towns.

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supplied the pilgrims with protection, logistical support, meat and transportation. Bedouin depredations against the locals included the imposition of the

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clans, such as the Hariri, Zu'bi, Miqdad, Abu Zeid, Mahamid, Masalma and Jawabra. The Zu'bi are the largest clan, inhabiting some sixteen villages in the

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had long been a major grain-producing region and officially, its land belonged to the Ottoman state and its inhabitants were required to pay taxes and be

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historically dominated the judiciary, while the Hajari, Hinnawi and Jarbu families historically provided the Druze community's religious leadership in

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In the period following Syria's independence from France in 1946, the Hauran developed into "a busy and prosperous region", according to the historian

1594:(tribute), ostensibly in return for protection. The Bedouin also launched occasional raids and their flocks often grazed on the plainsmen's fields. 2511: 2168: 1567: 1531:

sought to become more indispensable to the local population. To that end, they often mediated between the settled inhabitants of the plain and the

1519:, who commanded small, mobile units of mounted irregulars. In return for the political and economic influence they were allowed in the Hauran, the 1263:

and the ensuing chaos of succession, the Umayyads' Arab tribal allies in Syria convened a summit in the Hauran town of al-Jabiya, where they chose

2654: 1738: 1571: 1489: 4952:"Late Hellenistic Settlements in Hawrân (Southern Syria). Survival of Proto-historic Urbanism and Village Architecture in a Hellenized Context" 4727: 2703: 2683: 2675: 2471: 2156: 1757:

These combined factors caused the peasantry to “feel themselves more protected and risk further settlement", according to German archaeologist

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nomads, and between the Hauran's population as a whole and all outside powers, including the state. According to historian Linda S. Schilcher,

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are the farthest inhabited villages, the Hauran borders upon the desert. Its western limits are the chain of villages on the Hajj road, from

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When Classical-era sites were largely resettled in the late Ottoman era, many of the Hauran's ancient monuments were converted into houses.

1685:, 1906. Grain was the chief crop of the Hauran, the cultivation of which led to the region's revival in the second half of the 19th century. 1107:(Naveh). The inhabitants were generally wealthy landowners whose large dwellings housed their extended families. Among the inhabitants were 4805:

The Fourth International Conference on the History of Bilād al-Shām during the Umayyad Period: Proceedings of the Third Symposium, Volume 2

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of eastern Arabia in the 10th century. After 939, the Hauran and Bathaniyya districts came under the direct rule of the Egyptian-based

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between the Druze and Christians and the resulting French military intervention caused another large exodus of Druze to Jabal Hauran.

929:, a prince entrusted with the Hauran districts' security, collaborated with the nomads, the Romans transferred the districts to their 2679: 2646: 2164: 1836:. Its total population was 83,000 and included 110 villages. Its principal population centers were the small towns of Daraa, Bosra, 2695: 2467: 1210: 1082:

that internal and external commerce could flow freely. The wine and grain of the Hawran were marketed, we may assume, far and wide.

1708:; and the chiefs of the Bedouin tribes of Rwala, Wuld Ali, Sirhan and Sardiyah, whose herds seasonally grazed the Hauran plains. 1954:, which claimed it had the allegiance of some fifty armed groups with a collective strength of 30,000 fighters. Anti-government 1057:

During the late 2nd century, imperial order gradually weakened and political instability ensued. In 244 a native of the Hauran,

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and the area remained largely undeveloped. The Seleucids conquered the Hauran following their victory over the Ptolemies in the

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in 1886 and 1888. The most thorough and abundant documentation was recorded in surveys carried out by Butler and his team from

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and Auranitis. Medieval Muslim geographers variously described these districts as prosperous, well-watered and well-populated.

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King, G.R.D. (1989). "The Umayyad Qusur and Related Settlements in Jordan". In Bakhit, Muhammad Adnan; Schick, Robert (eds.).

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rule (1517–1917), the Hauran was divided into the districts of al-Bathaniyya and Ḥawrān, which corresponded to the Classical

1983: 1438:, which corresponded with the Lajat. Under the Mamluks, the region's strategic importance stemmed from its position on the 2462:

city, Damascus or outside of Syria. Localities in the Hauran with Christian pluralities or majorities include the city of

1904:, parts of the Hauran, such as the area within and around Bosra, were practically self-governing during the presidency of 1279:’ toppling of the Umayyads in 750, the Arab tribes of Hauran rose in a rebellion that was put down by the Abbasid general 2361:

there are some 300 towns and villages in the Hauran containing ancient structures, almost as high a concentration as the

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conquered southern Syria in 970 and the Uqayl were consequently chased out of the Hauran by the Fatimid-allied tribes of

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Rainfall above the 200 millimetres (7.9 in) mark is characteristic throughout the Hauran, but otherwise climate and

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Schilcher, L. Schatkowski (1981). "The Hauran Conflicts of the 1860s: A Chapter in the Rural History of Modern Syria".

209:, which was sparked in the Hauran in 2011, it became a major conflict zone between rebels and government forces in the 1965:

Until 2018, rebel groups controlled large areas on either side of the main north-south Damascus-Daraa highway and the

1574:. The Sulut, which was based in the Lajat wilderness, was the only Bedouin tribe that remained relatively stationary. 5093: 4939: 4906: 4786: 4681: 4571: 4537: 4466: 3927: 2402:

The earliest surveys of the Hauran's archaeological sites were taken in the 19th century by the French archaeologist

812:, which held onto it from 732 to 610 BC. The area is mentioned in the description of the future borders of Israel in 1900:

government in 1963, which effected land redistribution and mostly targeted large landowners. According to historian

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rule in Syria. A revolt broke out in the Hauran in response to the French occupation. Following the crushing of the

5036:

Schilcher, L. Schatkowski (Fall 1991). "The Great Depression (1873-1896) and the Rise of Syrian Arab Nationalism".

5028: 4915: 4718: 4590:"The Druze Experience at Umm al-Jimal: Remarks on the History and Archaeology of the Early 20th Century Settlement" 1724: 403:

The plain of Hauran stretches between the Marj plain of Damascus southward into modern-day Jordan where it borders

1342:(chieftains) Salih ibn Umayr and Zalim ibn Mawhub with keeping order in the Hauran districts. This ended when the 2147:

tribesmen who made Daraa their home alongside the city's established agrarian clans. In addition, members of the

1943: 1144:

period. During the 4th and 5th centuries, when direct imperial rule was weakened and nomadic groups overran the

480:

supports more orchard and tree-based cultivation. Jabal Hauran is frequently covered by snow during the winter.

205:. Nonetheless, it persisted as an important agricultural and commercial transit area into the 2000s. During the 5124: 4982: 4850: 4709: 4647: 4514: 4159: 1977:

largely stayed out of the fighting and secured Jabal al-Druze. In June 2018, the Syrian government launched an

1562:, who arrived in the late 18th century. Both were part of the Anaza confederation. Smaller tribes included the 1194: 1728:

granting the leaders of the plainsmen and the Druze certain privileges and state functions; and replacing the

5169: 2431: 2047: 1978: 167: 123: 1456:

tribe in the 14th century caused instability in the region, but they eventually became settled inhabitants.

1193:

was arrested and exiled. This led to a rebellion in the Hauran and a siege on Bosra led by al-Mundhir's son

5240: 5215: 5205: 1654: 1190: 1160:

for much of the 5th century. These groups protected the population in return for payment in gold and corn.

4882: 1513:

Instead of their direct involvement in the Hauran, the authorities entrusted its affairs to the Damascene

1326:, formerly allies of the Qarmatians, migrated to the Syrian steppe extending from the Hauran northward to 876:

emerged to the Hauran's south. The Arab Nabateans expanded their presence to the southern Hauran towns of

5210: 3553: 3420: 3407: 3395: 2343:-style architecture is dated to at least the 1st century AD, when the Nabateans moved their capital from 926: 805: 3919: 1962:, also gained increasing influence, at times either challenging or cooperating with the Southern Front. 158:

era (395–634), during which different Arab tribes ruled the Hauran on Byzantium's behalf, including the

4822: 4739: 3920:

The "business" of settlement: private entrepreneurship in the Jewish settlement of Palestine, 1900–1914

2284: 2276:

style, which is characterized by a number of distinctive factors. One of these is the exclusive use of

1924: 1013: 210: 4589: 2414:

in 1903 and 1909 and then published periodically between 1909 and 1929. In 1913, Butler also surveyed

1741:, was formed, which included Jabal Hauran, the Nuqrah and Jaydur plains, the Golan plateau, the hilly 1613:

family first arrived in 1685. A much larger wave arrived in the region as a result of the intra-Druze

1540:

plain and between town and countryside appear to have contributed to this relatively stable situation.

1024: 5225: 4770: 4665: 4555: 3119: 3094: 2293: 1973:(SAA) and its affiliates controlled the highway corridor itself. Meanwhile, the pro-government Druze 1865: 1753: 1732:

as the state's intermediaries with the locals, whilst still utilizing them for military campaigns in

202: 5171:

Society and Economy in Marginal Zones: A Study of the Levantine Agricultural Economy (1st-8th c. AD)

5102: 4795: 4743: 4690: 4580: 2319: 2316:' architectural style that is peculiar to the black basalt areas of the Hauran", according to Ball. 5235: 4766: 4758: 4661: 4657: 4551: 4547: 4358: 2332: 2247: 2043: 1473: 1411: 1367: 314: 225: 2323:

An example of Hauran architecture's 'slab and lintel' technique used for a ceiling in Umm al-Jamal

1677: 5110: 2269: 1818: 1577: 1272: 416:, being bound to the east by the Lajat and Jabal Hauran. It forms the heart of the Hauran plain. 221: 4898:

Patterns of Stylistic Changes in Islamic Architecture: Local Traditions versus Migrating Artists

5230: 4974:

A History of the Crusades, Volume II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East, 1100-1187

2455: 2403: 2328: 2035: 1799: 1650: 914: 50: 5073: 4221: 4927: 4762: 4456: 4371: 4291: 4201: 4015: 3988: 3971: 3907: 3810: 3761: 3748: 3736: 3724: 3711: 3694: 3679: 3643: 3460: 2919: 2039: 1966: 1515: 1400: 1182: 119: 3022: 1480: 98:. Traditionally, the Hauran consists of three subregions: the Nuqrah and Jaydur plains, the 5178: 4818:

Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500

4615: 3069: 2720: 2411: 2366: 2296:

of basalt enabled the "development of unusual building techniques", according to historian

2151:

Arab tribe from northeastern Syria have migrated to the city, mainly for economic reasons.

2129: 2125: 2024: 2003: 1974: 1893: 1770: 1733: 1597:

In addition to the Bedouin, the 18th and 19th centuries also witnessed large migrations of

1189:

of all Arabs' in the empire, but by 582 his son (and the last powerful Ghassanid phylarch)

942: 1426:(died 1229) described the Hauran as "a large district full of villages and very fertile". 475:

levels vary between its subregions. The relatively frequent rainfall and the abundance of

8: 4816: 4619: 2407: 1868:, which have separated it from previously interdependent areas that are located today in 1822: 1795: 1758: 1415: 1223: 1108: 951: 848:

Damascus. Its sparse population consisted of semi-nomadic and nomadic groups such as the

789: 126:

minority inhabit the western foothills of Jabal al-Druze. The region's largest towns are

2081:

The social structure of the Hauran plain is characterized by networks of large extended

28: 5053: 5017: 5009: 4458:

Urban Autonomy in Medieval Islam: Damascus, Aleppo, Cordoba, Toledo, Valencia and Tunis

2336: 2015:

The population of the Hauran region is religiously heterogeneous. The largely agrarian

1877: 1828:

Under French Mandatory rule, the Hauran plains formed an eponymous district within the

1814: 1805:

At the end of World War I, the Hauran was captured and held for about two years by the

1614: 1506:

Mecca and Medina; In the 18th century, the Hajj route was moved westward from Bosra to

1016:

emperors who ruled until 180 AD, saw consistent stability, development and prosperity.

955: 925:

nearby settlements as far as Damascus, and robbed pilgrims traversing the region. When

476: 229: 146: 5185: 5160: 4829: 4628: 4607: 4447: 5120: 5089: 5065: 5057: 5021: 4978: 4935: 4902: 4867: 4846: 4839:"The Syrian Steppe during the Last Century of Ottoman Rule: Hawran and the Palmyrena" 4782: 4705: 4677: 4643: 4567: 4533: 4510: 4486: 4462: 3923: 2568: 2483: 2451: 2427: 2395: 2094: 1987: 1885: 1857: 1833: 1829: 1701: 1646: 1343: 1335: 1327: 1319: 1304: 1280: 1276: 1244: 1240: 1116: 889: 841: 821: 808:

during the 9th and 8th centuries BC. It was ultimately conquered and pillaged by the

388:

The land of the Hauran plain is arable, consisting of basalt-derived soil, while the

281:

volcanic field to the north of Jabal Hauran. The region is bound to the north by the

1469: 224:

characterized by the exclusive use of basalt as a building material and a fusion of

5147: 5045: 5001: 4892: 4506:

Syria's Peasantry, the Descendants of Its Lesser Rural Notables, and Their Politics

2536: 2239: 2208: 2109: 2082: 1947: 1938: 1810: 1716: 1502: 1286:

During the early Muslim period (7th-10th centuries), the Hauran formed part of the

1178: 1141: 1066: 967: 873: 857: 845: 484:

Monthly normal high and low temperatures (°C) for largest localities in the Hauran

206: 155: 150: 4704:. British Archaeological Reports International Series 1555. Oxford: Archaeopress. 1259:

and were supported by the people of Hauran. After the death of the Umayyad caliph

5114: 4972: 4968: 4896: 4861: 4637: 4504: 4480: 1912: 1897: 1848:(subdistricts), the southern one centered in Daraa and the northern one in Izra. 1794:

Druze rebels celebrating the release of their prisoners in the Hauran during the

1774: 1423: 1407: 1322:, nominal governors of the Abbasids. During this period, the large Arab tribe of 1236: 1149: 1145: 1058: 1031: 978: 934: 865: 840:

beginning in the mid-4th century BC, the Hauran was at first a possession of the

809: 326: 310: 87: 41: 1986:(ISIL). Although some rebels and their families opted to relocate to rebel-held 5081: 5077: 5049: 4928:"Bringing the State Back: The Limits of Ottoman Rule in Transjordan, 1840–1910" 4812: 4774: 4669: 4559: 2585: 2532: 2217: 2113: 2086: 2074: 1905: 1806: 1742: 1606: 1497: 1485: 1392: 1260: 1001: 785: 286: 277:(also known as 'Jabal al-Druze' or 'Jabal al-Arab') east of the plain; and the 274: 171: 99: 5005: 2450:

In the censuses of 1927, 1943 and 1956 Christians accounted for 9%–10% of the

1798:

against French rule. The revolt began in Jabal Hauran under the leadership of

813: 5199: 5069: 3047: 2724: 2540: 2524: 2133: 2090: 2069: 1779: 1623: 1602: 1388: 1291: 1219: 1206: 1124: 801: 472: 373: 302: 194: 95: 4526: 1374:

in Jabal Hauran was an administrative unit and its ruler was a high-ranking

1314:

The Abbasid period in Hauran was marked by numerous damaging raids from the

4923: 4500: 4476: 2658: 2556: 2548: 2415: 2386: 2297: 2255: 2243: 2160: 2137: 2016: 1901: 1861: 1642: 1634: 1619: 1287: 1214: 1137: 1040: 921: 861: 793: 456: 421: 369: 249: 142: 111: 4158:. International Crisis Group. 2015-09-02. p. 7, n. 33. Archived from 2736:

Examples of photographs of the Hauran taken by Burchardt in 1895 include:

2422:

for new buildings, a process which continuously increased in later years.

2230:

is characteristic of the Hauran's architecture. Examples shown above are (

2140:, while the Masalma, Mahamid and Abu Zeid are concentrated in Daraa city. 1653:. By then, their numbers in the region had been swollen by migration. The 1558:(also known as Awlad Ali), who arrived in the early 18th century, and the 412:

in Arabic). The much larger Nuqrah extends northward to the approaches of

4443:(PhD). Copenhagen: The Royal Academy of Fine Arts School of Architecture. 2626: 2391: 2362: 2121: 2093:

districts. They also have an extensive presence across the border in the

2054: 1970: 1959: 1841: 1610: 1406:

The last recorded appearance of the Crusaders in Hauran was in 1217. The

1347: 1104: 1100: 1005: 966:

By the early 2nd century AD, the last vassal kings of the Hauran region,

837: 634: 460: 413: 372:

volcanic cone in the Jaydur region of the Hauran plain, as seen from the

342: 265: 198: 1622:. The paramount leaders of the community between 1711 and 1860 were the 1157: 849: 159: 5136:"Urban And Rural Militia Organizations In Syria's Less Governed Spaces" 2691: 2642: 2634: 2602: 2499: 2459: 2309: 2197: 1351: 1323: 1315: 1169: 1092: 784:

There are records of settlements in the Hauran in the Ancient Egyptian

730: 452: 163: 135: 5152: 5135: 5013: 4863:

Geography, Urbanisation and Settlement Patterns in the Roman Near East

844:, which saw the region as a buffer zone separating their kingdom from 4807:. Amman: University of Jordan Press, Bilad al-Sham History Committee. 4698:

Hartal, Moshe (2006). Dar, Shimon; Hartal, Moshe; Ayalon, E. (eds.).

2719:

The Halabiya predominate in the Wadi al-Liwa area, including al-Hit,

2601:

The localities inhabited by the Bani al-Atrash include the cities of

2589: 2552: 1752:

Rashid Pasha also pressed wealthier Syrians to take advantage of the

1705: 1666: 1627: 1445: 1383: 1248: 1202: 896:

principality based in the northern Golan and southern Mount Lebanon.

885: 853: 682: 338: 334: 322: 131: 4951: 1434:, a fortress town typically held by a high-ranking Mamluk emir, and 988:

70–106 AD) of the Nabatean Kingdom, had died and Rome under Emperor

362: 118:

form the majority in the eponymous Jabal al-Druze and a significant

110:, but religiously heterogeneous; most inhabitants of the plains are 4701:

Rafid on the Golan: A Profile of a Late Roman and Byzantine Village

4699: 2544: 2528: 2058: 2027:

who arrived over fifty years prior to the end of the 19th century.

1955: 1790: 1696: 1507: 1300: 1264: 1256: 1186: 1181:

and the Persians' Lakhmid vassals. In 531, the Ghassanid chieftain

1153: 909: 825: 290: 2365:

of northwestern Syria. In the words of 20th-century archaeologist

1700:

centralization reforms. In January 1861, the provincial governor,

1549:

As state authority receded in the Hauran, Bedouin tribes from the

1448:

and Damascus and Bosra's role as a major marshaling point for the

1422:

the inhabitants were Christians. A contemporary Syrian geographer

1008:. The provincial boundary followed the boundary just north of the 2606: 2507: 2487: 2419: 2259: 2188: 2172: 2148: 2051: 1873: 1766: 1715:, faced stiff resistance. They were opposed by both the Druze of 1638: 1582: 1559: 1550: 1532: 1453: 1431: 1371: 1120: 1088: 1070: 881: 350: 245: 237: 175: 5177:(Thesis). Department of Classics and Philosophy Royal Holloway, 4566:. Vol. VI: Mahk-Mid. Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. 621–623. 1649:

against the authorities, in response to a conscription order by

1123:

and an early form of Arabic at the colloquial level, though the

5088:. Vol. III: H–Iram. Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. 292–293. 4125:"Syrian government forces seal victory in southern territories" 2671: 2622: 2503: 2475: 2313: 2305: 2277: 2227: 2144: 2116:(or Na'imeh) are predominant in the towns of al-Shaykh Maskin, 1869: 1746: 1544: 1452:

caravans going to Mecca. The arrival of nomadic clans from the

1339: 1252: 1096: 1062: 1047: 989: 893: 449: 346: 298: 294: 282: 241: 217: 182: 91: 83: 79: 71: 20: 4932:

Village, Steppe and State: The Social Origins of Modern Jordan

341:

as far south as Ramtha ... Hauran comprises therefore part of

4153:"Middle East Report, No. 163: New Approach in Southern Syria" 2650: 2581: 2564: 2479: 2344: 2251: 2117: 2105: 2098: 2064: 2031: 1881: 1682: 1662: 1598: 1510:, which became the caravan's marshaling point in the Hauran. 1464: 1440: 1308: 1295: 1268: 1239:

by them in May. Following the decisive Muslim victory in the

1074: 1009: 930: 877: 869: 824:

rule; its settlements became better developed and culturally

586: 538: 404: 389: 330: 278: 233: 190: 127: 115: 103: 75: 4781:. Vol. VIII: Ned-Sam. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 114. 1645:

administration of Syria, the Druze of Jabal Hauran launched

1168:

In the early 6th century, the Salihids were replaced by the

436: 141:

From the mid-1st century BC, the region was governed by the

2463: 2301: 2235: 2019: 2008: 1837: 1449: 1435: 1396: 1375: 946: 186: 107: 19:

This article is about the region. For the ancient god, see

4676:. Vol. V: Khe–Mahi. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 593. 4437:

Vernacular Tradition and the Islamic Architecture of Bosra

2339:

styles also characterizes the architecture of the region.

2034:

form a majority in the Jabal Hauran, which is part of the

1387:

early 12th century, the entire Hauran was assigned by the

1362: 4845:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 33–43. 3785: 3783: 1605:

to the Jabal Hauran, which gradually became known as the

1418:

and Syria, including the Hauran, came under Mamluk rule.

1222:

Christianity in Syria which was viewed as heretic by the

1173: 1527:

was resistance from the Hauran's inhabitants. Thus, the

382: 349:, the whole of Auranitis, and the northern districts of 106:

volcanic field. The population of the Hauran is largely

2132:. Smaller clans such as the Rifa'i are concentrated in 2057:

community, whose origins are from the Lebanese city of

309:

in Arabic). It is eastwardly bound by the al-Hamad and

4843:

The Transformation of Nomadic Society in the Arab East

3780: 1672: 1267:

to be the next caliph, in opposition to the ascendant

1243:

in 636, all of the Hauran came under Muslim rule. The

2124:

in the Izra District, the villages of north-central

1711:

The centralization efforts, backed by the Damascene

1554:

largest tribes that encamped in the Hauran were the

55: 4884:

The Ghassānids and the Fall of the Golan Synagogues

3575: 3573: 2670:The localities inhabited by the Bani ‘Amer include 1633:Persistent migrations of Druze from Mount Lebanon, 1140:, continued to migrate to the Hauran well into the 220:in the Hauran led to the development of a distinct 170:in the mid-630s. For much of the Islamic era until 4950: 4525: 4118: 4116: 4114: 4112: 2288:A window built of basalt in a structure in Qanawat 1851: 4482:Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire 1888:, have also contributed to its economic decline. 1690:scarcity of grazing lands for Bedouin livestock. 213:until the government reasserted control in 2018. 5197: 4597:Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan 3922:, Magnes Press, Hebrew University, 1994. p. 20. 3570: 941:Trachonitis and Auranitis with the Nabateans in 4728:"A Profile of Syria's Strategic Dar'a Province" 4109: 3950: 3948: 3946: 3944: 3872: 3870: 3868: 3849: 3847: 3845: 3773: 3771: 3769: 3654: 3652: 3620: 3618: 3616: 3614: 3612: 3602: 3600: 3598: 3596: 3594: 408:latter is identified with the ancient Batanea ( 3539: 3537: 3535: 3533: 3531: 3529: 3527: 3525: 3523: 3521: 3519: 3517: 3515: 3513: 3511: 3509: 3507: 3505: 3503: 3501: 3499: 3497: 2748:, 400 metres (1,300 ft) west of Suwayda; 2406:between 1865 and 1877, S. Merrill in 1881 and 2097:, particularly in the cities of al-Ramtha and 2011:, which has a significant Christian community. 448:A common feature throughout the Hauran is the 4406: 4286: 4284: 4282: 4280: 4278: 4276: 4274: 3638: 3636: 3634: 3632: 3630: 3495: 3493: 3491: 3489: 3487: 3485: 3483: 3481: 3479: 3477: 3455: 3453: 3434: 3432: 3430: 3428: 3275: 3273: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2834: 2832: 2830: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2822: 2820: 2818: 2816: 2814: 2812: 2810: 2808: 2806: 2804: 2802: 1880:as an alternative market to Damascus, and of 5109: 4994:International Journal of Middle East Studies 4977:. Cambridge: Cambridge University of Press. 4961:Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities 4841:. In Mundy, Martha; Musallam, Basim (eds.). 4240: 4238: 4216: 4214: 4212: 4210: 3941: 3888: 3879: 3865: 3842: 3824: 3815: 3766: 3649: 3609: 3591: 3582: 3363: 3361: 3359: 3357: 3355: 3345: 3343: 3341: 3339: 3329: 3327: 3325: 3323: 3321: 3319: 3317: 3315: 3313: 3311: 3301: 3299: 3297: 3295: 3293: 3291: 3289: 3287: 3285: 3245: 3243: 3241: 3239: 3237: 3227: 3225: 3206: 3204: 3185: 3183: 3181: 3179: 3169: 3167: 3165: 3146: 3144: 3142: 3140: 2800: 2798: 2796: 2794: 2792: 2790: 2788: 2786: 2784: 2782: 1884:as the Hauran's main economic outlet to the 1876:and Jordan. In particular, the dual loss of 1545:Increased Bedouin pressures and Druze influx 1128:traditions and worshiped their native gods. 1061:, became emperor and turned his hometown of 4930:. In Rogan, Eugene L.; Tell, Tariq (eds.). 4393: 4391: 4389: 4387: 4385: 4383: 4381: 4379: 4344: 4342: 4328: 4326: 4260: 4258: 4256: 4254: 4252: 4250: 4051: 4049: 4047: 4045: 4043: 4010: 4008: 4006: 4004: 4002: 4000: 3998: 3996: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3966: 3964: 3962: 3960: 3563: 3561: 3379: 2996: 2994: 2992: 2990: 2988: 2061:, make up about 40% of Bosra's population. 800:. Control of it was contested between the 4811: 4409:"SMB-digital: Online collections database" 4316: 4314: 4312: 4271: 4081: 4079: 4077: 4041: 4039: 4037: 4035: 4033: 4031: 4029: 4027: 4025: 4023: 3902: 3900: 3805: 3803: 3801: 3799: 3797: 3795: 3706: 3704: 3702: 3689: 3687: 3674: 3672: 3670: 3668: 3666: 3664: 3627: 3474: 3450: 3425: 3270: 2986: 2984: 2982: 2980: 2978: 2976: 2974: 2972: 2970: 2968: 2956: 2878: 2876: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2580:The localities of the Miqdad clan include 2065:Clan structure and geographic distribution 1942:clan networks that extended to Jordan and 1933:An anti-government protest in Daraa, 2013. 1785: 1465:Grain cultivation and Hajj caravan transit 1290:, itself a part of the larger province of 317:, writing in 1812, defined it as follows: 5151: 5035: 4991: 4880: 4235: 4207: 4102: 4100: 4067: 4065: 4063: 4061: 3352: 3336: 3308: 3282: 3234: 3222: 3213: 3201: 3176: 3162: 3137: 2949: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2941: 2939: 2868: 2866: 2864: 2862: 2860: 2858: 2856: 2854: 2852: 2850: 2779: 2523:The localities of the Zu'bi clan include 977:53–100 AD) of the Herodian Tetrarchy and 796:, when the region was generally known as 293:and to the south by the desert steppe of 114:belonging to large agrarian clans, while 4967: 4891: 4757: 4546: 4376: 4339: 4323: 4296: 4247: 3993: 3976: 3957: 3558: 3008: 3006: 2929: 2927: 2385: 2318: 2283: 2068: 2007:The Church of St. George in the city of 2002: 1928: 1789: 1676: 1576: 1479: 1468: 1395:general Amin al-Dawla Kumushtakin as an 1361: 908: 820:later saw security and prosperity under 435: 396:) has stony ground and scarce vegetation 297:. Its western boundary is marked by the 269:The approximate boundaries of the Hauran 264: 260: 27: 5167: 5086:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition 5064: 4901:. New York: New York University Press. 4859: 4779:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition 4674:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition 4564:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition 4309: 4147: 4145: 4122: 4074: 4020: 3897: 3792: 3754: 3729: 3699: 3684: 3661: 2965: 2885: 1896:period (1958–1961) and enforced by the 1844:. The district was subdivided into two 1476:'s map of the Hauran, published in 1822 1050:(Philippopolis) built by Emperor Philip 440:The highest point of the Jabal Hauran ( 90:field, to the south by Jordan's desert 5198: 4948: 4697: 4614: 4499: 4433: 4097: 4058: 2936: 2847: 1247:took control of the expanding Islamic 444:) is over 1,800 meters above sea level 5134:Wege, Carl Anthony (September 2015). 4922: 4836: 4725: 4656: 4635: 4587: 4523: 4485:(2nd ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. 4454: 3003: 2924: 1773:, acquired 100,000 dunams of land in 1496:The Hauran was incorporated into the 1357: 1226:embraced by most Byzantine emperors. 1095:(Dionysias), Shahba (Philippopolis), 864:in 200 BC. During the decline of the 831: 5133: 5119:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 4802: 4532:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 4475: 4142: 3912: 1984:Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant 1832:, while the Jabal Hauran formed the 1229: 4550:(1991). "Marwān I b. al-Ḥakam". In 3050:. World Meteorological Organization 2143:Among the settled Bedouin are many 1918: 1673:Regional revival and centralization 1488:, the administrative center of the 1163: 45: 13: 4934:. London: British Academic Press. 2270:vernacular architectural tradition 1112:were important to imperial trade. 961: 904: 82:. It is bound in the north by the 14: 5252: 4957:Bollettino di Archeologia on Line 4949:Rohmer, Jérôme (September 2008). 2304:was devised to support the roof. 5184: 5159: 5101: 4866:. Abingdon: Ashgate Publishing. 4828: 4794: 4726:Heras, Nicholas A. (June 2014). 4689: 4627: 4606: 4579: 4446: 4400: 4364: 4351: 4182:Betts 1988, p. 60; p. 80, n. 38. 2730: 2216: 2207: 2196: 2187: 1131: 1039: 1023: 459:. In terms of its landscape and 381: 361: 4426: 4226: 4194: 4185: 4176: 4088: 3932: 3856: 3833: 3741: 3717: 3546: 3465: 3441: 3413: 3400: 3388: 3370: 3261: 3252: 3192: 3153: 3112: 3087: 3062: 3040: 3015: 2761:The citadel: decorated lintel, 2738:the castle (citadel) of Salkhad 2713: 2664: 2595: 2574: 2517: 2444: 2178: 1944:Arab states of the Persian Gulf 1852:Post-Syrian independence period 1815:French forces occupied Damascus 1769:organisations, helped by Baron 1251:and relocated its capital from 994: 983: 972: 4524:Betts, Robert Brenton (1988). 4509:. Princeton University Press. 4123:Shaheen, Kareem (2018-07-31). 2912: 2903: 2894: 2514:in the as-Suwayda Governorate. 2355: 2234:): (1) A traditional house in 1459: 301:, which separates it from the 197:. The Hauran remained Syria's 1: 5140:Journal of Terrorism Research 4860:MacAdam, Henry Innes (2002). 4411:. Staatliche Museen zu Berlin 2773: 2432:Ethnological Museum of Berlin 1993: 1723:Not until the appointment of 1288:military district of Damascus 431: 74:that spans parts of southern 5221:Historical regions of Jordan 3839:Schilcher 1981, pp. 168–169. 3579:Schilcher 1981, pp. 159–160. 2750:Qasr (fortress) al-Mushannaf 1655:1860 Mount Lebanon civil war 1235:the Hauran in April 634 and 1136:Arab groups, including from 899: 255: 7: 5116:Roman Imperial Architecture 4621:Architecture and other Arts 2909:Brown 2009, p. 377, note 1. 2232:clockwise from the top left 2073:A Bedouin tribesman of the 1998: 1172:. A major component of the 915:Roman amphitheater of Bosra 802:Aramean kingdom of Damascus 313:desert steppes. Geographer 56: 10: 5257: 5050:10.15184/S089663460000039X 5038:New Perspectives on Turkey 4823:Palestine Exploration Fund 4740:Combating Terrorism Center 4320:Ward-Perkins 1994, p. 339. 3267:MacAdam 2002, pp. 644–645. 2381: 1958:armed groups, such as the 1925:Daraa Governorate campaign 1922: 779: 466: 211:Daraa Governorate campaign 18: 16:Region in Syria and Jordan 5006:10.1017/S0020743800055276 4434:Aalund, Flemming (1992). 4191:Betts 1988, p. 60, n. 11. 2258:-era Temple of Rabbos in 2038:. There is a significant 1911:During the presidency of 1618:Damascus countryside and 1046:The Philippeion forum in 1004:and its northern part in 945:, which defeated Herod's 527: 488: 216:The wide availability of 5168:Zerbini, Andrea (2013). 4588:Brown, Robin M. (2009). 2742:Melach Es-Sarrar (Malah) 2437: 2077:clan in the Hauran, 1895 1817:in July 1920 to enforce 1681:Grain being threshed in 1474:Johann Ludwig Burckhardt 1391:emir of Damascus to the 1034:, a native of the Hauran 532: 524: 521: 518: 515: 512: 509: 506: 503: 500: 497: 494: 491: 166:(6th century) until the 86:oasis, eastwards by the 32:Map of the Hauran region 4881:Ma'oz, Zvi Uri (2008). 4742:: 20–23. Archived from 4639:A History of the Druzes 4624:. New York: Century Co. 4232:Batatu 1999, pp. 26–27. 3954:Schilcher 1981, p. 176. 3894:Schilcher 1981, p. 175. 3885:Schilcher 1981, p. 174. 3876:Schilcher 1981, p. 173. 3862:Schilcher 1981, p. 171. 3853:Schilcher 1981, p. 170. 3830:Schilcher 1981, p. 163. 3821:Schilcher 1981, p. 162. 3789:Schilcher 1991, p. 168. 3777:Schilcher 1981, p. 161. 3658:Schilcher 1981, p. 165. 3624:Schilcher 1981, p. 164. 3606:Schilcher 1981, p. 160. 3588:Schilcher 1981, p. 159. 2268:The Hauran has its own 1786:French Mandatory period 1444:(postal route) between 1273:Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr 956:successor in the Hauran 222:vernacular architecture 94:and to the west by the 4837:Lewis, Norman (2000). 4642:. Vol. 1. BRILL. 4455:Amabe, Fukuzo (2016). 4094:Heras 2014, pp. 22–23. 3471:Runciman 1951, p. 241. 3438:Amabe 2016, pp. 31–32. 2962:Honigman 1995, p. 114. 2609:, and the villages of 2456:as-Suwayda Governorate 2430:, are now held at the 2399: 2376: 2324: 2289: 2250:-era Fatima Mosque in 2078: 2036:al-Suwayda Governorate 2012: 1934: 1802: 1800:Sultan Pasha al-Atrash 1686: 1665:(Adhri'at), Bosra and 1586: 1542: 1493: 1477: 1379: 1370:rule, the fortress of 1084: 917: 445: 355: 270: 33: 5068:(1971). "Ḥawrān". In 5029:registration required 4916:registration required 4719:registration required 4660:(1986). "Ladjāʾ". In 3543:Sourdel 1971, p. 293. 3406:Le Strange 1890, pp. 3385:Bosworth 1991, p. 622 3279:MacAdam 2002, p. 645. 3159:Rohmer 2008, pp. 1–2. 2844:Sourdel 1971, p. 292. 2389: 2371: 2322: 2287: 2226:The exclusive use of 2072: 2006: 1967:Nasib border crossing 1932: 1866:Arab–Israeli conflict 1793: 1680: 1580: 1537: 1483: 1472: 1365: 1338:assigned the Uqaylid 1183:al-Harith ibn Jabalah 1079: 912: 439: 319: 315:John Lewis Burckhardt 268: 261:Geographic definition 203:Arab–Israeli conflict 31: 5179:University of London 4636:Firro, Kais (1992). 4244:Zerbini 2013, p. 52. 3552:Le Strange 1890, p. 3419:Le Strange 1890, p. 3394:Le Strange 1890, p. 3376:Hartal 2006, p. 285. 3367:Hartal 2006, p. 289. 3349:Hartal 2006, p. 288. 3333:Hartal 2006, p. 287. 3305:Hartal 2006, p. 284. 3258:Hartal 2006, p. 281. 3249:Hartal 2006, p. 279. 3231:Hartal 2006, p. 280. 3219:Hartal 2006, p. 277. 3210:Hartal 2006, p. 274. 3198:Hartal 2006, p. 272. 3189:Hartal 2006, p. 273. 3173:Hartal 2006, p. 271. 3150:Hartal 2006, p. 269. 3120:"Climate As Suwayda" 2900:Zerbini 2013, p. 56. 2466:and the villages of 2412:Princeton University 2367:Howard Crosby Butler 2167:and Bani Abu Ras of 2130:Quneitra Governorate 2126:al-Sanamayn District 1894:United Arab Republic 1771:Edmond de Rothschild 1069:road connecting the 5241:Philip the Tetrarch 5216:Hebrew Bible places 5206:Landforms of Jordan 4821:. Committee of the 4407:Hermann Burchardt. 3567:Brown 2009, p. 379. 3095:"Climate Al Ramtha" 3012:Gaube 1982, p. 593. 2891:Brown 2009, p. 377. 2408:Gottlieb Schumacher 2254:; (4) Ruins of the 2238:; (2) Remains of a 1823:Great Syrian Revolt 1796:Great Syrian Revolt 1759:Gottlieb Schumacher 1416:Battle of Ain Jalut 1382:The arrival of the 1237:Bosra was conquered 1224:Chalcedonian Church 1099:(Maxmimianopolis), 790:Book of Deuteronomy 485: 5211:Landforms of Syria 5111:Ward-Perkins, J.B. 4397:Hartal 2006, p. 7. 4370:Meinecke 1996, p. 4348:Ball 2016, p. 241. 4290:Meinecke 1996, p. 4085:Heras 2014, p. 22. 4055:Heras 2014, p. 21. 3459:Meinecke 1996, p. 3447:Amabe 2016, p. 47. 3000:Ball 2016, p. 238. 2953:Hartal 2006, p. 4. 2933:Ma'oz 2008, p. 35. 2882:Rohmer 2008, p. 1. 2400: 2394:, photographed by 2325: 2290: 2242:-era structure in 2079: 2013: 1935: 1803: 1687: 1647:their first revolt 1615:Battle of Ain Dara 1587: 1494: 1484:An 1886 sketch of 1478: 1380: 1358:Middle Islamic era 918: 838:Hellenistic period 832:Hellenistic period 483: 446: 271: 162:(5th century) and 34: 5153:10.15664/jtr.1123 4873:978-1-138-74056-3 4492:978-0-415-72078-6 4461:. Leiden: Brill. 4357:Butler 1903, pp. 4200:Batatu 1999, pp. 4106:Wege 2015, p. 42. 4071:Wege 2015, p. 36. 2484:Daraa Governorate 2452:Jabal Druze State 2428:Hermann Burchardt 2404:Melchior de Vogüé 2396:Hermann Burchardt 2095:Irbid Governorate 2042:population, both 1886:Mediterranean Sea 1858:Dominique Sourdel 1834:Jabal Druze State 1830:State of Damascus 1336:Abu al-Misk Kafur 1330:. After 945, the 1328:Upper Mesopotamia 1320:Ikhshidid dynasty 1281:Abd Allah ibn Ali 1241:Battle of Yarmouk 1230:Early Islamic era 1117:Semitic languages 890:Hasmonean dynasty 842:Ptolemaic dynasty 806:Kingdom of Israel 777: 776: 189:caravan route to 54: 5248: 5226:Regions of Syria 5189: 5188: 5182: 5176: 5164: 5163: 5157: 5155: 5130: 5106: 5105: 5099: 5061: 5032: 5025: 4988: 4964: 4954: 4945: 4919: 4912: 4888: 4877: 4856: 4833: 4832: 4826: 4808: 4799: 4798: 4792: 4754: 4752: 4751: 4722: 4715: 4694: 4693: 4687: 4653: 4632: 4631: 4625: 4611: 4610: 4604: 4594: 4584: 4583: 4577: 4543: 4531: 4520: 4496: 4472: 4451: 4450: 4444: 4442: 4421: 4420: 4418: 4416: 4404: 4398: 4395: 4374: 4368: 4362: 4355: 4349: 4346: 4337: 4332:Aalund 1992, p. 4330: 4321: 4318: 4307: 4302:Aalund 1992, p. 4300: 4294: 4288: 4269: 4264:Aalund 1992, p. 4262: 4245: 4242: 4233: 4230: 4224: 4220:Batatu 1999, p. 4218: 4205: 4198: 4192: 4189: 4183: 4180: 4174: 4173: 4171: 4170: 4164: 4157: 4149: 4140: 4139: 4137: 4135: 4120: 4107: 4104: 4095: 4092: 4086: 4083: 4072: 4069: 4056: 4053: 4018: 4014:Batatu 1999, p. 4012: 3991: 3987:Batatu 1999, p. 3985: 3974: 3970:Batatu 1999, p. 3968: 3955: 3952: 3939: 3936: 3930: 3916: 3910: 3904: 3895: 3892: 3886: 3883: 3877: 3874: 3863: 3860: 3854: 3851: 3840: 3837: 3831: 3828: 3822: 3819: 3813: 3807: 3790: 3787: 3778: 3775: 3764: 3758: 3752: 3747:Firro 1992, pp. 3745: 3739: 3733: 3727: 3721: 3715: 3710:Firro 1992, pp. 3708: 3697: 3691: 3682: 3676: 3659: 3656: 3647: 3642:Lewis 2000, pp. 3640: 3625: 3622: 3607: 3604: 3589: 3586: 3580: 3577: 3568: 3565: 3556: 3550: 3544: 3541: 3472: 3469: 3463: 3457: 3448: 3445: 3439: 3436: 3423: 3417: 3411: 3404: 3398: 3392: 3386: 3383: 3377: 3374: 3368: 3365: 3350: 3347: 3334: 3331: 3306: 3303: 3280: 3277: 3268: 3265: 3259: 3256: 3250: 3247: 3232: 3229: 3220: 3217: 3211: 3208: 3199: 3196: 3190: 3187: 3174: 3171: 3160: 3157: 3151: 3148: 3135: 3134: 3132: 3130: 3124:Climate-Data.org 3116: 3110: 3109: 3107: 3105: 3099:Climate-Data.org 3091: 3085: 3084: 3082: 3080: 3074:Climate-Data.org 3066: 3060: 3059: 3057: 3055: 3044: 3038: 3037: 3035: 3033: 3027:Climate-Data.org 3019: 3013: 3010: 3001: 2998: 2963: 2960: 2954: 2951: 2934: 2931: 2922: 2916: 2910: 2907: 2901: 2898: 2892: 2889: 2883: 2880: 2845: 2842: 2767: 2763:Khirbat al-Bayda 2756:Khirbet al-Bayda 2734: 2728: 2717: 2711: 2668: 2662: 2599: 2593: 2578: 2572: 2537:Khirbet Ghazaleh 2521: 2515: 2448: 2390:Ancient temple, 2294:tensile strength 2220: 2211: 2200: 2191: 2110:al-Shaykh Maskin 1948:Free Syrian Army 1939:Syrian Civil War 1919:Syrian Civil War 1819:French Mandatory 1717:Ismail al-Atrash 1275:. Following the 1215:Harith al-Jawlan 1179:Sassanian Persia 1164:Ghassanid period 1150:Euphrates valley 1067:Via Nova Traiana 1043: 1030:Bust of Emperor 1027: 998: 996: 987: 985: 976: 974: 874:Nabatean Kingdom 858:Battle of Panium 486: 482: 385: 365: 321:To the south of 299:Ruqqad tributary 207:Syrian Civil War 102:massif, and the 61: 49: 47: 5256: 5255: 5251: 5250: 5249: 5247: 5246: 5245: 5236:Herod the Great 5196: 5195: 5192: 5183: 5174: 5158: 5127: 5100: 5096: 5026: 4985: 4942: 4913: 4909: 4874: 4853: 4827: 4793: 4789: 4749: 4747: 4716: 4712: 4688: 4684: 4650: 4626: 4605: 4592: 4578: 4574: 4540: 4517: 4493: 4469: 4445: 4440: 4429: 4424: 4414: 4412: 4405: 4401: 4396: 4377: 4369: 4365: 4356: 4352: 4347: 4340: 4331: 4324: 4319: 4310: 4301: 4297: 4289: 4272: 4263: 4248: 4243: 4236: 4231: 4227: 4219: 4208: 4199: 4195: 4190: 4186: 4181: 4177: 4168: 4166: 4162: 4155: 4151: 4150: 4143: 4133: 4131: 4121: 4110: 4105: 4098: 4093: 4089: 4084: 4075: 4070: 4059: 4054: 4021: 4013: 3994: 3986: 3977: 3969: 3958: 3953: 3942: 3937: 3933: 3917: 3913: 3906:Lewis 2000, p. 3905: 3898: 3893: 3889: 3884: 3880: 3875: 3866: 3861: 3857: 3852: 3843: 3838: 3834: 3829: 3825: 3820: 3816: 3809:Lewis 2000, p. 3808: 3793: 3788: 3781: 3776: 3767: 3760:Firro 1992, p. 3759: 3755: 3746: 3742: 3735:Firro 1992, p. 3734: 3730: 3723:Firro 1992, p. 3722: 3718: 3709: 3700: 3693:Firro 1992, p. 3692: 3685: 3678:Lewis 2000, p. 3677: 3662: 3657: 3650: 3641: 3628: 3623: 3610: 3605: 3592: 3587: 3583: 3578: 3571: 3566: 3559: 3551: 3547: 3542: 3475: 3470: 3466: 3458: 3451: 3446: 3442: 3437: 3426: 3418: 3414: 3405: 3401: 3393: 3389: 3384: 3380: 3375: 3371: 3366: 3353: 3348: 3337: 3332: 3309: 3304: 3283: 3278: 3271: 3266: 3262: 3257: 3253: 3248: 3235: 3230: 3223: 3218: 3214: 3209: 3202: 3197: 3193: 3188: 3177: 3172: 3163: 3158: 3154: 3149: 3138: 3128: 3126: 3118: 3117: 3113: 3103: 3101: 3093: 3092: 3088: 3078: 3076: 3068: 3067: 3063: 3053: 3051: 3046: 3045: 3041: 3031: 3029: 3023:"Climate Bosra" 3021: 3020: 3016: 3011: 3004: 2999: 2966: 2961: 2957: 2952: 2937: 2932: 2925: 2918:Rogan 1994, p. 2917: 2913: 2908: 2904: 2899: 2895: 2890: 2886: 2881: 2848: 2843: 2780: 2776: 2771: 2770: 2735: 2731: 2718: 2714: 2669: 2665: 2600: 2596: 2579: 2575: 2522: 2518: 2449: 2445: 2440: 2384: 2358: 2272:, known as the 2266: 2265: 2264: 2263: 2223: 2222: 2221: 2213: 2212: 2203: 2202: 2201: 2193: 2192: 2181: 2067: 2001: 1996: 1975:Muwahhidin Army 1927: 1921: 1913:Bashar al-Assad 1854: 1788: 1775:Saham al-Jawlan 1675: 1547: 1467: 1462: 1424:Yaqut al-Hamawi 1360: 1334:Ikshidid ruler 1245:Umayyad dynasty 1232: 1166: 1134: 1059:Philip the Arab 1055: 1054: 1053: 1052: 1051: 1044: 1036: 1035: 1032:Philip the Arab 1028: 1002:Arabia Province 993: 982: 971: 964: 962:Post-annexation 935:Herod the Great 907: 905:Herodian period 902: 866:Seleucid Empire 834: 810:Assyrian Empire 782: 529: 469: 434: 426:Jabal al-Shaykh 401: 400: 399: 398: 397: 386: 378: 377: 366: 263: 258: 228:, Nabatean and 168:Muslim conquest 62:; also spelled 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5254: 5244: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5191: 5190: 5165: 5131: 5125: 5107: 5094: 5062: 5033: 5000:(2): 159–179. 4989: 4983: 4965: 4946: 4940: 4920: 4907: 4889: 4887:. Archaostyle. 4878: 4872: 4857: 4851: 4834: 4813:Le Strange, G. 4809: 4800: 4787: 4771:van Donzel, E. 4767:Bosworth, C.E. 4755: 4723: 4710: 4695: 4682: 4666:van Donzel, E. 4662:Bosworth, C.E. 4654: 4648: 4633: 4612: 4585: 4572: 4556:van Donzel, E. 4552:Bosworth, C.E. 4548:Bosworth, C.E. 4544: 4538: 4521: 4515: 4497: 4491: 4473: 4467: 4452: 4430: 4428: 4425: 4423: 4422: 4399: 4375: 4363: 4350: 4338: 4322: 4308: 4295: 4270: 4246: 4234: 4225: 4206: 4193: 4184: 4175: 4141: 4108: 4096: 4087: 4073: 4057: 4019: 3992: 3975: 3956: 3940: 3931: 3911: 3896: 3887: 3878: 3864: 3855: 3841: 3832: 3823: 3814: 3791: 3779: 3765: 3753: 3740: 3728: 3716: 3698: 3683: 3660: 3648: 3626: 3608: 3590: 3581: 3569: 3557: 3545: 3473: 3464: 3449: 3440: 3424: 3412: 3399: 3387: 3378: 3369: 3351: 3335: 3307: 3281: 3269: 3260: 3251: 3233: 3221: 3212: 3200: 3191: 3175: 3161: 3152: 3136: 3111: 3086: 3070:"Climate Nawa" 3061: 3039: 3014: 3002: 2964: 2955: 2935: 2923: 2911: 2902: 2893: 2884: 2846: 2777: 2775: 2772: 2769: 2768: 2729: 2712: 2663: 2594: 2573: 2516: 2512:Sama al-Bardan 2442: 2441: 2439: 2436: 2383: 2380: 2357: 2354: 2327:The fusion of 2225: 2224: 2215: 2214: 2206: 2205: 2204: 2195: 2194: 2186: 2185: 2184: 2183: 2182: 2180: 2177: 2066: 2063: 2048:Greek Catholic 2044:Greek Orthodox 2000: 1997: 1995: 1992: 1952:Southern Front 1920: 1917: 1906:Hafez al-Assad 1853: 1850: 1787: 1784: 1754:1858 Land Code 1706:Bani al-Atrash 1674: 1671: 1607:Jabal al-Druze 1546: 1543: 1498:Ottoman Empire 1486:al-Shaykh Saad 1466: 1463: 1461: 1458: 1401:Greek Orthodox 1359: 1356: 1231: 1228: 1191:al-Mundhir III 1165: 1162: 1133: 1130: 1045: 1038: 1037: 1029: 1022: 1021: 1020: 1019: 1018: 1006:Syria Province 963: 960: 906: 903: 901: 898: 833: 830: 786:Amarna letters 781: 778: 775: 774: 772: 769: 766: 763: 760: 757: 754: 751: 748: 745: 742: 739: 736: 733: 727: 726: 724: 721: 718: 715: 712: 709: 706: 703: 700: 697: 694: 691: 688: 685: 679: 678: 676: 673: 670: 667: 664: 661: 658: 655: 652: 649: 646: 643: 640: 637: 631: 630: 628: 625: 622: 619: 616: 613: 610: 607: 604: 601: 598: 595: 592: 589: 583: 582: 580: 577: 574: 571: 568: 565: 562: 559: 556: 553: 550: 547: 544: 541: 535: 534: 531: 526: 523: 520: 517: 514: 511: 508: 505: 502: 499: 496: 493: 490: 468: 465: 433: 430: 387: 380: 379: 367: 360: 359: 358: 357: 356: 289:plains around 262: 259: 257: 254: 193:and later the 124:Greek Catholic 120:Greek Orthodox 100:Jabal al-Druze 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5253: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5231:Lava plateaus 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5203: 5201: 5194: 5187: 5180: 5173: 5172: 5166: 5162: 5154: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5132: 5128: 5122: 5118: 5117: 5112: 5108: 5104: 5097: 5095:90-04-08118-6 5091: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5034: 5030: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4990: 4986: 4980: 4976: 4975: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4958: 4953: 4947: 4943: 4941:1-85043-829-3 4937: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4910: 4908:0-8147-5492-9 4904: 4900: 4899: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4885: 4879: 4875: 4869: 4865: 4864: 4858: 4854: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4835: 4831: 4824: 4820: 4819: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4801: 4797: 4790: 4788:90-04-07819-3 4784: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4746:on 2021-12-05 4745: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4724: 4720: 4713: 4707: 4703: 4702: 4696: 4692: 4685: 4683:90-04-07819-3 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4645: 4641: 4640: 4634: 4630: 4623: 4622: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4602: 4598: 4591: 4586: 4582: 4575: 4573:90-04-08112-7 4569: 4565: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4539:0-300-04100-4 4535: 4530: 4529: 4522: 4518: 4512: 4508: 4507: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4488: 4484: 4483: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4468:9789004315983 4464: 4460: 4459: 4453: 4449: 4439: 4438: 4432: 4431: 4410: 4403: 4394: 4392: 4390: 4388: 4386: 4384: 4382: 4380: 4373: 4367: 4360: 4354: 4345: 4343: 4335: 4329: 4327: 4317: 4315: 4313: 4305: 4299: 4293: 4287: 4285: 4283: 4281: 4279: 4277: 4275: 4267: 4261: 4259: 4257: 4255: 4253: 4251: 4241: 4239: 4229: 4223: 4217: 4215: 4213: 4211: 4203: 4197: 4188: 4179: 4165:on 2021-01-04 4161: 4154: 4148: 4146: 4130: 4126: 4119: 4117: 4115: 4113: 4103: 4101: 4091: 4082: 4080: 4078: 4068: 4066: 4064: 4062: 4052: 4050: 4048: 4046: 4044: 4042: 4040: 4038: 4036: 4034: 4032: 4030: 4028: 4026: 4024: 4017: 4011: 4009: 4007: 4005: 4003: 4001: 3999: 3997: 3990: 3984: 3982: 3980: 3973: 3967: 3965: 3963: 3961: 3951: 3949: 3947: 3945: 3935: 3929: 3928:965-223-863-5 3925: 3921: 3918:Katz, Yosef. 3915: 3909: 3903: 3901: 3891: 3882: 3873: 3871: 3869: 3859: 3850: 3848: 3846: 3836: 3827: 3818: 3812: 3806: 3804: 3802: 3800: 3798: 3796: 3786: 3784: 3774: 3772: 3770: 3763: 3757: 3750: 3744: 3738: 3732: 3726: 3720: 3713: 3707: 3705: 3703: 3696: 3690: 3688: 3681: 3675: 3673: 3671: 3669: 3667: 3665: 3655: 3653: 3645: 3639: 3637: 3635: 3633: 3631: 3621: 3619: 3617: 3615: 3613: 3603: 3601: 3599: 3597: 3595: 3585: 3576: 3574: 3564: 3562: 3555: 3549: 3540: 3538: 3536: 3534: 3532: 3530: 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2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2108:, Da'el, and 2107: 2102: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2076: 2071: 2062: 2060: 2056: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2028: 2026: 2021: 2018: 2010: 2005: 1991: 1989: 1985: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1969:, though the 1968: 1963: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1940: 1931: 1926: 1916: 1914: 1909: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1889: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1849: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1826: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1801: 1797: 1792: 1783: 1781: 1780:Hejaz Railway 1776: 1772: 1768: 1762: 1760: 1755: 1750: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1739:Hauran Sanjak 1735: 1731: 1726: 1721: 1718: 1714: 1709: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1698: 1691: 1684: 1679: 1670: 1668: 1664: 1658: 1656: 1652: 1651:Ibrahim Pasha 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1631: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1603:Mount Lebanon 1600: 1595: 1593: 1584: 1579: 1575: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1552: 1541: 1536: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1517: 1511: 1509: 1504: 1499: 1491: 1490:Hauran Sanjak 1487: 1482: 1475: 1471: 1457: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1442: 1437: 1433: 1427: 1425: 1419: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1404: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1385: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1364: 1355: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1312: 1310: 1307:district and 1306: 1302: 1297: 1293: 1292:Bilad al-Sham 1289: 1284: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1227: 1225: 1221: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1198: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1185:was decreed ' 1184: 1180: 1175: 1171: 1161: 1159: 1156:, and by the 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1132:Byzantine era 1129: 1126: 1125:Hellenization 1122: 1118: 1113: 1110: 1106: 1103:(Phaina) and 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1083: 1078: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1049: 1042: 1033: 1026: 1017: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 991: 980: 969: 959: 957: 953: 948: 944: 938: 936: 933:client king, 932: 928: 923: 920:By 63 BC the 916: 911: 897: 895: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 871: 867: 863: 859: 855: 851: 847: 843: 839: 829: 827: 823: 819: 815: 814:Ezekiel 47:16 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 773: 770: 767: 764: 761: 758: 755: 752: 749: 746: 743: 740: 737: 734: 732: 729: 728: 725: 722: 719: 716: 713: 710: 707: 704: 701: 698: 695: 692: 689: 686: 684: 681: 680: 677: 674: 671: 668: 665: 662: 659: 656: 653: 650: 647: 644: 641: 638: 636: 633: 632: 629: 626: 623: 620: 617: 614: 611: 608: 605: 602: 599: 596: 593: 590: 588: 585: 584: 581: 578: 575: 572: 569: 566: 563: 560: 557: 554: 551: 548: 545: 542: 540: 537: 536: 487: 481: 478: 477:water springs 474: 473:precipitation 464: 462: 458: 454: 451: 443: 438: 429: 427: 423: 419: 415: 411: 410:al-Bathaniyya 406: 395: 391: 384: 375: 374:Golan Heights 371: 364: 354: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 327:Jabal Khiyara 324: 318: 316: 312: 308: 304: 303:Golan Heights 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 280: 276: 267: 253: 251: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 219: 214: 212: 208: 204: 200: 196: 195:Hejaz railway 192: 188: 184: 179: 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 152: 148: 144: 139: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 113: 112:Sunni Muslims 109: 105: 101: 97: 96:Golan Heights 93: 89: 85: 81: 78:and northern 77: 73: 69: 65: 60: 59: 52: 43: 39: 30: 26: 22: 5193: 5170: 5143: 5139: 5115: 5085: 5074:Ménage, V.L. 5041: 5037: 4997: 4993: 4973: 4969:Runciman, S. 4956: 4931: 4897: 4893:Meinecke, M. 4883: 4862: 4842: 4817: 4804: 4778: 4759:Honigman, E. 4748:. Retrieved 4744:the original 4735: 4732:CTC Sentinel 4731: 4700: 4673: 4638: 4620: 4616:Butler, H.C. 4600: 4596: 4563: 4527: 4505: 4481: 4457: 4436: 4427:Bibliography 4413:. Retrieved 4402: 4366: 4353: 4298: 4228: 4196: 4187: 4178: 4167:. Retrieved 4160:the original 4132:. Retrieved 4129:The Guardian 4128: 4090: 3934: 3914: 3890: 3881: 3858: 3835: 3826: 3817: 3756: 3743: 3731: 3719: 3584: 3548: 3467: 3443: 3415: 3402: 3390: 3381: 3372: 3263: 3254: 3215: 3194: 3155: 3127:. Retrieved 3123: 3114: 3102:. Retrieved 3098: 3089: 3077:. Retrieved 3073: 3064: 3052:. Retrieved 3042: 3030:. Retrieved 3026: 3017: 2958: 2914: 2905: 2896: 2887: 2762: 2755: 2732: 2715: 2704:al-Suwaymrah 2684:al-Buthainah 2666: 2597: 2576: 2519: 2446: 2424: 2416:Umm al-Jimal 2401: 2377: 2372: 2359: 2350: 2340: 2326: 2310:cantilevered 2298:Warwick Ball 2291: 2273: 2267: 2244:Umm al-Jimal 2231: 2179:Architecture 2153: 2142: 2103: 2080: 2029: 2017:Sunni Muslim 2014: 1964: 1950:-affiliated 1936: 1910: 1902:Hanna Batatu 1898:Ba'ath Party 1890: 1862:World War II 1855: 1845: 1827: 1804: 1763: 1751: 1729: 1725:Rashid Pasha 1722: 1712: 1710: 1695: 1692: 1688: 1659: 1635:Wadi al-Taym 1632: 1620:Mount Hermon 1596: 1591: 1588: 1548: 1538: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1514: 1512: 1495: 1439: 1428: 1420: 1405: 1381: 1331: 1313: 1285: 1233: 1199: 1195:al-Nu'man VI 1167: 1138:South Arabia 1135: 1114: 1085: 1080: 1056: 965: 939: 922:Roman Empire 919: 862:Mount Hermon 835: 817: 797: 794:Hebrew Bible 783: 470: 461:cinder cones 457:Tell al-Hara 447: 441: 428:in Arabic). 425: 422:Mount Hermon 417: 409: 402: 393: 370:Tell al-Hara 323:Jabal Kiswah 320: 306: 275:Jabal Hauran 272: 250:Umm al-Jimal 215: 180: 143:Roman Empire 140: 67: 63: 57: 37: 35: 25: 5082:Schacht, J. 5078:Pellat, Ch. 5066:Sourdel, D. 5044:: 167–189. 4775:Pellat, Ch. 4670:Pellat, Ch. 4560:Pellat, Ch. 4415:8 September 2631:al-Huwayyah 2627:al-Ghariyah 2392:al-Sanamayn 2363:Dead Cities 2356:Archaeology 2333:Hellenistic 2128:and in the 2055:Shia Muslim 2025:Circassians 1971:Syrian Army 1960:Nusra Front 1747:Jabal Ajlun 1734:Transjordan 1702:Fu'ad Pasha 1611:Alam al-Din 1581:A group of 1503:conscripted 1460:Ottoman era 1454:Banu Rabi'a 1348:Banu Fazara 1261:Mu'awiya II 1220:Monophysite 1205:, but also 1101:al-Masmiyah 1091:(Canatha), 943:Transjordan 836:During the 414:al-Sanamayn 405:Jabal Ajlun 376:to the west 343:Trachonitis 226:Hellenistic 199:breadbasket 5200:Categories 5126:0300052928 4984:0521061628 4852:0521770572 4763:"Al-Nukra" 4750:2018-11-05 4711:1841719846 4649:9004094377 4516:0691002541 4501:Batatu, H. 4169:2016-05-25 4134:3 November 3129:25 October 3104:25 October 3079:25 October 3054:25 October 3032:25 October 2774:References 2725:al-Tha'lah 2700:al-Matunah 2643:al-Qurayya 2603:al-Suwayda 2569:al-Yadudah 2460:as-Suwayda 2312:'slab and 2246:; (3) The 1994:Demography 1923:See also: 1745:plain and 1352:Banu Murra 1324:Banu Uqayl 1316:Qarmatians 1170:Ghassanids 1109:Roman army 1093:al-Suwayda 968:Agrippa II 954:, Herod's 937:in 23 BC. 822:Achaemenid 731:Al-Suwayda 453:topography 432:Topography 164:Ghassanids 136:al-Suwayda 5146:(3): 35. 5070:Lewis, B. 5058:146658083 5022:162263141 4924:Rogan, E. 4658:Gaube, H. 4528:The Druze 2688:al-Hayyat 2590:Samaqiyat 2561:al-Ta'iba 2553:al-Na'ima 2040:Christian 1979:offensive 1878:Palestine 1807:Arab army 1667:al-Ramtha 1628:Al Hamdan 1384:Crusaders 1249:caliphate 1203:al-Jabiya 1142:Byzantine 1119:, mainly 1073:-port of 979:Rabbel II 927:Zenodorus 900:Roman era 886:Jerusalem 854:Nabateans 683:Al-Ramtha 533:Citation 339:Ghabaghib 307:al-Jawlān 256:Geography 156:Byzantine 132:al-Ramtha 51:romanized 5113:(1994). 5084:(eds.). 4971:(1951). 4926:(1994). 4895:(1996). 4815:(1890). 4777:(eds.). 4761:(1991). 4672:(eds.). 4618:(1903). 4603:. Amman. 4562:(eds.). 4503:(1999). 4479:(2016). 4477:Ball, W. 3048:"Dara'a" 2611:al-Annat 2586:Ma'araba 2545:Muzayrib 2329:Nabatean 2278:basaltic 2240:Nabatean 2083:agrarian 2059:Nabatieh 1999:Religion 1956:Salafist 1813:, until 1809:of Emir 1697:Tanzimat 1643:Egyptian 1637:and the 1630:family. 1570:and the 1564:Sardiyah 1556:Wuld Ali 1508:Muzayrib 1408:Ayyubids 1344:Fatimids 1301:Istakhri 1296:Adhri'at 1277:Abbasids 1265:Marwan I 1257:Damascus 1187:phylarch 1158:Salihids 1154:Lakhmids 1148:and the 1014:Antonine 892:and the 850:Itureans 846:Seleucid 826:Aramized 804:and the 788:and the 450:basaltic 442:pictured 418:Al-Nuqra 394:pictured 291:Damascus 160:Salihids 151:Nabatean 147:Herodian 46:حَوْرَان 2721:al-Sura 2680:Braykah 2647:Qaysama 2607:Salkhad 2533:al-Jiza 2525:'Ataman 2508:Kharaba 2488:Aslihah 2482:in the 2420:masonry 2398:in 1895 2382:Surveys 2341:Hawrani 2306:Corbels 2274:Hawrani 2260:Qanawat 2173:Qanawat 2169:al-Ruha 2165:Walghah 2149:Shammar 2075:Na'imeh 2052:Twelver 1874:Lebanon 1767:Zionist 1730:aghawat 1713:aghawat 1639:Galilee 1626:-based 1533:Bedouin 1529:aghawat 1525:aghawat 1521:aghawat 1516:aghawat 1432:Salkhad 1414:at the 1412:Mamluks 1393:Turkish 1372:Salkhad 1366:During 1340:sheikhs 1332:de jure 1271:-based 1121:Aramaic 1089:Qanawat 1071:Red Sea 997: 986: 975: 947:Idumean 894:Iturean 888:-based 882:Salkhad 872:-based 792:of the 780:History 530:Max/Min 467:Climate 351:Batanea 311:al-Safa 246:Salkhad 238:Qanawat 176:Batanea 172:Ottoman 88:al-Safa 70:) is a 53:: 5123: 5092: 5056: 5020: 5014:162818 5012: 4981: 4938: 4905: 4870: 4849: 4785: 4708: 4680: 4646: 4570: 4536: 4513: 4489: 4465: 3926: 2746:Dibese 2708:Ta'lah 2696:Mardak 2692:al-Hit 2672:Shahba 2659:'Urman 2623:Dhibin 2504:Khabab 2476:Bassir 2468:Jubayb 2314:lintel 2302:arches 2248:Mamluk 2228:basalt 2145:Anizah 2134:Ataman 2114:Nu'aym 1870:Israel 1846:qadaat 1811:Faisal 1624:Najran 1592:khuwwa 1568:Sirhan 1566:, the 1368:Mamluk 1253:Medina 1211:Jalliq 1207:Aqraba 1097:Shaqqa 1063:Shahba 1048:Shahba 990:Trajan 952:Philip 931:Judean 868:, the 818:Bashān 798:Bashān 528:Annual 347:Iturea 335:Ramtha 295:Jordan 283:Ghouta 242:Shahba 218:basalt 183:Levant 92:steppe 84:Ghouta 80:Jordan 72:region 68:Houran 64:Hawran 58:Ḥawrān 42:Arabic 38:Hauran 21:Hauron 5175:(PDF) 5054:S2CID 5018:S2CID 5010:JSTOR 4765:. 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