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services, can undertake numerous characteristics, some add value while others noticeably decrease the stock of health. Outstanding among such lifestyle choices are the decision to consume alcohol, smoke tobacco, use drugs, composition of diet, amount of exercise and so on. Not only can X and H work as substitutes for one another in producing utility, but X can also affect H in a production sense as well. X can then be split into different categories depending on which effect it has on H, for instance "good" types (e.g., moderate exercise), "bad" types (e.g., food with high cholesterol) and "neutral" types (e.g., concerts and books). Neutral goods do not have an apparent effect on individuals' health.
42:
1505:, which yields satisfaction to consumers indirectly through fewer sick days. Investment in health is costly as consumers must trade off time and resources devoted to health, such as exercising at a local gym, against other goals. These factors are used to determine the optimal level of health that an individual will demand. The model makes predictions over the effects of changes in prices of healthcare and other goods, labour market outcomes such as employment and wages, and technological changes. These predictions and other predictions from models extending Grossman's 1972 paper form the basis of much of the econometric research conducted by health economists.
50:
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depreciates. Since life expectancy has risen a lot during this century, it implies that e.g., the depreciation rate has decreased during this time. Public healthcare efforts and individual medical care are in place to restore the stock of health or to decrease the depreciation rate on the stock of health. A plot graph of an individual's stock of health throughout their lifetime would be steadily increasing in the beginning during their childhood, and after that gradually decline because of aging, meanwhile having sudden drops created by random events, such as injury or illness.
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2960:. 2 bar charts: For both: From bottom menus: Countries menu > choose OECD. Check box for "latest data available". Perspectives menu > Check box to "compare variables". Then check the boxes for government/compulsory, voluntary, and total. Click top tab for chart (bar chart). For GDP chart choose "% of GDP" from bottom menu. For per capita chart choose "US dollars/per capita". Click fullscreen button above chart. Click "print screen" key. Click top tab for table, to see data.
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reasons for this decline as (1) stigma and privacy concerns, (2) the difficulty of quantifying medical savings and (3) physician incentive to medicate without specialist referral. Evers et al. (2009) have suggested that improvements could be made by promoting more active dissemination of mental health economic analysis, building partnerships through policy-makers and researchers, and employing greater use of
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curve based on derived demand), and a separate "effective demand" curve, which summarizes the amount of medical care demanded at particular market prices. Because most medical care is not purchased from providers directly, but is rather obtained at subsidized prices due to insurance, the out-of-pocket prices faced by consumers are typically much lower than the market price. The consumer sets
1951:, is the branch of economics concerned with the application of economic theory to phenomena and problems associated typically with the second and third health market outlined above: physician and institutional service providers. Typically, however, it pertains to cost–benefit analysis of pharmaceutical products and cost-effectiveness of various medical treatments. Medical economics often uses
1381:(AMA) was created in 1848, having as main goals scientific advancement, creation of standards for medical education, launching a program of medical ethics, and obtaining improved public health. Yet, it was only in 1931 that economic concerns came to the agenda, with the creation of the AMA Bureau of Medical Economics, established to study all economic matters affecting the medical profession.
264:
2004:", when an individual is at work with a lowered productivity level, quantify the loss of non-paid working time, or capture externalities such as having an affected family member. Also, considering the variation in global wage rates or in societal values, statistics used may be contextually, geographically confined, and study results may not be internationally applicable.
1400:(GDP), demonstrating the increased importance that society placed on health care relative to other non-health goods and services. Between 1960 and 2013, health spending as a share of GDP increased from 5.0 to 17.4 percent. Over the same period, the average annual growth in nominal national health expenditures was 9.2 percent compared to nominal GDP growth of 6.7 percent.
1824:. A classic example of market failure is Monopoly Power. Several health-care markets tend to have the potential for monopoly control to be exercised. Medical care in markets with few hospitals, patent-protected prescription products, and some health insurance markets is the major reason for higher costs and especially in cases where the providers are private companies.
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is frequently low. As a result, one might argue that private markets would under-produce knowledge, necessitating government intervention to increase its availability. Government intervention, in this case, can be seen as assisting in the public distribution of established information, either directly or by subsidizing private sector operations.
1844:. In such cases either private insurers require a high premium as the risk factor and costs are high or they may not insure the people for a particular case. This leads to a void in the market where a certain section of the population will not be able to afford healthcare. Certain insurance markets, such as those for patients with HIV/AIDS,
1229:. Health economics is important in determining how to improve health outcomes and lifestyle patterns through interactions between individuals, healthcare providers and clinical settings. In broad terms, health economists study the functioning of healthcare systems and health-affecting behaviors such as smoking, diabetes, and obesity.
1817:
equipment. Governments usually subsidize for those who cannot afford insurance or, in certain situations, those low-cost activities and facilities that non-poor citizens can afford on their own. For example; the largest health insurance scheme in the world was launched in India by the name
Ayushman Bharat in 2018.
2020:
Generally, economists assume that individuals act rationally with the aim of maximizing their lifetime utility, while all are subject to the fact that they cannot buy more than their resources allow. However, this model gets complex as there exists the uncertainty over individuals' lifetime. As such,
2040:
There are many other things than "random" health care events, which individuals consume or do during their lives that affect the speed of aging and the severity and frequency of the drops. Lifestyle choices can deeply improve or worsen health of an individual. The variable X, the bundle of goods and
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4. Knowledge can be perceived as a public good with a strong economic value. The information provided by one user does not restrict the information available to another. While those who do not pay are often denied access to information and the marginal cost of providing information to another person
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categories. At the same time, the Center adopted computer technology to carry out nursing cost management, including cost assessment, reasonable budget, decision making, etc., which played a crucial role in improving the efficiency of nursing management and alleviating the nursing management crisis.
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of affected children. Externalities may include the influence that affected individuals have on surrounding human capital, such as at the workplace or in the home. In turn, the economy also affects the individual, particularly in light of globalization. For example, studies in India, where there is
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One of the biggest difficulties regarding healthcare economics is that it does not follow normal rules for economics. Price and quality are often hidden by the third-party payer system of insurance companies and employers. Additionally, QALYs (Quality
Adjusted Life Years), one of the most commonly
2032:
For simplicity, the stock of health produces utility, but technically, is the flow of services created by the stock of health that produces utility. As the traditional fashion for goods, "more is better", in other words an increase in health leads to an increase in utility. From this assumption, X
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has been extremely influential in this field of study and has several unique elements that make it notable. Grossman's model views each individual as both a producer and a consumer of health. Health is treated as a stock which degrades over time in the absence of "investments" in health, so that
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Selma Muskin published "Towards the definition of health economics" in 1958 and, four years later, the paper, "Health as an
Investment". At that time, health was broadly regarded as rather a consumptive branch of the economy. Muhkin's analysis was the first understanding that health investment had
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In 1983, Nursing
Economic Magazine was founded in the United States, and its main research content included nursing market development, nursing cost accounting, policies related to nursing services, nursing economic management, etc. The magazine's publication was a mark of the formal formation of
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After the 1970s, the health economy entered a period of rapid development and nursing economics gradually emerged. In 1979, Paul
Feldstein, a famous American health economist, first used the principles of economics to discuss the long-term care market, registered market, and other nursing economy
2007:
Though studies have demonstrated mental healthcare to reduce overall healthcare costs, demonstrate efficacy, and reduce employee absenteeism while improving employee functioning, the availability of comprehensive mental health services is in decline. Petrasek and Rapin (2002) cite the three main
1999:
Mental health economics presents a unique set of challenges to researchers. Individuals with cognitive disabilities may not be able to communicate preferences. These factors represent challenges in terms of placing value on the mental health status of an individual, especially in relation to the
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Beyond issues of the fundamental, "real" demand for medical care derived from the desire to have good health (and thus influenced by the production function for health) is the important distinction between the "marginal benefit" of medical care (which is always associated with this "real demand"
1816:
2. Secondly, the rationale is to increase the quality and equity of insurance for those services that can be produced in the private sector but require risk-sharing due to the expense and uncertainties about needs. For example; investing in research and development for new cures and health care
2024:
Probably the most fundamental thing in consumer demand theory is that the good increases an individual's utility. Health is not really a good in the traditional sense, but health in itself produces happiness. We can think of health as a durable good, much like for instance a car, a house or an
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out of pocket, and so the "effective demand" will have a separate relationship between price and quantity other than the "marginal benefit curve" or real demand relationship will have. This distinction is often described under the rubric of "ex-post moral hazard" (which is again distinct from
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Cost
Research Center conducted a systematic nursing cost study, simply the NIC System. The specific practice consisted of establishing a special research institution equipped with full-time researchers, sorting out the nursing cost accounting content, and, finally, identifying 433 items in 6
2036:
Like other durable goods, the stock of health wears out over time, much like other durable goods. This process can be called aging. When the stock of health has dropped low enough, a person will lose their ability to function. In economic terminology it can be said that the stock of health
1774:. Insurers use several techniques to limit the costs of moral hazard, including imposing copayments on patients and limiting physician incentives to provide costly care. Insurers often compete by their choice of service offerings, cost-sharing requirements, and limitations on physicians.
1374:
Presently, contemporary health economics stands as a prominent interdisciplinary field, connecting economic theory with healthcare practice; its diverse sub-disciplines and research domains are evident. The academic roots of this knowledge are commonly traced back to the U.S. tradition.
1831:
5. The last point in this section is related to incomplete markets. Incomplete markets may arise when private markets struggle to satisfy existing demand. This situation can arise when the cure of disease is very expensive, such as cancer or a wide spread of new diseases such as
1782:, whereby providers base treatment recommendations on economic, rather than medical criteria. Researchers have also documented substantial "practice variations", whereby the treatment also on service availability to rein in inducement and practice variations.
1408:) in many countries increased by 1% in the 1950s, 1.5% in the 1960s, and 2% in the 1970s. This high medical and health expenditure was a heavy economic burden on government, business owners, workers, and families, which required a way to restrain its growth.
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from the demand for health. Healthcare is demanded as a means for consumers to achieve a larger stock of "health capital". The demand for health is unlike most other goods because individuals allocate resources in order to both consume and produce health.
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who are searching for new coverage, may be incomplete in the sense that those patients may be unable to afford coverage at any price. In such cases, the government usually intervenes and provides health care for such cases. For example, during the
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increases with age, so it becomes more and more costly to attain the same level of health capital or health stock as one ages. Age also decreases the marginal benefit of health stock. The optimal health stock will therefore decrease as one ages.
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which occurs when they are unable to fully predict the medical expenses of enrollees; adverse selection can destroy the risk pool. Features of insurance market risk pools, such as group purchases, preferential selection ("cherry-picking"), and
1809:
Folland, Godman, and Stino the authors of the book, The
Economics of Health and Health Care lists several separate and independent reasons for governments intervening in health-care systems rather than leaving it to the private market forces.
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At the same time, the expenditure on health care in many
European countries also increased, accounting for about 4% of GDP in the 1950s and 8% by the end of the 1970s. In terms of growth rate, the proportion of health care expenditure in GNP
2025:
education. Every person comes into the world with some inherent "stock" of health, and a healthy baby has a fairly high stock of health. Basically, every decision an individual take during their lifetime will affect their stock of health.
1602:. The marginal benefit of health capital is the rate of return from this capital in both market and non-market sectors. In this model, the optimal health stock can be impacted by factors like age, wages and education. As an example,
1416:" which occupies a considerable amount of capital and labor and occupies an important position in social and economic life. The research on economic problems of the health sector became an important topic of economic research.
1268:
Uncertainty is intrinsic to health, both in patient outcomes and financial concerns. The knowledge gap that exists between a physician and a patient creates a situation of distinct advantage for the physician, which is called
1420:
long-term beneficial consequences for the community. Probably, the single most famous and cited contribution to the discipline was
Kenneth Arrow's "Uncertainty and the welfare economics of medical care", published in 1963.
1240:
is often credited with giving rise to health economics as a discipline. His theory drew conceptual distinctions between health and other goods. Factors that distinguish health economics from other areas include extensive
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and the presence of a third-party agent. In healthcare, the third-party agent is the patient's health insurer, who is financially responsible for the healthcare goods and services consumed by the insured patient.
2000:
individual's potential as human capital. Further, employment statistics are often used in mental health economic studies as a means of evaluating individual productivity; however, these statistics do not capture "
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Externalities arise frequently when considering health and health care, notably in the context of the health impacts as with infectious disease or opioid abuse. For example, making an effort to avoid catching the
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1996:
an increasingly high occurrence of western outsourcing, have demonstrated a growing hybrid identity in young professionals who face very different sociocultural expectations at the workplace and in at home.
1396:, and the improvement of people's demand for health care and other reasons, medical and health expenses increased significantly. For example, total U.S. health expenditures steadily increased as a share of
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Consumers in healthcare markets often lack adequate information about what services they need to buy and which providers offer the best value proposition. Health economists have documented a problem with
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In addition, the scale of health service increased, technical equipment became more advanced, and division of labor and specialization saw increases, too. The medical and health service developed into a
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Some economists argue that requiring doctors to have a medical license constrains inputs, inhibits innovation, and increases cost to consumers while largely only benefiting the doctors themselves.
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After the 1960s, research in health economics developed further, and a second academic seminar on health economics was held in the United States in 1962 followed by a third in 1968. In 1968, the
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Evers, S.; Salvador–Carulla, L.; Halsteinli, V.; McDaid, D.; MHEEN Group (April 2007), "Implementing mental health economic evaluation evidence: Building a Bridge between theory and practice",
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1431:. The convening of the three meetings showed that health economics had boarded an academic forum as an independent discipline, which also marked the official formation of health economics.
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1. The first is to ensure that the optimum level of production and consumption of public goods (hospitals, vaccines) and goods with a partially public character are available.
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1991:. In 2009 Currie and Stabile published "Mental Health in Childhood and Human Capital" in which they assessed how common childhood mental health problems may alter the human
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1857:, no private insurance company predicted (or could have predicted) that such an outbreak would occur; as a result, state intervention became necessary to treat people.
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1682:, has become a fundamental part of technology appraisal processes for agencies in a number of countries. The Institute for Quality and Economy in Health Services (
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Although assumptions of textbook models of economic markets apply reasonably well to healthcare markets, there are important deviations. Many states have created
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technology, the modernization of diagnosis and treatment means and health facilities and equipment, the aging of the population, the sharp increase of
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2864:. Click the sources tab under the chart for info on the countries, healthcare expenditures, and data sources. See the later version of the chart
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the issue is split into two parts: 1. How does health produce utility and 2. What affects health (e.g., medical care and life-style choices).
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Click the table tab at the source to get 3 lists (one after another) of amounts by country: "Total", "Government/compulsory", and "Voluntary".
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1367:, an ancient Greek thinker, once talked about the relationship between farmers and doctors in production and exchange. In the 17th century,
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Insured patients are naturally less concerned about healthcare costs than they would if they paid the full price of care. The resulting
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1886:"Voluntary": Voluntary health insurance and private funds such as households' out-of-pocket payments, NGOs and private corporations.
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1371:, a British classical economist, pointed out that the medical and health expenses spent on workers would bring economic benefits.
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Let X be a bundle of other goods, and H a stock of health. With these variables the formula for an individual's utility is:
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used measurements for treatments, is very difficult to measure and relies upon assumptions that are often unreasonable.
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2972:(1989) "A Glossary of the more common terms encountered in health economics" in MS Hersh-Cochran and KP Cochran (Eds.)
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Drummond, Michael F.; Sculpher, Mark J.; Claxton, Karl; Stoddart, Greg L.; Torrance, George W. (25 September 2015).
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2299:"Comparing the Noncomparable: The Need for Equivalence Measures That Make Sense in Health-Economic Evaluations"
1987:. Mental health can be directly related to economics by the potential of affected individuals to contribute as
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Aristotle's Theory of
Exchange: An Inquiry into the Origin of Economic Analysis. Proceedings of the American
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They are represented by columns starting at zero. They are not stacked. The 2 are combined to get the total.
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Wennberg J, Gittelsohn; Gittelsohn, A. (December 1973), "Small area variations in health care delivery",
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Folland, S., Goodman, A. C., & Stano, M. (2012). The Economics of Health and Health Care. Routledge.
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grows with health, for instance it is more enjoyable to visit the zoo when not experiencing a headache.
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Williams, A. (1987), "Health economics: the cheerful face of a dismal science", in Williams, A. (ed.),
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At the source you can run your cursor over the columns to get the year and the total for that country.
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Health economists evaluate multiple types of financial information: costs, charges and expenditures.
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Johnson, F. Reed; Scott, Frank I.; Reed, Shelby D.; Lewis, James D.; Bewtra, Meenakshi (June 2019).
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National Health Policy. (2019, January 7). Ayushman Bharat. Retrieved from National Health Policy:
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in which relatively healthy enrollees subsidize the care of the rest. Insurers must cope with
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Grossman, Michael (1972), "On the Concept of Health Capital and the Demand for Health",
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Siegel, Joanna E.; Russell, Louise B.; Weinstein, Milton C.; Gold, Marthe R. (1996),
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Klarman, Herbert E (7 July 1979). "Health Economics and Health Economics Research".
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Mental health economics incorporates a vast array of subject matters, ranging from
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3. The third reason for which the government might want to intervene is to prevent
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2922:"Hospital Monopolies: The Biggest Driver of Health Costs That Nobody Talks About"
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Currie, Janet and Mark Stabile. "Mental Health in Childhood and Human Capital".
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In Grossman's model, the optimal level of investment in health occurs where the
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Alastair M. Gray, Philip M. Clarke, Jane Wolstenholme, Sarah Wordsworth (2010)
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Compendium of English Language Course Syllabi and Textbooks in Health Economics
2548:"Health Economics at the Crossroads of Centuries – From the Past to the Future"
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1911:). For example: 11.2% for Canada in 2022. 16.6% for the United States in 2022.
1556:. The marginal cost of health capital can be found by adding these variables:
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69:
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ex-ante moral hazard, which is found in any type of market with insurance).
1460:
The above description gives three roles of persons in health economics. The
339:
4959:
4387:
4236:
4226:
4204:
4134:
4027:
3941:
3764:
3697:
3692:
3598:
3573:
3528:
3092:
2771:
2737:
2583:
2438:
2324:
2097:
2001:
1960:
1767:
1171:
1085:
1030:
925:
915:
910:
835:
383:
120:
3283:
2600:
The Origins and the Evolution of Health Economics: A Discipline by Itself?
4954:
4651:
4349:
4258:
4221:
3390:
3334:
3298:
2969:
2722:
1278:
1258:
1246:
1221:, effectiveness, value and behavior in the production and consumption of
1060:
1050:
840:
475:
2957:
1928:. For example: $ 6,319 for Canada in 2022. $ 12,555 for the US in 2022.
1789:
Economic rationale for government intervention in the healthcare markets
4580:
4302:
3608:
3568:
3234:
2529:
2519:
2355:
2339:
1226:
970:
770:
170:
1435:
issues, laying the foundation for the emergence of nursing economics.
4678:
4497:
4067:
3948:
3603:
3487:
3003:
2857:
1867:
Health spending as percent of gross domestic product (GDP) by country
1743:
1720:
1714:
1364:
1352:
1344:
1281:
affects people other than the decision maker or finding sustainable,
1214:
820:
751:
331:
4544:
4297:
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3901:
3523:
3477:
3467:
2810:
1841:
2854:
Link between health spending and life expectancy: US is an outlier
275:
4216:
3687:
3583:
3472:
1498:
1329:
3856:
3253:
3201:
Money-Driven Medicine: The Real Reason Health Care Costs So Much
3079:
Petrasek M, Rapin L; Rapin (2002), "The mental health paradox",
1684:
Institut für Qualität und Wirtschaftlichkeit im Gesundheitswesen
4511:
3518:
3132:
1845:
1464:(p. 52) states that people take four roles in healthcare:
1428:
1282:
1222:
1154:
3359:
4673:
3186:
Methods for the Economic Evaluation of Health Care Programmes
3135:
Methods for the Economic Evaluation of Health Care Programmes
2149:
International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care
1724:
3172:
Applied Methods of Cost-effectiveness Analysis in Healthcare
2987:
The Problems of Disadvantaged Youth: An Economic Perspective
1516:. With the passing of time, health depreciates at some rate
4799:
Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety
4605:
2945:
1876:
1837:
1798:
3214:
3040:"Globalization: Mental health and social economic factors"
2989:
ed. J. Gruber. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009.
2907:"Why government intervention in health care is necessary"
2093:
List of publications in economics § Health economics
1833:
1427:
held its first international health economics seminar in
3078:
2271:
Howard, Brandon; Health, JH Bloomberg School of Public.
2212:
Expert Review of Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research
1871:
List of countries by total health expenditure per capita
1536:. The interest rate faced by the consumer is denoted by
1293:
The scope of health economics is neatly encapsulated by
2340:"Uncertainty and the Welfare Economics of Medical Care"
1301:" dividing the discipline into eight distinct topics:
2671:
Uncertainty and the welfare economics of medical care
2296:
1763:
exclusions are meant to cope with adverse selection.
1634:
1608:
1562:
1542:
1522:
2462:
Who Shall Live? Health, Economics, and Social Choice
1967:, both for individuals and for wider health policy.
1693:
Some agencies, including NICE, recommend the use of
3300:
Introduction to Health Economics: A Beginners Guide
2641:"Why Health Care Costs Exploded After World War II"
2541:
2539:
1652:
1615:
1594:
1548:
1528:
2999:
2997:
2995:
2941:
2939:
2937:
2935:
2247:"World Health Expenditure as Share of Global GDP"
1688:National Institute for Health and Care Excellence
5030:
2888:https://www.nhp.gov.in/ayushman-bharat-yojana_pg
2536:
2052:Gross domestic product § Further criticisms
1709:The five health markets typically analyzed are:
1285:and effective solutions to the opioid epidemic.
53:How much did the UK spend on healthcare in 2012?
45:World health expenditure as share of global GDP.
2913:
2616:History of Health Spending in the United States
2613:
2545:
2277:Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health
1943:Often used synonymously with health economics,
1797:Life expectancy vs healthcare spending of rich
1664:
1493:. The model acknowledges that health is both a
1305:What influences health? (other than healthcare)
3316:
3240:The Social Transformation of American Medicine
2992:
2932:
2735:
2546:Mihajlo, Jakovljevic; Seiritsu, Ogura (1999).
2452:
2087:Health system § International comparisons
1860:
3872:
3375:
3037:
2401:Fuchs, Victor R. (1987). "health economics".
1388:, amid the rapid improvement of the level of
1191:
300:
2485:Wolfe, Barbara (2008). "health economics".
2420:"Economics, Values, and Health Care Reform"
2404:The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics
4834:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
3879:
3865:
3382:
3368:
2198:Cost Effectiveness and Resource Allocation
2177:Applied Health Economics and Health Policy
1970:
1924:. Public and private spending. US dollars
1198:
1184:
307:
293:
4794:Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
4784:Center for Disease Control and Prevention
3218:Cost-effectiveness in health and medicine
3038:Bhavsar, V.; Bhugra, D. (December 2008),
2833:"Licensing Doctors: Do Economists Agree?"
2800:
2761:
2573:
2563:
2411:
2394:
2331:
2314:
1612:
1591:
2784:
2742:Policy, Politics, & Nursing Practice
2524:. American Philosophical Society. 1952.
2503:
2488:The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
2373:(3rd ed.), Boston: Addison Wesley,
2270:
2163:The European Journal of Health Economics
1916:
1899:
1792:
1770:drives up costs, as shown by the famous
48:
40:
4839:Health departments in the United States
2708:
14:
5031:
4844:Council on Education for Public Health
3319:Developments in the Economics of Aging
3151:
3113:
2899:
2830:
2596:
2368:
4902:Professional degrees of public health
4809:Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
3860:
3727:Artificial intelligence in healthcare
3363:
3109:
3107:
3105:
3103:
3101:
2458:
2417:
2400:
2337:
2015:
1704:
1308:What is health and what is its value?
4999:
4892:Bachelor of Science in Public Health
2847:
1938:
1497:that yields direct satisfaction and
1447:
5011:
4160:Workers' right to access the toilet
4001:Human right to water and sanitation
2919:
2909:. Erasmus University Rotterdam. nd.
1879:charts below to see the breakdown:
1595:{\displaystyle MC_{HK}=r+\delta \,}
24:
3802:reform debate in the United States
3126:
3098:
2950:Health resources - Health spending
1512:of health capital is equal to the
25:
5050:
4433:Commercial determinants of health
3886:
3829:(Category Health care by country)
3221:, New York : Oxford Univ. Press,
2219:Medical Decision Making (journal)
2123:Priority-setting in global health
1217:concerned with issues related to
5010:
4998:
4987:
4986:
4016:National public health institute
3841:
3840:
3156:. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson.
2205:Health Economics, Policy and Law
1922:Total healthcare cost per person
1772:RAND Health Insurance Experiment
1439:nursing economics. In 1993, The
1379:The American Medical Association
1351:
1340:Evaluation at whole system level
1165:
1153:
338:
274:
262:
76:
4413:Open-source healthcare software
4155:Sociology of health and illness
3389:
3337:and J.P. Newhouse, ed. (2000).
3321:, University of Chicago Press,
3072:
3031:
2979:
2963:
2880:
2871:
2824:
2778:
2729:
2702:
2677:
2663:
2647:
2633:
2607:
2590:
2512:
2497:
2407:. Vol. 2. pp. 614–19.
1933:
1452:The demand for healthcare is a
440:Concepts, theory and techniques
249:National public health agencies
4774:Caribbean Public Health Agency
4586:Sexually transmitted infection
4483:Statistical hypothesis testing
4244:Occupational safety and health
4145:Sexual and reproductive health
4058:Occupational safety and health
3538:Academic health science centre
2479:
2362:
2290:
2264:
2239:
1803:US average of $ 10,447 in 2018
1489:health is viewed as a sort of
166:Sexual and reproductive health
13:
1:
4428:Social determinants of health
3775:Health information management
3760:health information technology
3498:Health information management
3276:10.1126/science.182.4117.1102
2232:
4488:Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
4249:Human factors and ergonomics
3750:Translational bioinformatics
3350:Handbook of Health Economics
3339:Handbook of Health Economics
3184:Drummond, Michael F. (2005)
3152:Hurley, Jeremiah E. (2010).
3118:. Routledge. pp. 27–43.
2788:Journal of Political Economy
2344:The American Economic Review
2184:Journal of Medical Economics
1686:– IQWiG) in Germany and the
1671:Health technology assessment
1665:Health technology assessment
7:
4669:Good manufacturing practice
4473:Randomized controlled trial
3780:Consumer health informatics
3188:, Oxford University Press.
3174:, Oxford University Press.
3137:. Oxford University Press.
2369:Phelps, Charles E. (2003),
2273:"What Is Health Economics?"
2226:Social Science and Medicine
2170:PharmacoEconomics (journal)
2142:Journal of Health Economics
2134:
2044:
1861:Public and private spending
1680:cost-effectiveness analysis
10:
5055:
4739:Theory of planned behavior
4664:Good agricultural practice
4569:Public health surveillance
4461:epidemiological statistics
4105:Public health intervention
3297:Whittington, Ruth (2008).
2920:Roy, A. (22 August 2011).
2656:Health Economics Textbooks
2552:Frontiers in Public Health
2459:Fuchs, Victor R. (1998) .
2316:10.1016/j.jval.2019.03.011
1905:Health spending by country
1864:
1699:Quality-adjusted life year
1668:
1486:model of health production
1358:
1347:and monitoring mechanisms.
1236:A seminal 1963 article by
29:
4982:
4917:
4876:
4861:World Toilet Organization
4856:World Health Organization
4763:
4752:
4689:
4614:
4530:
4458:
4423:Public health informatics
4363:
4168:
4130:Right to rest and leisure
3959:Globalization and disease
3894:
3836:
3790:
3770:Public health informatics
3706:
3683:Electronic health records
3653:
3617:
3561:
3553:Supervised injection site
3506:
3493:Allied health professions
3460:
3397:
3018:10.1080/09638230701279881
2976:, Copenhagen, WHO, 215–34
2418:Fuchs, Victor R. (1996).
1616:{\displaystyle \delta \,}
1425:World Health Organization
1363:In the third century BC,
161:Rehabilitation (penology)
4907:Schools of public health
4699:Diffusion of innovations
4398:Health impact assessment
4110:Public health laboratory
4006:Management of depression
3204:, Harper/Collins, 2006.
3059:10.1177/1468018108095634
3006:Journal of Mental Health
2831:Svorny, Shirley (2004),
2754:10.1177/1527154408318253
2614:Aaron C. Catlin (2015).
2565:10.3389/fpubh.2016.00115
2427:American Economic Review
2113:Philosophy of healthcare
1955:to synthesise data from
1288:
428:JEL classification codes
4970:Social hygiene movement
4897:Doctor of Public Health
4729:Social cognitive theory
4531:Infectious and epidemic
4313:Fecal–oral transmission
3718:Medical image computing
3668:Artificial intelligence
3317:Wise, David A. (2009),
2736:Linda H. Aiken (2008).
2338:Arrow, Kenneth (1963).
1971:Mental health economics
1963:for support of medical
1850:pre-existing conditions
1780:supplier induced demand
1529:{\displaystyle \delta }
1249:in several dimensions,
1243:government intervention
614:Industrial organization
471:Computational economics
4965:Germ theory of disease
4744:Transtheoretical model
3755:Translational medicine
2738:"Economics of Nursing"
1929:
1912:
1909:Gross domestic product
1806:
1654:
1617:
1596:
1550:
1530:
1406:gross national product
1398:gross domestic product
1271:asymmetric information
1251:asymmetric information
466:Experimental economics
54:
46:
4849:Public Health Service
4734:Social norms approach
4724:PRECEDE–PROCEED model
4170:Preventive healthcare
4063:Pharmaceutical policy
3912:Chief Medical Officer
3744:Computational biology
3645:Universal precautions
3243:, Basic Books, 1982.
3114:Phelps, C.E. (2017).
2057:Health administration
1920:
1903:
1796:
1761:preexisting condition
1695:cost–utility analysis
1655:
1653:{\displaystyle MB=MC}
1618:
1597:
1551:
1531:
52:
44:
30:For the journal, see
18:Health care economics
4925:Sara Josephine Baker
4824:Public Health Agency
4709:Health communication
4574:Disease surveillance
4540:Asymptomatic carrier
4522:Statistical software
4210:Preventive nutrition
4038:Medical anthropology
3927:Environmental health
3738:Behavior informatics
3047:Global Social Policy
2893:7 April 2023 at the
2506:Health and Economics
2108:Pharmacoepidemiology
1993:capital accumulation
1678:, and in particular
1632:
1606:
1560:
1540:
1520:
693:Social choice theory
200:Disease surveillance
181:International health
116:Environmental health
111:Dental public health
4935:Carl Rogers Darnall
4930:Samuel Jay Crumbine
4704:Health belief model
4557:Notifiable diseases
4493:Regression analysis
4328:Waterborne diseases
3917:Cultural competence
3722:imaging informatics
3630:Cultural competence
3268:1973Sci...182.1102W
2958:10.1787/8643de7e-en
2856:. May 26, 2017. By
2597:Rebelo, LP (2007).
2508:, London: Macmillan
2493:Abstract & TOC.
1953:mathematical models
1676:Economic evaluation
1462:World Health Report
1414:healthcare industry
1160:Business portal
481:Operations research
461:National accounting
269:Medicine portal
156:Occupational safety
27:Branch of economics
4533:disease prevention
4468:Case–control study
4140:Security of person
3989:Health care reform
3708:Health informatics
3483:Healthcare science
2837:Econ Journal Watch
2711:Health and Society
2118:Prescription costs
2062:Health consumerism
2030:Utility = U(X, H).
2016:Health and utility
1930:
1913:
1907:. Percent of GDP (
1807:
1705:Healthcare markets
1650:
1613:
1592:
1546:
1526:
1441:University of Iowa
1336:Market equilibrium
491:Industrial complex
486:Middle income trap
281:Society portal
55:
47:
5026:
5025:
4978:
4977:
4888:Higher education
4719:Positive deviance
4714:Health psychology
4690:Health behavioral
4617:safety management
4591:Social distancing
4365:Population health
4345:Smoking cessation
4293:Pharmacovigilance
4264:Injury prevention
4232:Infection control
4150:Social psychology
4100:Prisoners' rights
4043:Medical sociology
4011:Public health law
3907:Biological hazard
3854:
3853:
3618:Skills / training
3542:Teaching hospital
3328:978-0-226-90335-4
3311:978-0-9545494-5-9
3262:(4117): 1102–08,
3228:978-0-19-510824-8
3210:978-0-06-076533-0
3163:978-0-07-091648-7
3144:978-0-19-164358-3
2862:Our World in Data
2380:978-0-321-06898-9
2251:Our World in Data
2103:Pharmacoeconomics
2010:knowledge brokers
1985:welfare economics
1977:pharmacoeconomics
1945:medical economics
1939:Medical economics
1855:COVID-19 pandemic
1756:adverse selection
1549:{\displaystyle r}
1448:Healthcare demand
1255:barriers to entry
1208:
1207:
317:
316:
215:Health indicators
16:(Redirected from
5046:
5039:Health economics
5014:
5013:
5002:
5001:
4990:
4989:
4884:Health education
4761:
4760:
4615:Food hygiene and
4596:Tropical disease
4408:Infant mortality
4383:Community health
4259:Controlled Drugs
4195:Health promotion
4125:Right to housing
3969:Health economics
3881:
3874:
3867:
3858:
3857:
3844:
3843:
3732:Neuroinformatics
3673:Connected health
3384:
3377:
3370:
3361:
3360:
3341:, Elsevier. 1A.
3331:
3294:
3231:
3167:
3154:Health economics
3148:
3120:
3119:
3116:Health economics
3111:
3096:
3095:
3076:
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3069:
3044:
3035:
3029:
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3001:
2990:
2983:
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2516:
2510:
2509:
2501:
2495:
2483:
2477:
2476:
2456:
2450:
2449:
2448:on 14 July 2007.
2447:
2441:. Archived from
2424:
2415:
2409:
2408:
2398:
2392:
2383:
2371:Health Economics
2366:
2360:
2359:
2335:
2329:
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2318:
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2288:
2287:
2285:
2283:
2268:
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2257:
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2156:Health Economics
2077:Health insurance
1659:
1657:
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1598:
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1577:
1555:
1553:
1552:
1547:
1535:
1533:
1532:
1527:
1514:marginal benefit
1495:consumption good
1482:Michael Grossman
1394:chronic diseases
1390:medical research
1386:Second World War
1355:
1299:plumbing diagram
1211:Health economics
1200:
1193:
1186:
1172:Money portal
1170:
1169:
1168:
1158:
1157:
654:Natural resource
446:Economic systems
342:
319:
318:
309:
302:
295:
279:
278:
267:
266:
265:
205:Health promotion
136:Health promotion
131:Health education
126:Health economics
106:Community health
80:
57:
56:
33:Health Economics
21:
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5053:
5049:
5048:
5047:
5045:
5044:
5043:
5029:
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5027:
5022:
4974:
4945:Margaret Sanger
4913:
4872:
4756:
4754:
4748:
4691:
4685:
4657:Safety scandals
4616:
4610:
4532:
4526:
4460:
4454:
4450:Social medicine
4443:Race and health
4378:Child mortality
4359:
4318:Open defecation
4200:Human nutrition
4190:Family planning
4178:Behavior change
4164:
4120:Right to health
4033:Maternal health
4023:Health politics
3974:Health literacy
3890:
3885:
3855:
3850:
3832:
3786:
3785:
3784:
3702:
3649:
3613:
3589:Overutilization
3557:
3548:Pharmacy school
3514:Assisted living
3502:
3456:
3393:
3388:
3329:
3229:
3198:Mahar, Maggie,
3164:
3145:
3129:
3127:Further reading
3124:
3123:
3112:
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3042:
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2984:
2980:
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2904:
2900:
2895:Wayback Machine
2885:
2881:
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2802:10.1.1.604.7202
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2685:THE WORK OF WHO
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2608:
2595:
2591:
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2518:
2517:
2513:
2502:
2498:
2491:, 2nd Edition.
2484:
2480:
2473:
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2445:
2422:
2416:
2412:
2399:
2395:
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2303:Value in Health
2295:
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2255:
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2245:
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2240:
2235:
2191:Value in Health
2137:
2132:
2047:
2018:
1981:labor economics
1973:
1965:decision-making
1947:, according to
1941:
1936:
1931:
1914:
1873:
1863:
1791:
1733:services market
1727:services market
1707:
1673:
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1570:
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1503:investment good
1450:
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1213:is a branch of
1204:
1166:
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1144:
1115:
1105:
1104:
1103:
1102:
866:von Böhm-Bawerk
754:
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496:
495:
451:Economic growth
441:
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372:classifications
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209:Behavior change
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146:Health politics
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15:
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11:
5:
5052:
5042:
5041:
5024:
5023:
5021:
5020:
5008:
4996:
4983:
4980:
4979:
4976:
4975:
4973:
4972:
4967:
4962:
4957:
4952:
4947:
4942:
4937:
4932:
4927:
4921:
4919:
4915:
4914:
4912:
4911:
4910:
4909:
4904:
4899:
4894:
4886:
4880:
4878:
4874:
4873:
4871:
4870:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4852:
4851:
4846:
4841:
4836:
4828:
4827:
4826:
4821:
4813:
4812:
4811:
4803:
4802:
4801:
4796:
4788:
4787:
4786:
4778:
4777:
4776:
4767:
4765:
4758:
4753:Organizations,
4750:
4749:
4747:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4721:
4716:
4711:
4706:
4701:
4695:
4693:
4687:
4686:
4684:
4683:
4682:
4681:
4676:
4666:
4661:
4660:
4659:
4654:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4634:
4629:
4620:
4618:
4612:
4611:
4609:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4577:
4576:
4566:
4565:
4564:
4554:
4553:
4552:
4542:
4536:
4534:
4528:
4527:
4525:
4524:
4519:
4518:
4517:
4509:
4500:
4495:
4490:
4480:
4475:
4470:
4464:
4462:
4459:Biological and
4456:
4455:
4453:
4452:
4447:
4446:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4425:
4420:
4418:Multimorbidity
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4385:
4380:
4375:
4369:
4367:
4361:
4360:
4358:
4357:
4355:Vector control
4352:
4347:
4342:
4340:School hygiene
4337:
4336:
4335:
4330:
4325:
4323:Sanitary sewer
4320:
4315:
4310:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4289:
4288:
4281:Patient safety
4278:
4277:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4241:
4240:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4214:
4213:
4212:
4207:
4197:
4192:
4187:
4186:
4185:
4174:
4172:
4166:
4165:
4163:
4162:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4097:
4096:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4019:
4018:
4013:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3992:
3991:
3986:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3964:Harm reduction
3961:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3945:
3944:
3939:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3909:
3904:
3898:
3896:
3892:
3891:
3884:
3883:
3876:
3869:
3861:
3852:
3851:
3849:
3848:
3837:
3834:
3833:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3809:United Kingdom
3806:
3805:
3804:
3794:
3792:
3788:
3787:
3783:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3741:
3735:
3729:
3724:
3714:
3713:
3712:
3710:
3704:
3703:
3701:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3678:Digital health
3675:
3670:
3665:
3663:3D bioprinting
3659:
3657:
3651:
3650:
3648:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3625:Bedside manner
3621:
3619:
3615:
3614:
3612:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3565:
3563:
3559:
3558:
3556:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3534:Medical school
3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3510:
3508:
3504:
3503:
3501:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3464:
3462:
3458:
3457:
3455:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3398:
3395:
3394:
3387:
3386:
3379:
3372:
3364:
3358:
3357:
3348:_____ (2000).
3346:
3332:
3327:
3314:
3295:
3251:
3232:
3227:
3212:
3196:
3182:
3168:
3162:
3149:
3143:
3128:
3125:
3122:
3121:
3097:
3071:
3030:
2991:
2978:
2962:
2931:
2912:
2898:
2879:
2870:
2846:
2823:
2811:10.1086/259880
2777:
2728:
2717:(3): 371–379.
2701:
2690:(Report). 1968
2676:
2662:
2646:
2643:. 9 June 2016.
2632:
2606:
2589:
2535:
2511:
2496:
2478:
2471:
2451:
2410:
2393:
2379:
2361:
2350:(5): 941–973.
2330:
2309:(6): 684–692.
2289:
2263:
2237:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2230:
2229:
2222:
2215:
2208:
2201:
2194:
2187:
2180:
2173:
2166:
2159:
2152:
2145:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2017:
2014:
1972:
1969:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1915:
1898:
1897:
1896:
1893:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1862:
1859:
1822:market failure
1790:
1787:
1748:
1747:
1740:
1734:
1728:
1718:
1706:
1703:
1669:Main article:
1666:
1663:
1649:
1646:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1611:
1590:
1587:
1584:
1581:
1576:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1545:
1525:
1479:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1454:derived demand
1449:
1446:
1360:
1357:
1349:
1348:
1341:
1338:
1333:
1328:evaluation at
1326:Micro-economic
1323:
1316:
1315:for healthcare
1309:
1306:
1290:
1287:
1245:, intractable
1206:
1205:
1203:
1202:
1195:
1188:
1180:
1177:
1176:
1175:
1174:
1162:
1147:
1146:
1143:
1142:
1137:
1127:
1122:
1116:
1111:
1110:
1107:
1106:
1101:
1100:
1093:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1033:
1028:
1023:
1018:
1013:
1008:
1003:
998:
993:
988:
983:
978:
973:
968:
963:
958:
953:
948:
943:
938:
933:
928:
923:
918:
913:
908:
903:
898:
893:
888:
883:
878:
873:
868:
863:
858:
853:
848:
843:
838:
833:
828:
823:
818:
813:
808:
803:
798:
793:
788:
783:
778:
773:
768:
763:
757:
756:
755:
749:
748:
745:
744:
741:
740:
735:
730:
725:
720:
715:
710:
705:
700:
695:
686:
681:
676:
671:
666:
661:
659:Organizational
656:
651:
646:
641:
636:
631:
626:
621:
616:
611:
606:
601:
596:
591:
586:
581:
576:
571:
566:
561:
556:
551:
546:
541:
536:
531:
526:
521:
516:
511:
505:
503:By application
502:
501:
498:
497:
494:
493:
488:
483:
478:
473:
468:
463:
458:
453:
448:
442:
439:
438:
435:
434:
431:
430:
425:
420:
415:
410:
405:
396:
391:
386:
381:
375:
369:
368:
365:
364:
363:
362:
357:
352:
344:
343:
335:
334:
328:
327:
315:
314:
312:
311:
304:
297:
289:
286:
285:
284:
283:
271:
256:
255:
252:
251:
246:
241:
235:
226:
225:
222:
221:
218:
217:
212:
202:
196:
193:
192:
189:
188:
185:
184:
175:World health (
173:
168:
163:
158:
153:
148:
143:
138:
133:
128:
123:
118:
113:
108:
102:
99:
98:
95:
94:
92:
91:
85:
82:
81:
73:
72:
66:
65:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5051:
5040:
5037:
5036:
5034:
5019:
5018:
5009:
5007:
5006:
4997:
4995:
4994:
4985:
4984:
4981:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4963:
4961:
4958:
4956:
4953:
4951:
4948:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4940:Joseph Lister
4938:
4936:
4933:
4931:
4928:
4926:
4923:
4922:
4920:
4916:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4889:
4887:
4885:
4882:
4881:
4879:
4875:
4868:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4850:
4847:
4845:
4842:
4840:
4837:
4835:
4832:
4831:
4829:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4819:Health Canada
4817:
4816:
4814:
4810:
4807:
4806:
4804:
4800:
4797:
4795:
4792:
4791:
4789:
4785:
4782:
4781:
4779:
4775:
4772:
4771:
4769:
4768:
4766:
4764:Organizations
4762:
4759:
4751:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4696:
4694:
4688:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4671:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4625:
4624:
4622:
4621:
4619:
4613:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4601:Vaccine trial
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4575:
4572:
4571:
4570:
4567:
4563:
4560:
4559:
4558:
4555:
4551:
4548:
4547:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4537:
4535:
4529:
4523:
4520:
4516:
4514:
4510:
4508:
4506:
4501:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4485:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4478:Relative risk
4476:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4465:
4463:
4457:
4451:
4448:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4438:Health equity
4436:
4434:
4431:
4430:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4403:Health system
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4393:Global health
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4373:Biostatistics
4371:
4370:
4368:
4366:
4362:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4338:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4305:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4287:
4284:
4283:
4282:
4279:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4246:
4245:
4242:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4219:
4218:
4215:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4202:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4188:
4184:
4181:
4180:
4179:
4176:
4175:
4173:
4171:
4167:
4161:
4158:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4115:Right to food
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4070:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4053:
4049:
4048:Mental health
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4008:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3996:Housing First
3994:
3990:
3987:
3985:
3984:Health system
3982:
3981:
3980:
3979:Health policy
3977:
3975:
3972:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3934:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3899:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3888:Public health
3882:
3877:
3875:
3870:
3868:
3863:
3862:
3859:
3847:
3839:
3838:
3835:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3803:
3800:
3799:
3798:
3797:United States
3795:
3793:
3789:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3746:in healthcare
3745:
3742:
3740:in healthcare
3739:
3736:
3734:in healthcare
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3719:
3716:
3715:
3711:
3709:
3705:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3660:
3658:
3656:
3652:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3622:
3620:
3616:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3566:
3564:
3560:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3511:
3509:
3505:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3465:
3463:
3459:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3399:
3396:
3392:
3385:
3380:
3378:
3373:
3371:
3366:
3365:
3362:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3333:
3330:
3324:
3320:
3315:
3312:
3308:
3305:
3302:
3301:
3296:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3252:
3250:
3249:0-465-07934-2
3246:
3242:
3241:
3236:
3233:
3230:
3224:
3220:
3219:
3213:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3202:
3197:
3195:
3194:0-19-852945-7
3191:
3187:
3183:
3181:
3180:0-19-922728-4
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3159:
3155:
3150:
3146:
3140:
3136:
3131:
3130:
3117:
3110:
3108:
3106:
3104:
3102:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3075:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3053:(3): 378–96,
3052:
3048:
3041:
3034:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3012:(2): 223–41,
3011:
3007:
3000:
2998:
2996:
2988:
2982:
2975:
2971:
2966:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2942:
2940:
2938:
2936:
2927:
2923:
2916:
2908:
2902:
2896:
2892:
2889:
2883:
2874:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2850:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2827:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2795:(2): 223–55,
2794:
2790:
2789:
2781:
2773:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2732:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2705:
2686:
2680:
2672:
2666:
2658:
2657:
2650:
2642:
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4227:Hand washing
4205:Healthy diet
4135:Right to sit
4028:Labor rights
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3765:Telemedicine
3698:Telemedicine
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691: /
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589:Geographical
569:Evolutionary
544:Digitization
509:Agricultural
413:Mathematical
384:Econometrics
125:
121:Epidemiology
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32:
5017:WikiProject
4757:and history
4637:Engineering
4350:Vaccination
4222:Food safety
3824:New Zealand
3579:End-of-life
3461:Professions
3391:Health care
3335:A.J. Culyer
3235:Starr, Paul
2970:A.J. Culyer
2433:(1): 1–24.
2385:Description
2282:25 February
1875:Expand the
1848:, or other
1801:countries.
1713:Healthcare
1279:common cold
1259:externality
1247:uncertainty
966:von Neumann
619:Information
559:Engineering
539:Development
534:Demographic
476:Game theory
418:Methodology
239:Terminology
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4647:Processing
4581:Quarantine
4503:Student's
4303:Sanitation
3937:History of
3791:By country
3655:Technology
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3422:Philosophy
3412:Guidelines
3081:Benefits Q
2233:References
1865:See also:
1752:risk pools
1384:After the
1343:Planning,
1227:healthcare
1219:efficiency
1125:Economists
996:Schumacher
901:Schumpeter
871:von Wieser
791:von ThĂĽnen
752:economists
728:Statistics
723:Solidarity
644:Managerial
609:Humanistic
604:Historical
549:Ecological
514:Behavioral
408:Mainstream
232:categories
194:Prevention
171:Sanitation
60:Part of a
4950:John Snow
4877:Education
4867:Full list
4755:education
4679:ISO 22000
4632:Chemistry
4545:Epidemics
4498:ROC curve
4308:Emergency
4088:Radiation
4068:Pollution
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3345:Elsevier.
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1477:Consumers
1365:Aristotle
1345:budgeting
1330:treatment
1215:economics
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1006:Samuelson
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956:Tinbergen
896:von Mises
891:Heckscher
851:Edgeworth
669:Personnel
629:Knowledge
594:Happiness
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554:Education
529:Democracy
423:Political
389:Heterodox
332:Economics
100:Subfields
5033:Category
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4627:Additive
4298:Safe sex
4269:Medicine
4183:Theories
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3932:Eugenics
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3507:Settings
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3468:Medicine
3417:Industry
3304:Preview.
3292:43819003
3093:12004583
3067:53418285
3026:56590693
2891:Archived
2819:27026628
2772:18480318
2621:(Report)
2584:27376055
2439:10168326
2325:31198186
2135:Journals
2045:See also
1842:COVID-19
1701:(QALY).
1484:'s 1972
1474:Provider
1471:Citizens
1134:journals
1120:Glossary
1071:Stiglitz
1036:Rothbard
1016:Buchanan
1001:Friedman
991:Koopmans
981:Leontief
961:Robinson
846:Marshall
750:Notable
698:Regional
674:Planning
649:Monetary
579:Feminist
524:Cultural
519:Business
324:a series
322:Part of
244:Journals
5005:Commons
4918:History
4815:Canada
4790:Europe
4274:Nursing
4254:Hygiene
4217:Hygiene
3942:Liberal
3895:General
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3599:Primary
3584:Hospice
3574:Chronic
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3264:Bibcode
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1359:History
1140:Schools
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1091:Piketty
1086:Krugman
951:Kuznets
941:Kalecki
916:Polanyi
806:Cournot
801:Bastiat
786:Ricardo
776:Malthus
766:Quesnay
738:Welfare
708:Service
379:Applied
355:Outline
350:History
89:Outline
4805:India
4780:China
4652:Safety
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3447:Reform
3437:Public
3427:Policy
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2926:Forbes
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1846:cancer
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1046:Sowell
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921:Frisch
911:Knight
906:Keynes
881:Fisher
876:Veblen
861:Pareto
841:Menger
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831:Jevons
826:Walras
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684:Public
679:Policy
634:Labour
599:Health
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4674:HACCP
4623:Food
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4507:-test
4093:Light
4078:Water
3609:Total
3569:Acute
3288:S2CID
3063:S2CID
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3022:S2CID
2815:S2CID
2688:(PDF)
2619:(PDF)
2526:JSTOR
2446:(PDF)
2423:(PDF)
2352:JSTOR
1332:level
1289:Scope
1113:Lists
1081:Hoppe
1066:Lucas
1031:Solow
1021:Arrow
1011:Simon
976:Lange
971:Hicks
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936:Hayek
886:Pigou
856:Clark
771:Smith
733:Urban
713:Socio
703:Rural
403:Macro
399:Micro
360:Index
228:Lists
4606:WASH
4562:List
4550:List
4083:Soil
3720:and
3604:Self
3562:Care
3323:ISBN
3307:ISBN
3280:PMID
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36:.
20:)
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