History of Natchez, Mississippi

856:, was another prominent free person of color. He became the mayor of Natchez which was the exact same position his white planter father Robert Wood occupied years earlier. It was initially believed in post modern times that free people of color lacked a lot of citizen rights regardless of their status. Research in recent decades through courthouse and governmental records has substantially demonstrated that to be untrue for the wealthy property owning free people of color. Owning wealth and being included as equals by the richest of the white families in the antebellum era gave the few people of color who had this circumstance a rare amount of prestige and power. William Johnson, a well known free person of color strives to be recognized as a planter by Natchez society; Archie P Williams a free person of color who was also of Natchez MS was recognized in society as a planter due to being the son of David Percy Williams of Natchez and inheriting a large portion of his wealth. Archie P Williams white side of his family lineage had been established as one of the wealthiest in the region for several generations prior beginning in the 1760s with his great grandfather David Williams. Archie P Williams was one of a few millionaires (especially mixed -race or black millionaires) in the 1800s due to his inherited share of the multi million dollar estate of Winthrop Sargent who was a stepfather to his grandfather Other free persons of color in Natchez acquired skills as artisans, mechanics, shoemakers, etc and they lived a merely comfortable existence in contrast to the enslaved African Americans. Some of the descendants of free persons of color from the antebellum era continue to proper in the 1041:, began moving into Natchez and the surrounding countryside. The Union Army officers claimed to be short on resources and unable to provide for the refugees. The Army planned to address the situation with a mixture of paid labor for freed slaves on government leased plantations, the enlistment of able bodied males who were willing to fight in the Union Army and the establishment of refugee camps where former slaves could be provided with education. However, as the war continued, the plan was never effectively implemented and the leased plantations were poorly managed and frequently raided by Confederate troops who controlled the surrounding territory. Hundreds of people living in Natchez during this period, including many former slaves and refugees, died of hunger, disease or were killed in the fighting during this period. 1716: 1048: 1318: 919: 1310: 302:) launched a war to eliminate the French in November 1729. It became known by the Europeans as the "Natchez War" or Natchez Rebellion. The Indians destroyed the French colony at Natchez and other settlements in the area. On November 29, 1729, the Natchez Indians killed a total of 229 French colonists: 138 men, 35 women, and 56 children (the largest death toll by an Indian attack in Mississippi's history). They took most of the women and children as captives. The French with their Indian allies attacked the Natchez repeatedly over the next two years, resulting in most of the Natchez Indians being killed, enslaved, or forced to flee as 1704: 1182: 461: 1174: 1190: 481: 158: 896: 613: 453: 473: 1381: 41: 90: 3716: 1160: 1640: 1107: 706: 568:, 6 miles (10 km) to the east, also in Adams County. After roughly 15 years, the legislature transferred the capital back to Natchez at the end of 1817, when the territory was admitted as a state. Later the capital was returned to Washington. As the state's population center shifted to the north and east with more settlers entering the area, the legislature voted to move the capital to the more centrally located city of 1509:

kept secret, but they created a defense and warning against violent attacks of blacks. In addition to protecting activists, the Deacons helped enforce initiatives of the civil rights movement, such as a commercial boycott of white-owned stores in a successful effort to win concessions in integration from retailers and the city. Chapters of the Deacons were organized in other Mississippi areas.

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and enslaved or emancipates black females to whom the former freed. Mixed raced free people of color in Natchez acquired wealth in several ways. Very often their planter white male fathers gave them inheritances or their half family members set them up in business. Some of the leading free people of color within the Natchez community include such figures as William Johnson, Robert W. Fitzhugh,

1561:, was released when the state district attorney decided evidence was insufficient. Interest in the case was revived after 2000, when FBI files from 1964 were recovered by journalists. The FBI re-opened the investigation. Seale was arrested and charged by the US Attorney. He was tried and convicted in federal court in 2007. He died in federal prison in 2011 at the age of 76. 2836: 1482:, borrowing from a Louisiana group. James Jackson, a Natchez barber, publicly announced the group's formation the day after George Metcalf was seriously injured in a car bombing on August 27, 1965. The Deacons began to accompany NAACP officers and protesters and carried weapons openly under Mississippi law. 1813:(2010). The film highlights organizing of the black community in 1965–1967. A black leader has been car-bombed and a struggle ensues in the black community for control. A group of black men organize a chapter of the Deacons for Defense. The community splits between more conservative and activist elements. 356:

rule. The British Crown bestowed land grants in this territory to officers who had served with distinction in the war. These officers came mostly from the colonies of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. They established plantations and brought their upper class style of living to the area. Before

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disbursements and animal shelters. Natchez was able to keep fuel supplies open for the duration of the disaster, provide essential power to the most affected areas, receive food deliveries, and maintain law and order while assisting visitors from other areas. Many churches, including Parkway Baptist

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terrorist groups were operating in Natchez during the 1960s, including the Mississippi White Caps. The MWC distributed flyers anonymously around the city, threatening "crooks and mongrelizers." The Americans for the Preservation of the White Race was founded in May 1963 by nine residents of Natchez.

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in 1858. During the early 20th century, the college was a site of negotiation, as daughters of the traditional planter class encountered those of the new commercial elite. Other interplay took place between traditional parents and their more modern daughters. The young women joined social clubs and

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The terrain around Natchez on the Mississippi side of the river is hilly. The city sits on a high bluff above the Mississippi River; to reach the riverbank, one must travel down a steep road to the landing called Silver Street, which is in marked contrast to the flat "delta" lowland found across the

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as reporters noted it lacked representation of black Army troops who had served in the war. A 2010 article suggested updating the monument to reflect all the local troops, and retiring the old monument. On November 10, 2011, new plaques were installed that include the names of 592 African-American

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stepped up their visible presence. All the men were already members of the NAACP and well known to each other. They maintained secrecy about the group, evading investigation by the Mississippi Sovereignty Commission and others. This group was important in the community; its members and numbers were

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Natchez also has a very unique history as being a region with a substantial number of free persons of color during the era of slavery. Census records from 1850 and 1860 show that about 85% of the free people of color in the antebellum era were mulattoes; the offspring of white male planter fathers

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which had been established two years earlier in the Natchez territory. Permanent French settlements and plantations were subsequently developed a dangerous distance from the fort and too near important native locales. The French inhabitants of the "Natchez colony" often came into conflict with the

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In August 1967, Metcalf submitted a petition in favor of school integration to the school board. (The Supreme Court had ruled segregated public schools as unconstitutional in 1954.) He asked the board not to publish the names of signatories to the petition, but they released the list. Little more

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residents were the only ones who could afford a formal education for their children. Although many parents did not have much schooling themselves, they were anxious to provide their children with a quality education. Schools opened in the city as early as 1801, but many of the wealthiest families

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The FBI was also trying to keep racial violence under control. Bill Williams, an FBI agent in Natchez for two years during that time, said in a 2005 interview that the "race wars in the area are 'a story never told.' He said that Natchez in 1964 had become the 'focal point for racial, anti-civil

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sent $ 2,200 worth of supplies to Natchez through New Orleans merchant, Robert Cochran. Spanish authorities exercised strict regulations for commerce and the development of the streets, lots, and bluff, but surrendered the fort and possession of the Town of Natchez to United States forces led by

651:, pioneered cotton agriculture in the United States. Until new hybridized breeds of short-staple cotton were created in the early nineteenth century, it was unprofitable to grow cotton in the United States anywhere other than those two areas. Although South Carolina had dominated the cotton 2840: 286:

over land use and resources. This was one of several Natchez settlements; others lay to the northeast. The Natchez tended to become increasingly split into pro-French and pro-English factions; those who were more distant had more relations with English traders, who came to the area from

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In 1797 Major Andrew Ellicott of the United States of America marched to the highest ridge in the young town of Natchez, set up camp, and raised the first American Flag claiming Natchez and all former Spanish lands east of the Mississippi above the 31st parallel for the United States.

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Industrial companies were located in Natchez in the 1960s, bringing jobs that were important to the city. Among them was Armstrong Tire and Rubber company. Such companies tended to repeat the pattern of segregation, keeping African Americans confined to lower-level jobs. The

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Douglas C. Wells; Richard A. Weinstein (2007). "Extra regional contact and cultural interaction at the Coles Creek - Plaquemine transition: Recent data from the Lake Providence Mounds, East Carroll Parish, Louisiana". In Rees, Mark A.; Livingood, Patrick C. (eds.).

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to Natchez in order to assassinate him. The three Klansmen were arrested and charged by the state with the murder. In each case, despite overwhelming evidence and, in Jones' case, a confession, either the charges were dismissed or the defendants were acquitted by

1493:: Metcalf as president and Jackson as treasurer. On February 27, 1967, Jackson was killed when a car bomb went off in his truck as he drove home from work. He had recently received a raise and promotion to a position previously "reserved" for whites. A 572:

in 1822. In 1830 the population of Natchez was 2,789. Samuel Cotton, the Natchez harbor master reported collection from 383 steamships, 10 keelboats, and 868 flatboats for the year 1829. Like other river towns, Natchez, was a destination for gamblers.

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dated August 5, 1773 from Philadelphia to likely subscribers indicated a purpose was to map the Mississippi River from Natchez to the mouth. During the 1760s and 1770s, the merchants of Natchez handled the Indian trade for other merchants such as

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Throughout the course of the early nineteenth century, Natchez was the center of economic activity for the young state. Its strategic location on the high bluffs on the eastern bank of the Mississippi River enabled it to develop into a bustling

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Murders of four other African-American men in this area in 1964 are attributed to Klan members. Other Klan murders of activists followed in succeeding years, despite or in resistance to Congressional passage of civil rights legislation.

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Romans Bernard. Philadelphia August 5 1773. Proposals for Printing by Subscription Three Very Elegant and Large Maps of the Navigation to and in the New Ceded Countries. ... by Bernard Romans. Printed by William and Thomas Bradford

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and freedom. After the Civil War, most domestic servants continued to be black women. Often, the women were supporting children; although they were poorly paid, their domestic work produced important income for family maintenance.

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residents. Although children from a variety of economic backgrounds could obtain an education, class differences persisted among students, particularly in terms of school choice and social ties. Although it was considered illegal,

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rights activity for the state for the next several years'." In May 1966 a Klan rally was held at Liberty Ball Park featuring speakers such as Imperial Wizard, Robert M. Shelton, as well as leaders from out of state groups.

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Official records. State of Mississippi. (1795-1999). "Natchez Municipal Records: Harbor Master". Natchez (Miss.)., Series 2051: Original Municipal Records. Mississippi Department of Archives and History. Microfilm reel

1294:. They often preferred black workers to white servants. White men and women who worked as domestics generally held positions such as gardener or governess, while black servants worked as cooks, maids, and laundresses. 1209:, in which freedmen felt they had some independence. In many families, women left field labor to care for their own people. During hard times, they might work for their family and later had to take up domestic service. 1341:

literary societies, which helped to maintain relations among cousins and family friends. The coursework included classes in proper behavior and letter writing, as well as skills that might enable those suffering from

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since 1890 by a new state constitution and unable to vote. By 1966 the Voting Rights Act had been passed, but courts used other means to exclude them from juries; while many blacks were still registering to vote.

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Despite the violence, Forrest A. Johnson, Sr., a well-respected white attorney in Natchez, began to speak out and write against the Klan. From 1964 through 1965, he published an alternative newspaper called the

1066:'s defeat. It quickly became a definitive ideology, strengthened by celebratory activities, speeches, clubs, and statues. The major organizations dedicated to creating and maintaining the tradition were the 1735:

mansion. The William Johnson House in the city was added a few years later. The tours given by the N.P.S. tend to present a more complex view of the past by including African-American history. In 2021,

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Located on the Mississippi River, the town long had an active nightlife, featuring jazz and blues created and played by Black American musicians. On April 23, 1940, 209 people died in a fire at the

2974: 3617: 544:, settling their decade-long boundary dispute. All Spanish claims to Natchez were formally surrendered to the United States. More than two years passed before official orders reached the Spanish 522:, including their boats (as lumber). They made the long trek back north to their homes overland on the Natchez Trace. The boatmen were locally called "Kaintucks" because they were usually from 1619:

Church, were used as emergency shelters. In the months after the hurricane, a majority of the available homes were purchased or rented, with some tenants making Natchez their permanent home.

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and active in this area from about 700 AD. Archaeological evidence shows they began construction of the three main earthwork mounds by 1200. Additional work was done in the mid-15th century.

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market in Mississippi. This also stimulated the city's wealth. The market, at the intersection of Liberty Street and what was then Washington Street, became especially important after the

413:, but a Natchez loyalist militia forced him to surrender Fort Panmure in May 1781. A few days later Pensacola was lost by the British and the Natchez revolt collapsed. After defeat in the 1692:

Prominent families in Natchez have used the Natchez Pilgrimage, an annual tour of the antebellum mansions, to portray a nostalgic vision of its antebellum slaveholding society. Since the

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of the Deep South. Development of cotton plantations expanded rapidly, increasing demand for slaves in the South. They were sold in the domestic slave trade chiefly from the Upper South.

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administration. On March 10, 1803 the territorial assembly incorporated the town. After it served for several years as the territorial capital, the territory built a new capital, named

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whose bodies were recovered from the Mississippi river while the murders of three civil rights workers from Philadelphia was being investigated by Federal, State and local officials.

3604: 3612: 429:, they were more interested in advancing their power at the expense of Britain. Once the war was over, they were not inclined to give up that which they had acquired by force. 832:

or out-of-state institutions, some sending their children as far as England and Scotland. The city founded the Natchez Institute to offer free education to the rest of the

675:; it lowered processing costs for short-staple cotton, making this profitable for cultivation. It was the kind of cotton that could be grown on uplands and throughout the 1696:, however, this version has been increasingly challenged by blacks who have sought to add the black experience in Natchez to its public history. According to the author 990:

In 1860, there were planters in the Natchez region that were not all of these were enthusiastic Confederates. The exceptions tended to be fairly recent arrivals to the

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both worked for the Armstrong Tire and Rubber Plant, where they tried to open more positions to African Americans. They were both active in the Natchez chapter of the

1369: 769:. Today the city boasts that it has more antebellum homes than any other city in the U.S., as during the Civil War Natchez was spared the destruction of many other 1528:

The Cottonmouth Moccasin Gang was founded by Claude Fuller and Natchez Klansmen Ernest Avants and James Lloyd Jones. In June 1966, they murdered Natchez resident

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Such river commerce sustained the city's economic growth until just after the turn of the twentieth century, when steamboat traffic began to be replaced by the

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inherited wealth as a descendant of Archie P. Williams and continues to operate various oil and gas, real estate and timber land business ownership interest in

1793:-era monument to the local men and women from Natchez and Adams County who served in World War I. The 1924 monument was the subject of several stories in the 2965:"Klan Rally set for Natchez". (4 May 1966) (Jackson) Clarion Ledger. Subject file. Ku Klux Klan 1950-1967. Mississippi Department of Archives and History. 1583:

of the Investigation Discovery channel aired three TV episodes of cold case murders related to the civil rights era. The first episode was devoted to the

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Natchez made a rapid economic comeback in the postwar years, with the resumption of much of the commercial shipping traffic on the Mississippi River. The

196:(pronounced "Nochi"), descendants of the Plaquemine culture, occupied the site. They used it as their major ceremonial center, after leaving the area of 3221: 2236:

She Appeared to be Mistress of Her Own Actions, Free from the Control of Anyone: Property Holding Free Women of Color in Natchez, Mississippi, 1779-1865

319: 223:, made contact with the Natchez at this site, called the Grand Village of the Natchez. Their accounts provided descriptions of the society and village. 1572:

of Natchez. As a result, they could establish federal jurisdiction to investigate and prosecute this case. In 1999, the case was reopened. Authorities

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Map of Natchez, Mississippi, United States in May 1862; the "road to Hamburg" may have been a route between the slave markets at Forks of the Road and

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Ernest Avants in 2000 for the murder. He was convicted in 2003 and sentenced to life in prison; he died the following year at the age of seventy-two.

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because of the alleged burning of several churches in that area as well as several bombings and the whipping of several Negroes; also, because of the

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after the fall of New Orleans in May 1862. Two civilians, an elderly man and an eight-year-old girl named Rosalie Beekman, were killed when a Union

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for their land. Despite land cessions, the settlers continued to encroach on Choctaw territory, leading to conflict. With the election of President

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for the duration of the war. He returned in 1865 but never recouped his fortune. He had to declare bankruptcy, and in 1870 he gave up and moved to

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Way's Packet Dictionary, 1848–1994: Passenger Steamboats of the Mississippi River System Since the Advent of Photography in Mid-Continent America

2329: 2219: 1786: 230:, who lived near the Natchez for several years, learning their language and befriending leaders. He witnessed the 1725 funeral of the war chief, 2511: 3561: 3003: 1939:

Boston, Mass. : Gregg Press. Series: British accounts of the American Revolution. The American Revolutionary series. pp. 125-126, p. 212.

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overland route, a Native American trail that followed a path established by migrating animals, most likely buffalo, which ran from Natchez to

1266:. The city's economy declined over the course of the 20th century, as did that of many Mississippi River towns bypassed by railroad traffic. 57: 694:, gaining Congressional passage of an act authorizing that in 1830. Starting with the Choctaw, the government began removal of Southeastern 3094: 1591:. This was part of a collaboration with the FBI, which had started an initiative in 2007 to investigate and prosecute civil rights cases. 3744: 1235:, which traveled the lower river between 1823 and 1918. Many were built for and commanded by the famous Captain Thomas P. Leathers, whom 73: 3498: 2457: 2430: 968:. Elder was eventually allowed to return to Natchez and resume his clerical duties there. He served until 1880, when he was elevated to 476:

Another Natchez antebellum home available for tours is Stanton Hall, built c. 1858 and located on a whole city block at 401 High Street.

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Umoja, Akinyele Omowale. "'We Will Shoot Back': The Natchez Model and Paramilitary Organization in the Mississippi Freedom Movement",

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plant in the city, as well as members of the Natchez police and the Adams County Sheriff's departments. HUAC found that at least four

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The city's prominent place in Mississippi River commerce during the nineteenth century was reflected by the naming of nine steamboats

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added to the exports through the city's wharf. In return, Natchez saw an influx of manufactured goods from northern markets such as

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women were particularly important—especially in establishing cemeteries and memorials, such as the Civil War monument dedicated on

973: 549: 2899: 1074:. In Natchez and other cities, although the local newspapers and war veterans played a role in the maintenance of the Lost Cause, 987:

men were absent at war, many elite women had to exercise their class-based femininity and sexual appeal to deal with the Yankees.

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in French.) The Natchez maintained a hierarchical society, divided into nobles and commoners, with people affiliated according to

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in the Mississippi River. The tornado killed 317 people in all, making it the second-deadliest tornado in United States history.

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published the names of Natchez residents who were current or former members of the Klan, including more than 70 employees at the

391: 2347: 1513: 2374: 1740:, which at one time was the second largest slave-trading site in the United States was added to the National Historical Park. 1416:, the largest Klan organization in 1965, had his office in Natchez at 114 Main Street. In August 1964, McDaniel established a 537:

By royal order the Roman Catholic church purchased 300 arpents square near the fort from Richard Carpenter on April 11, 1788.

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investigation; three civil rights workers had disappeared and that summer were found murdered and buried in an earthen dam.

3655: 923: 628: 358: 111: 2234: 1615: 1298: 1067: 362: 2605: 1614:, Natchez served as a refuge for coastal Mississippi and Louisiana residents, providing shelters, hotel rooms, rentals, 3554: 2672: 2634:

William K. Scarborough, "Not Quite Southern: The Precarious Allegiance of the Natchez Nabobs in the Sectional Crisis,"

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Barnett, Jr., James F. (2007). The Natchez Indians: a history to 1735. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. p.80.

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purchased the land in 1823. Tens of thousands of slaves passed through the market, transported from Virginia and the

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State of Mississippi. Delbert Hosemann, Secretary of State. (2017). A Bicentennial History of Mississippi. Flipbook.

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region. The descendants of Robert Wood own the Mackel Funeral Home. Anton R. Williams of Kalamazoo and Grand Rapids,

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veteran, he was married with five children. His murder was never solved, and no one has been charged in the crime.

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military occupation of the city. Shields' memoir portrays the upheaval of Southern society during the war. Because

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Hoelscher, Steven (September 2003). "Making Place, Making Race: Performances of Whiteness in the Jim Crow South".

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The Black experience in Natchez, 1720-1880: A special history study, Natchez National Historical Park, Mississippi

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Whitaker, Arthur P. “Reed and Forde: Merchant Adventurers of Philadelphia: Their Trade with Spanish New Orleans.”

2047:. Series: Heritage of Mississippi series: v. 8. Jackson, Miss. : University Press of Mississippi. pp. 85-87. 2009:

Layton, Brandon. “Indian Country to Slave Country: The Transformation of Natchez during the American Revolution.”

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The historic district has been used by Hollywood as the backdrop for feature films set in the antebellum period.

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During the war period Natchez was nicknamed "Tradyville" by both sides as it was known for its contraband trade.

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were taken from their families and moved southward. All trading at the market ceased by the summer of 1863, when

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lacked a strong emotional attachment to the South; but when war came, many of their sons and nephews joined the

737:, Natchez had more millionaires than any other city in the United States. It was frequented by notables such as 3067: 1902: 1732: 1661: 1128: 961: 676: 227: 200:. They added to the mounds, including a residence for their chief, the "Great Sun", on Mound B, and a combined 3242: 1952:. Series: Heritage of Mississippi series: v. 8. Jackson, Miss. : University Press of Mississippi. p. 78. 3719: 3638: 3547: 3213: 2687:

Ruminski, Jarrett. “‘Tradyville’: The Contraband Trade and the Problem of Loyalty in Civil War Mississippi.”

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from the mounds and village. A picnic pavilion and walking trails are also available on the grounds. Nearby

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of the UKA in Natchez, operating under the cover name of the Adams County Civic and Betterment Association.

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shelled the town from the River. The man died of a heart attack and Rosalie was killed by a shell fragment.

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visited Natchez in 1769 while he was Lieutenant Governor of West Florida; he received a grant near Natchez.

3373: 3258: 2953: 1291: 964:. U.S. officials arrested Elder, jailed him briefly, and banished him across the river to Confederate-held 841: 781: 398:, merchants and settlers to grant local courts at Natchez, encourage commerce and make land grant reforms. 250: 23: 2031: 1317: 682:

The growth of the cotton industry attracted many new white settlers to Mississippi, who competed with the

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Cita Cook, "The Modernized Elitism of Young Southern Ladies at Early Twentieth-Century Stanton College,"

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to crest at 61.9 feet (18.9 m) on May 19, the highest recorded height of the river since the 1930s.

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In 1871, Natchez opened its first co-educational public school (K-12) for African American students, the

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children were often taught the alphabet and reading the Bible by their white playmates in private homes.

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Great Britain. Historical Manuscripts Commission. Dartmouth, William Legge, Earl of, 1731-1801. (1972).

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As Klan violence rose in the 1960s, African Americans organized an armed paramilitary group called the

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Morales, John Ventura. “Spanish Documents Relating to the Founding of the Church at Natchez, Miss.”

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was well-represented among their numbers. The Trace was traveled heavily until the development of

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edited by Elizabeth Dunbar Murray. Louisville, Kentucky: John P. Morton and Company, Inc. p. 44.

3523: 3155: 3124: 3041: 2903: 2557: 2412:"Archie P. Williams - Natchez bi-racial Board Supervisor (Govt Executive) and Planter in 1880s" 1905:, State Coordinator, Mississippi American Local History Network, 2000–2001, accessed 3 May 2009 1533: 1456: 1090: 991: 869: 770: 418: 406: 258: 32: 2558:"Mackel's Funeral Home ( Robert Wood), Natchez Museum of African American Culture and History" 2123:

Population of the 100 Largest Cities and Other Urban Places in the United States: 1790 to 1990

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and rules, but also replicated their parents' social values. Stanton Hall was designated as a

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Joyce L.. Broussard, "Occupied Natchez, Elite Women, and the Feminization of the Civil War,"

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To the Vast and Beautiful Land: Anglo Migration into Spanish Louisiana and Texas, 1760s–1820s

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defense fleet on the Mississippi River. (This appointment never was concluded.) In 1885, the

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Stepping Lively in Place: The Not-Married, Free Women of Civil War-Era Natchez, Mississippi.

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Broussard, Joyce L. "Occupied Natchez, Elite Women, and the Feminization of the Civil War,"

3033: 2866: 1839: 1255:, on 28 December 1886. Since 1975, an excursion steamboat at New Orleans has borne the name 452: 352:, in 1763 Fort Rosalie and the surrounding town, renamed for the defeated tribe, came under 3571: 1744: 1023: 865: 857: 648: 569: 541: 495: 410: 132: 1325:

For a short time, the women's school Stanton College in Natchez educated daughters of the

1173: 627:. The banker lived in a house to the rear of the structure. The building is listed on the 8: 3643: 3527: 3356:

Good and Faithful Labor: from Slavery to Sharecropping in the Natchez District 1860-1890,

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Jack E Davis, "A Struggle for Public History: Black and White Claims to Natchez's Past,"

2975:"Cold Case: After 50 years, DOJ says it’s uncertain who killed Frank Morris; closes case" 2205:

Julia Huston Nguyen, "The Value of Learning: Education and Class in Antebellum Natchez,"

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was opened, after renovating a historic hall for changed use. Part of the old hall had a

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in which he weekly took on the Klan. Klansmen and their supporters conducted an economic

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occupied Natchez in 1863; Grant set up his temporary headquarters in the Natchez mansion

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Great Temple on Mound C and the Sun Chiefs cabin, drawn by Alexandre de Batz in the 1730s

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The Mississippi Steamboat Era in Historic Photographs: Natchez to New Orleans, 1870–1920

2330:"A Contested Presence: Free Black People in Antebellum Mississippi, 1820–1860 - 2000-05" 2220:"A Contested Presence: Free Black People in Antebellum Mississippi, 1820–1860 - 2000-05" 1501:

than a week later, Metcalf was seriously injured in a car bombing. It was never solved.

1439:, a tax-supported organization that sponsored surveillance of residents, wrote that the 895: 612: 3492: 3420:

Nguyen, Julia Huston. "Useful and Ornamental: Female Education in Antebellum Natchez,"

3181: 3173: 2907: 2741: 2717:

Julia Huston Nguyen, "Laying the Foundations: Domestic Service in Natchez, 1862–1877,"

1405: 1274: 965: 785: 766: 734: 715: 464:

The Parsonage was constructed by Peter Little in honor of his wife, Eliza, a dedicated

182: 170: 94: 1914: 3337: 3185: 3045: 3034: 2872: 2861:

Luigi Monge. "Death by Fire: African American Music on the Natchez Rhythm Club Fire".

2816: 2805: 2668: 2490: 2463: 2436: 2380: 2353: 2309: 2267: 2240: 2048: 1992:

Wroth, Lawrence C. “Some American Contributions to the Art of Navigation 1519-1802.”

1953: 1886: 1840: 1623: 1611: 1565: 1529: 1167: 820: 527: 472: 426: 3295:

Builders of a New South: Merchants, Capital, and the Remaking of Natchez, 1865-1914.

1805:

account of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement in Natchez was depicted by the filmmaker

3464: 3165: 2192:

Jim Barnett and H. Clark Burkett, "The Forks of the Road Slave Market at Natchez,"

1766:

was filmed in Natchez, as well a number of individual weekly shows of the TV drama

1754: 1697: 1554: 1357: 1290:

employers often continued the paternalism that had characterized relations between

942: 805: 754: 699: 660: 656: 636: 606: 437: 231: 212: 2512:"Louisiana Reports: Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of Louisiana" 2028:

Journals of the Board of Trade and Plantations: Volume 14, January 1776 - May 1782

1802: 1798:

soldiers and 107 white soldiers, none of whom had been listed on the old plaques.

1568:, murdered in June 1966, had been killed on federal land near Pretty Creek in the 1380: 929:

During the Civil War, Natchez remained largely undamaged. The city surrendered to

733:

but chose to locate their homes on the higher ground in Mississippi. Prior to the

3681: 3429:

St. Mary's of Natchez: The History of a Southern Catholic Congregation, 1716–1988

3380: 3090: 3083: 3056: 2812: 2731: 2704:

Melody Kubassek, "Ask Us Not to Forget: The Lost Cause in Natchez, Mississippi,"

2609: 2571: 2176: 1923: 1521: 1278: 1252: 1236: 946: 907: 809: 758: 702:. Nearly 15,000 Choctaw left their traditional homeland over the next two years. 395: 374: 333:

peoples, ultimately being absorbed into their people. Descendants of the Natchez

326: 243: 2459:

Death of an Overseer: Reopening a Murder Investigation from the Plantation South

2432:

Death of an Overseer: Reopening a Murder Investigation from the Plantation South

417:, Great Britain ceded the territory to the United States under the terms of the 3539: 1538: 1393: 930: 853: 849: 762: 750: 746: 691: 687: 644: 401:

The Spanish commander, Juan de la Villebreuvre, on September 7, 1779 conquered

378: 338: 315: 283: 239: 193: 178: 152: 140: 3399:

Inglis, G. Douglas. "Searching for Free People of Color in Colonial Natchez,"

3169: 534:

in the 1820s allowed northward navigation (against the current) on the River.

373:

which would be the residence of a Lieutenant Governor reporting to Pensacola.

177:

The original site of Natchez was developed as a major village with ceremonial

3733: 3468: 2602: 2526:"Founders Online: To Alexander Hamilton from William Playfair, 30 March 1791" 1816:

A Museum of African American History and Culture has been opened in Natchez.

1206: 1086: 1027: 960:, refused to obey a Federal order to compel his parishioners to pray for the 952:

Some Natchez residents remained defiant of the Federal authorities. In 1864,

620: 490: 262: 205: 197: 169:

excavations, the area has been continuously inhabited by various cultures of

2163: 2030:. Ed. K H Ledward. London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1938. 224-230. 1409: 1401: 1333: 1326: 1287: 1082: 1078: 1055: 1007: 838: 833: 797: 624: 441: 278: 274: 136: 3302:

City under Siege: Resistance and Power in Natchez, Mississippi, 1719–1857,

3575: 1771: 1719:

Natchez Museum of African American History and Culture at 301 Main Street

1202: 668: 640: 602: 519: 499: 299: 265:

is also a National Historic Landmark of the Natchez and their ancestors.

174: 166: 3475: 3463:, Cincinnati: Printed by Kendall & Barnard, 1844, pp. 422–429, 2948:

Note: Hopkins was referring to the murders of the 19-year-old black men

1058:

Natchez residents became much more pro-Confederate 'after' the war. The

3439: 3368:

Dolensky, Suzanne T. "Natchez in 1920: On the Threshold of Modernity."

3313:

An American Planter: Stephen Duncan of Antebellum Natchez and New York,

3177: 2933:

Donna Ladd, "Evolution of A Man: Lifting The Hood In South Mississippi"

2692: 2086: 2069: 2014: 1997: 1664: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1573: 1494: 1463:

By that time, more than 100 FBI agents were in the area as part of the

1346: 1221: 1217: 1131: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 969: 938: 903: 899: 801: 742: 738: 672: 664: 598: 561: 421:. Spain was not a party to the treaty, and it was their forces who had 2994:. University Press of Mississippi 2010. pp. 177 f. ISBN 9781604734515. 2510:

Supreme Court, Louisiana; Thorpe, Thomas H.; Gill, Charles G. (1848).

1778:

were filmed in Natchez and neighboring Washington. Also, John Wayne's

3274: 2400:

http://www.ancestraltrackers.net/ms/adams/memento-old-new-natchez.pdf

1806: 1709:

United States District Court for the Southern District of Mississippi

1604: 1198: 995: 730: 594: 593:

to be transported downriver to New Orleans or, sometimes, upriver to

586: 531: 510:. Produce and goods were transported on the Mississippi River by the 507: 465: 402: 295: 3453:

The Reshaping of Plantation Society: The Natchez District, 1860–1880

1836: 1639: 1541:. Blacks had been excluded from juries for decades as they had been 1159: 1106: 800:(many by walking overland), and destined for the plantations in the 3107:

Felicia R. Lee, "TV Series Tries to Revive Civil Rights Cold Cases"

3004:

Donna Ladd, "Daddy, Get Up: This Son of Natchez Wants Justice, Too"

1790: 1364:

songs pay tribute to this tragedy and mention the city of Natchez.

1263: 1212:

In addition to cotton, the development of local industries such as

1037:

in July 1863, many refugees, including former slaves, freed by the

934: 861: 793: 722: 705: 545: 523: 515: 511: 484:

Federal-style house at State and Wall streets, Natchez MS. C. 1820.

334: 330: 325:

Many of the Natchez who escaped enslavement sought refuge with the

3461:

Kimball & James' Business Directory for the Mississippi Valley

2239:. Michigan State University, Depts. of History and Urban Affairs. 2151: 1937:

The manuscripts of the Earl of Dartmouth. Vol. 2, American papers.

1435:

In his October 1964 report, A.E. Hopkins, an investigator for the

2373:

Bristol, Douglas Walter; Douglas w. Bristol, Jr (November 2009).

1429: 1417: 1342: 1337: 1267: 1213: 998:, and some who held social and economic ties to the North. These 683: 503: 307: 303: 3349:

Race Against Time: Culture and Separation in Natchez Since 1930,

2177:"Natchez: in 1850 half of the millionaires in the US lived here" 1926:; by Barnett, Jim; Mississippi History Now; accessed August 2015 1014:

and led a brigade, but was criticized for failing to defend the

488:

In the late 18th century, Natchez was the starting point of the

3394:

Charles Dahlgren of Natchez: The Civil War and Dynastic Decline

2649:

Charles Dahlgren of Natchez: The Civil War and Dynastic Decline

1758:

Rascals and Robbers: The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Huck Finn

1251:. This ship operated for a year before being lost to a fire at 1019: 980: 979:

Ellen Shields's memoir reveals a Southern woman's reactions to

829: 582: 201: 3491: 2736:. Mississippi State Dept of Education. 1890. pp. 330–334. 1490: 1361: 1329: 1075: 1010:, he had made his fortune before the war. He did support the 1006:

anyway. Charles Dahlgren was among the recent migrants; from

824: 341:, a treaty tribe and confederate of the federally recognized 3020:

Adams County Key People: George Metcalf and Wharlest Jackson

1051:

Confederate graves in a portion of the Natchez City Cemetery

659:, it was the Natchez District which first experimented with 456:"The Parsonage" historic house was built in 1852 in Natchez. 578: 294:

After several smaller wars, the Natchez (together with the

3533: 2868:

Nobody Knows Where the Blues Come from: Lyrics and History

2376:

Knights of the Razor: Black Barbers in Slavery and Freedom

1432:

against his law practice, nearly ruining him financially.

1370:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

1193:

Bowie's Tavern at 84 Homochitto Street in downtown Natchez

1089:

to lay a claim to the watershed event in the reshaping of

884: 619:

in downtown Natchez, established in 1836, is built in the

556:

A week later, Natchez became the first capital of the new

369:, contemplated siting a civil government below Natchez at 226:

The most thorough account was written by French colonists

3097:, Northeastern University, 2011, accessed 16 October 2011 2372: 1603:

struck Natchez, killing 269 people, most of whom were on

1549: 1177:

Natchez Convention Center is across from the Grand Hotel.

3214:"How a Slave Market Became a National Park Service Site" 2302:

Sewell, George A.; Dwight, Margaret L. (November 1984).

2146:

Peterson, Virgil W. “Gambling. Should It Be Legalized?”

1205:

agricultural slave labor came to be largely replaced by

3417:

U. Press of Mississippi, 2004. 163 pp. focus on Natchez

3363:

Local People: The Civil Rights Movement in Mississippi.

2509: 2776:"Natchez Burning: Anniversary of The Rhythm Club Fire" 2150:(1931-1951), vol. 40, no. 3, 1949, pp. 261 ff. JSTOR, 1700:, "Blacks are not a part of the Natchez Pilgrimage." 581:. At Natchez, many local plantation owners had their 540:

On October 27, 1795, the U.S. and Spanish signed the

2166:

at Friends of Our Riverfront, retrieved 24 May 2017.

1345:

poverty to make a living. The girls often balked at

868:

and the surrounding region from his headquarters of

146: 2341: 2339: 1994:

Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society

1062:myth arose as a means for coming to terms with the 655:culture in the eighteenth century and early in the 3502:. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 265. 3448:. 2nd ed. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1994. 3336:. New York: Computer Search & Research, 2001. 2804: 2083:The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 1372:(NAACP) encouraged them to end such restrictions. 698:in 1831 to lands west of the Mississippi River in 440:taken in 1784 counted 1,619 people, including 498 3486:. Vol. 17 (9th ed.). 1884. p. 242. 3148:Annals of the Association of American Geographers 3068:Kevin Cooper, "White was an unlikely Klan target" 2660: 1760:was also filmed here. The television mini-series 879: 792:Isaac Franklin of Tennessee and John Armfield of 3731: 3569: 2349:Black Litigants in the Antebellum American South 2336: 2263:Black Litigants in the Antebellum American South 1862:"Louisiana Prehistory: Plaquemine Mississippian" 3438:Vol. 32, No. 3 (Jan., 2002), pp. 271–294. 2864: 1396:was admitted as the first black student to the 268: 2798: 2796: 2794: 2792: 3555: 2871:. Univ. Press of Mississippi. pp. 76ff. 1903:Ginny Walker English, "Natchez Massacre 1729" 1096: 518:, who usually sold their wares at Natchez or 394:received several petitions from West Florida 192:By the late 17th and early 18th century, the 112: 3415:Slavery and Frontier Mississippi, 1720–1835, 3113:, 15 February 2011, accessed 16 October 2011 3095:Civil Rights and Restorative Justice Project 2589:. London: Sampson Low, Marston, and Company. 2483:Cummins, Light Townsend (19 February 2019). 2301: 2043:Christian Pinnen and Charles Weeks. (2021). 1948:Christian Pinnen and Charles Weeks. (2021). 1753:was partially filmed here in 1993. The 1982 784:in Natchez, and Natchez had the most active 3139: 3074:, 5 December 1999, accessed 16 October 2011 3010:, 26 October 2005, accessed 16 October 2011 2981:, 5 February 2014, accessed 11 January 2015 2802: 2789: 2584: 2085:, vol. 61, no. 3, 1937, pp. 237–62. JSTOR, 2066:The American Catholic Historical Researches 2045:Colonial Mississippi : a borrowed land 1950:Colonial Mississippi : a borrowed land 1532:, reportedly as part of a plot to draw Dr. 1281:in Natchez changed somewhat in response to 609:, and European spinning and textile mills. 345:, with a sovereign traditional government. 3562: 3548: 3036:The Ku Klux Klan in Mississippi: a History 2950:Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Henry Moore 2455: 2428: 2232: 2114: 1559:Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Henry Moore 1504:In response to these attacks, the Natchez 1270:has helped to compensate for the decline. 425:. Although Spain had been allied with the 318:, as ordered by the French prime minister 119: 105: 3524:Materials related to Natchez, Mississippi 3159: 3145: 2939:26 October 2005, accessed 15 October 2011 1680:Learn how and when to remove this message 1147:Learn how and when to remove this message 718:. Its early planter elite built numerous 447: 211:Many early European explorers, including 3297:(University Press of Mississippi, 2013). 2625:Summer 2008, Vol. 70 Issue 2, pp 179–208 1846:. University of Alabama Press. pp. 1714: 1702: 1437:Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission 1379: 1316: 1308: 1188: 1180: 1172: 1158: 1046: 917: 894: 883: 704: 611: 479: 471: 459: 451: 409:and Natchez's Fort Panmure to establish 249:The 128-acre (0.52 km) site of the 156: 3315:Louisiana State U. Press, 2006. 232 pp. 3211: 3205: 2928: 2926: 2924: 2892: 2860: 2773: 2572:"Anton Robert Williams Holding Company" 2482: 2209:Sept 1999, Vol. 61 Issue 3, pp 237–263, 2148:Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 1854: 1832: 1830: 1828: 1384:Natchez City Hall on South Pearl Street 808:, more than one million enslaved Black 553:Captain Isaac Guion on March 30, 1798. 3732: 3122: 3031: 2837:"National Fire Protection Association" 2764:Sept 2000, Vol. 62 Issue 3, pp 199–223 2667:. Eastern National. pp. 145–160. 2638:Winter 2004, Vol. 36 Issue 4, pp 20–29 2196:Sept 2001, Vol. 63 Issue 3, pp 168–187 1774:. Parts of the television mini-series 1550:Prosecution of civil rights cold cases 1514:House Un-American Activities Committee 1408:and the movement. E. L. McDaniel, the 819:Prior to 1845 and the founding of the 388:McGillivrary & Struthers of Mobile 3543: 3514:Items related to Natchez, Mississippi 3389:. New York: Dover Publications, 1987. 2997: 2854: 2721:March 2001, Vol. 63 Issue 1, pp 34–60 2346:Welch, Kimberly M. (2 January 2018). 2345: 2260:Welch, Kimberly M. (2 January 2018). 2259: 2026:"Journal, February 1779: Volume 86." 1588: 1313:Aerial view of Downtown Natchez, 1932 1085:1890. The Lost Cause enabled (white) 601:. The cotton was sold and shipped to 181:, built by people of the prehistoric 3410:(1968), the standard scholarly study 3308:2006 67(3): 1061-A. DA3209667, 393p. 3306:Dissertation Abstracts International 3275:"Ed Pincus’s Black Natchez (1967)," 3013: 2921: 2603:"A Brief History of Rosalie Mansion" 2456:Wayne, Michael; Wayne, Mike (2001). 2429:Wayne, Michael; Wayne, Mike (2001). 2087:http://www.jstor.org/stable/20087053 1998:http://www.jstor.org/stable/25080376 1996:, vol. 68, 1944, pp. 72–112. JSTOR, 1825: 1662:adding citations to reliable sources 1633: 1629: 1610:In August 2005, in the aftermath of 1594: 1564:The FBI discovered that 67-year-old 1129:adding citations to reliable sources 1100: 629:National Register of Historic Places 337:have reorganized and survive as the 3212:Mendoza, Brishette (July 3, 2021). 3202:Jan 2000, Vol. 22 Issue 1, pp 45–63 2691:, vol. 2, no. 4, 2012, pp. 511–37. 2068:, vol. 4, no. 2, 1887, pp. 149–51. 2013:, vol. 82, no. 1, 2016, pp. 27–58. 1616:Federal Emergency Management Agency 1375: 1068:United Daughters of the Confederacy 1033:Following the Union victory at the 363:Secretary of State for the Colonies 13: 3745:Histories of cities in Mississippi 3672:Commercial Bank and Banker's House 3287: 3243:"Names to be added to war plaques" 3022:, Mississippi Civil Rights Project 2708:, 1992, Vol. 3 Issue 3, pp 155–170 2489:. Texas A&M University Press. 1782:was filmed in and around Natchez. 390:and others. On February 16, 1779, 14: 3756: 3518:Digital Public Library of America 3507: 3304:PhD. U. of Southern Mississippi, 3281:, Hamilton University Film Series 3224:from the original on July 3, 2021 3123:Crouch, Andy (12 December 2005). 3040:. McFarland and Company. p. 2286: 1973:. p. 21. Retrieved 5 August 2022. 423:taken Natchez from British troops 147:Pre-European settlement (to 1716) 3715: 3714: 3656:Copiah–Lincoln Community College 2774:Michael, Rugel (23 April 2011). 2305:Mississippi Black History Makers 1729:Natchez National Historical Park 1638: 1105: 88: 39: 3740:History of Natchez, Mississippi 3530:, Prints & Photos Division) 3320:Journal of Mississippi History, 3267: 3252: 3236: 3192: 3116: 3100: 3077: 3061: 3025: 2984: 2968: 2959: 2942: 2865:Robert Springer (1 June 2007). 2829: 2767: 2762:Journal of Mississippi History, 2754: 2724: 2719:Journal of Mississippi History, 2711: 2698: 2681: 2654: 2641: 2628: 2623:Journal of Mississippi History, 2615: 2596: 2578: 2564: 2550: 2532: 2518: 2503: 2476: 2449: 2422: 2404: 2393: 2366: 2322: 2295: 2280: 2253: 2226: 2212: 2207:Journal of Mississippi History, 2199: 2194:Journal of Mississippi History, 2186: 2169: 2157: 2152:https://doi.org/10.2307/1138545 2140: 2130: 2105: 2092: 2075: 2058: 2037: 2020: 2011:The Journal of Southern History 2003: 1986: 1649:needs additional citations for 1480:Deacons for Defense and Justice 1441:Federal Bureau of Investigation 1185:Grand Hotel in downtown Natchez 1116:needs additional citations for 310:and shipped as laborers on the 3422:Journal of Mississippi History 3370:Journal of Mississippi History 2308:. Univ. Press of Mississippi. 2233:Ribianszky, Nicole S. (2003). 2098:Joseph Dunbar Shields. (1930) 1976: 1963: 1942: 1929: 1908: 1896: 1879: 962:President of the United States 931:Flag-Officer David G. Farragut 880:American Civil War (1861–1865) 714:river surrounding the city of 228:Antoine-Simon Le Page du Pratz 1: 3639:Natchez-Adams School District 3385:Gandy, Thomas H. and Evelyn. 2546:. 24 October 1888. p. 4. 2418:. 24 October 1888. p. 4. 2289:"Black Experience in Natchez" 2181:The Christian Science Monitor 1819: 1304: 956:, the Catholic bishop of the 828:continued to rely on private 392:British authorities in London 3703:Natchez–Adams County Airport 3365:(U of Illinois Press, 1994). 2954:Franklin County, Mississippi 2689:Journal of the Civil War Era 2592:(available at gutenberg.org) 1400:, Natchez was the center of 405:, and later the garrison at 269:Colonial history (1716–1783) 251:Grand Village of the Natchez 7: 3536:, Friends of Our Riverfront 3329:(U of Georgia Press, 2016). 3057:(available on Google books) 2462:. Oxford University Press. 2435:. Oxford University Press. 2100:Natchez: its early history. 2034:Retrieved 23 November 2022. 1750:The Adventures of Huck Finn 1723:By the winter of 1988, the 1622:Flooding in 2011 drove the 1388:In the early 1960s, as the 1072:United Confederate Veterans 273:In 1716 the French founded 10: 3761: 2803:Hendrickson, Paul (2003). 2661:Ronald L. F Davis (1999). 2126:, U.S. Census Bureau, 1998 1971:Secretary of State website 1585:murder of Wharlest Jackson 1570:Homochitto National Forest 1392:gained some successes and 1353:in the late 20th century. 1351:National Historic Landmark 1321:A view of downtown Natchez 1097:Postwar period (1865–1900) 780:had the highest volume of 548:there. In early 1797, the 415:American Revolutionary War 255:National Historic Landmark 208:for the elite on Mound C. 185:, part of the influential 150: 3711: 3695: 3664: 3631: 3582: 3436:Journal of Black Studies, 3170:10.1111/1467-8306.9303008 2587:The Navy in the Civil War 1711:at 101 South Pearl Street 1398:University of Mississippi 1273:After the war and during 1039:Emancipation Proclamation 816:troops occupied Natchez. 135:, was founded in 1716 as 3396:Brassey's, 2002. 293 pp. 3358:(Greenwood Press, 1982). 3300:Boler, Jaime Elizabeth. 3032:Newton, Michael (2010). 2154:. Retrieved 5 Feb. 2024. 2089:. Accessed 11 Oct. 2022. 2000:. Accessed 15 Dec. 2022. 1787:United States Courthouse 1738:Forks of the Road Market 1587:Sr., killed in 1967, as 778:Forks of the Road Market 725:and estates. Many owned 690:in 1828, he pressed for 589:at the landing known as 3651:Alcorn State University 3499:Encyclopædia Britannica 3483:Encyclopædia Britannica 3406:James, Dorris Clayton. 3334:The Mississippi Almanac 2695:Retrieved 12 June 2023. 2072:Retrieved 26 Oct. 2022. 2017:Retrieved 14 Jul. 2022. 1414:United Klans of America 1292:slaveholders and slaves 1239:had wanted to head the 924:Hamburg, South Carolina 343:Muscogee (Creek) Nation 3677:Natchez–Vidalia Bridge 3125:"It's Not About Power" 2992:Weapons of Mississippi 2906:. 2007. Archived from 2904:Anti-Defamation League 2900:"Emergence of the UKA" 2746:: CS1 maint: others ( 2164:Natchez Under-the-Hill 2111:Sheilds, (1930). p.44. 2032:British History Online 1842:Plaquemine Archaeology 1720: 1712: 1534:Martin Luther King Jr. 1461: 1385: 1322: 1314: 1201:was still cotton, but 1194: 1186: 1178: 1170: 1164:Natchez–Vidalia Bridge 1052: 926: 915: 892: 870:Grand Rapids, Michigan 710: 671:'s development of the 632: 591:Natchez Under-the-Hill 526:, although the entire 485: 477: 469: 457: 448:Antebellum (1783–1860) 419:Treaty of Paris (1783) 173:since the 8th century 162: 139:, and renamed for the 95:Mississippi portal 33:History of Mississippi 3526:, various dates (via 3516:, various dates (via 1725:National Park Service 1718: 1706: 1694:Civil Rights Movement 1453:murder of two Negroes 1449: 1390:civil rights movement 1383: 1336:, built as a private 1320: 1312: 1192: 1184: 1176: 1162: 1050: 921: 910:in Natchez after the 898: 887: 708: 615: 558:Mississippi Territory 542:Treaty of San Lorenzo 498:through what are now 483: 475: 463: 455: 411:Spanish colonial rule 312:Caribbean plantations 187:Mississippian culture 160: 3372:73#2 (2011): 95-137 3354:Davis, Ronald L. F. 3325:Broussard, Joyce L. 3322:2008 70(2): 179–207. 3311:Brazy, Martha Jane. 3127:. Christianity Today 2585:A. T. Mahan (1898). 2560:. 15 September 2021. 2287:Davis, Ronald L. F. 1658:improve this article 1487:Wharlest Jackson Sr. 1332:. It was located in 1125:improve this article 866:Natchez, Mississippi 858:Natchez, Mississippi 709:Natchez in the 1850s 133:Natchez, Mississippi 3644:Natchez High School 3528:Library of Congress 3427:Nolan, Charles E. 3424:2005 67(4): 291–309 3408:Ante-Bellum Natchez 3293:Anderson, Aaron D. 3084:"Ben Chester White" 2937:Jackson Free Press, 2807:Sons of Mississippi 2544:The Weekly Democrat 2416:The Weekly Democrat 2352:. UNC Press Books. 2266:. UNC Press Books. 1916:The Natchez Indians 1707:Courthouse for the 1599:On May 7, 1840, an 1581:The Injustice Files 1518:International Paper 1506:Deacons for Defense 1485:George Metcalf and 1035:Battle of Vicksburg 954:William Henry Elder 912:Battle of Vicksburg 891:, Bishop of Natchez 889:William Henry Elder 874:Kalamazoo, Michigan 852:and Louis Winston. 550:Treasury Department 367:First Lord of Trade 3403:2006 43(2): 97–112 3401:Southern Quarterly 3379:2018-12-21 at the 3351:(LSU Press, 2001). 3264:, 11 November 2011 3218:The New York Times 3089:2011-10-23 at the 3008:Jackson Free Press 2979:Concordia Sentinel 2612:, official website 2608:2007-06-30 at the 1922:2017-08-13 at the 1780:The Horse Soldiers 1721: 1713: 1579:In February 2011, 1426:Miss-Lou Observer, 1404:activity opposing 1386: 1323: 1315: 1195: 1187: 1179: 1171: 1053: 1022:came, he moved to 994:, men who opposed 958:Diocese of Natchez 927: 916: 893: 767:John James Audubon 716:Vidalia, Louisiana 711: 633: 486: 478: 470: 458: 427:American colonists 253:is preserved as a 183:Plaquemine culture 171:indigenous peoples 163: 3727: 3726: 3687:St. Mary Basilica 3469:2027/chi.20799213 3451:Wayne, Michael. 3392:Gower, Herschel. 3249:, 4 November 2010 3200:Public Historian, 3051:978-0-7864-4653-7 2990:Dougherty Kevin. 2878:978-1-934110-29-4 2822:978-0-375-40461-0 2469:978-0-19-514003-3 2442:978-0-19-514003-3 2183:, MARCH 22, 1983. 1891:978-1-57806-988-0 1795:Natchez Democrat, 1690: 1689: 1682: 1630:Images and memory 1624:Mississippi River 1612:Hurricane Katrina 1595:Natural disasters 1566:Ben Chester White 1530:Ben Chester White 1522:white supremacist 1358:Rhythm Night Club 1279:domestic servants 1168:Mississippi River 1157: 1156: 1149: 821:Natchez Institute 639:, along with the 560:, created by the 528:Ohio River Valley 365:and the previous 277:, to protect the 129: 128: 3752: 3718: 3717: 3564: 3557: 3550: 3541: 3540: 3503: 3495: 3487: 3479: 3471: 3444:Way, Frederick. 3413:Libby, David J. 3282: 3271: 3265: 3262:Natchez Democrat 3256: 3250: 3247:Natchez Democrat 3240: 3234: 3233: 3231: 3229: 3209: 3203: 3196: 3190: 3189: 3163: 3143: 3137: 3136: 3134: 3132: 3120: 3114: 3104: 3098: 3081: 3075: 3072:Natchez Democrat 3065: 3059: 3055: 3039: 3029: 3023: 3017: 3011: 3001: 2995: 2988: 2982: 2972: 2966: 2963: 2957: 2946: 2940: 2930: 2919: 2918: 2916: 2915: 2896: 2890: 2889: 2887: 2885: 2862: 2858: 2852: 2851: 2849: 2848: 2839:. 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Wood 850:William McCary 763:Winfield Scott 751:Zachary Taylor 747:Andrew Jackson 692:Indian removal 688:Andrew Jackson 645:South Carolina 449: 446: 359:Lord Dartmouth 348:Following the 339:Natchez Nation 316:Saint-Domingue 284:Natchez people 270: 267: 167:archaeological 153:Natchez people 151:Main article: 148: 145: 141:Natchez people 127: 126: 124: 123: 116: 109: 101: 98: 97: 84: 83: 82: 81: 65: 63:U.S. Civil War 60: 55: 45: 44: 36: 35: 29: 28: 21: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3757: 3746: 3743: 3741: 3738: 3737: 3735: 3722: 3721: 3710: 3704: 3701: 3700: 3698: 3694: 3688: 3685: 3683: 3680: 3678: 3675: 3673: 3670: 3669: 3667: 3663: 3657: 3654: 3652: 3649: 3645: 3642: 3641: 3640: 3637: 3636: 3634: 3630: 3624: 3621: 3619: 3616: 3614: 3611: 3608: 3606: 3603: 3601: 3598: 3596: 3593: 3591: 3588: 3587: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3565: 3560: 3558: 3553: 3551: 3546: 3545: 3542: 3535: 3532: 3529: 3525: 3522: 3519: 3515: 3512: 3511: 3501: 3500: 3494: 3489: 3485: 3484: 3478: 3473: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3457: 3454: 3450: 3447: 3443: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3430: 3426: 3423: 3419: 3416: 3412: 3409: 3405: 3402: 3398: 3395: 3391: 3388: 3384: 3382: 3378: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3364: 3360: 3357: 3353: 3350: 3346: 3343: 3342:0-9643545-2-7 3339: 3335: 3331: 3328: 3324: 3321: 3317: 3314: 3310: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3296: 3292: 3291: 3280: 3278: 3270: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3248: 3244: 3239: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3208: 3201: 3195: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3162: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3142: 3126: 3119: 3112: 3108: 3103: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3085: 3080: 3073: 3069: 3064: 3058: 3053: 3047: 3043: 3038: 3037: 3028: 3021: 3016: 3009: 3005: 3000: 2993: 2987: 2980: 2976: 2971: 2962: 2955: 2951: 2945: 2938: 2934: 2929: 2927: 2925: 2910:on 2007-11-10 2909: 2905: 2901: 2895: 2880: 2874: 2870: 2869: 2857: 2843:on 2007-09-28 2842: 2838: 2832: 2824: 2818: 2814: 2809: 2808: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2793: 2777: 2770: 2763: 2757: 2749: 2743: 2735: 2734: 2727: 2720: 2714: 2707: 2701: 2694: 2693:JSTOR website 2690: 2684: 2676: 2670: 2666: 2665: 2657: 2650: 2644: 2637: 2631: 2624: 2618: 2611: 2607: 2604: 2599: 2593: 2588: 2581: 2573: 2567: 2559: 2553: 2545: 2541: 2535: 2527: 2521: 2513: 2506: 2498: 2496:9781623497415 2492: 2488: 2487: 2479: 2471: 2465: 2461: 2460: 2452: 2444: 2438: 2434: 2433: 2425: 2417: 2413: 2407: 2401: 2396: 2388: 2386:9780801892837 2382: 2379:. JHU Press. 2378: 2377: 2369: 2361: 2359:9781469636450 2355: 2351: 2350: 2342: 2340: 2331: 2325: 2317: 2315:9781604733907 2311: 2307: 2306: 2298: 2290: 2283: 2275: 2273:9781469636450 2269: 2265: 2264: 2256: 2248: 2246:9780496208883 2242: 2238: 2237: 2229: 2221: 2215: 2208: 2202: 2195: 2189: 2182: 2178: 2175:Peter Tonge, 2172: 2165: 2160: 2153: 2149: 2143: 2133: 2125: 2124: 2117: 2108: 2101: 2095: 2088: 2084: 2078: 2071: 2067: 2061: 2054: 2053:9781496832702 2050: 2046: 2040: 2033: 2029: 2023: 2016: 2015:JSTOR website 2012: 2006: 1999: 1995: 1989: 1979: 1972: 1966: 1959: 1958:9781496832702 1955: 1951: 1945: 1938: 1932: 1925: 1921: 1918: 1917: 1911: 1904: 1899: 1892: 1888: 1882: 1868:on 2013-05-18 1867: 1863: 1857: 1849: 1844: 1843: 1833: 1831: 1829: 1824: 1817: 1814: 1812: 1811:Black Natchez 1808: 1804: 1803:cinema verité 1799: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1783: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1764: 1759: 1756: 1752: 1751: 1746: 1741: 1739: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1717: 1710: 1705: 1701: 1699: 1695: 1684: 1681: 1673: 1663: 1659: 1653: 1652: 1647:This section 1645: 1641: 1636: 1635: 1627: 1625: 1620: 1617: 1613: 1608: 1606: 1602: 1592: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1577: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1562: 1560: 1556: 1547: 1544: 1540: 1535: 1531: 1526: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1512:In 1966, the 1510: 1507: 1502: 1498: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1483: 1481: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1466: 1460: 1458: 1454: 1448: 1446: 1443:(FBI) was in 1442: 1438: 1433: 1431: 1427: 1421: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1382: 1373: 1371: 1365: 1363: 1359: 1354: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1328: 1319: 1311: 1302: 1300: 1295: 1293: 1289: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1271: 1269: 1265: 1260: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1229: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1210: 1208: 1207:sharecropping 1204: 1200: 1191: 1183: 1175: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1151: 1148: 1140: 1130: 1126: 1120: 1119: 1114:This section 1112: 1108: 1103: 1102: 1094: 1092: 1088: 1087:noncombatants 1084: 1080: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1049: 1045: 1042: 1040: 1036: 1031: 1029: 1028:New York City 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 988: 986: 982: 977: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 950: 948: 944: 941:troops under 940: 936: 932: 925: 920: 913: 909: 905: 902:forces under 901: 897: 890: 886: 877: 875: 871: 867: 863: 859: 855: 851: 845: 843: 840: 835: 831: 826: 823:, the city's 822: 817: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 791: 790:slave traders 787: 786:slave trading 783: 779: 774: 772: 768: 764: 760: 756: 752: 748: 744: 740: 736: 732: 728: 724: 721: 717: 707: 703: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 680: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 661:hybridization 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 630: 626: 622: 621:Greek Revival 618: 614: 610: 608: 604: 600: 596: 592: 588: 584: 580: 574: 571: 567: 563: 559: 554: 551: 547: 543: 538: 535: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 492: 491:Natchez Trace 482: 474: 467: 462: 454: 445: 443: 439: 434: 430: 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 408: 404: 399: 397: 393: 389: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 355: 351: 346: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 323: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 292: 291:to the east. 290: 285: 280: 276: 266: 264: 263:Emerald Mound 260: 256: 252: 247: 245: 242:descent. The 241: 237: 236:Serpent Piqué 233: 229: 224: 222: 218: 214: 209: 207: 206:charnel house 203: 199: 198:Emerald Mound 195: 190: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 168: 165:According to 159: 154: 144: 142: 138: 134: 122: 117: 115: 110: 108: 103: 102: 100: 99: 96: 86: 85: 80: 79: 75: 71: 66: 64: 61: 59: 58:Pre-statehood 56: 54: 53: 49: 48: 47: 46: 42: 38: 37: 34: 31: 30: 25: 20: 19: 16: 3713: 3589: 3497: 3481: 3460: 3452: 3445: 3435: 3431:(2 vol 1992) 3428: 3421: 3414: 3407: 3400: 3393: 3386: 3369: 3362: 3355: 3348: 3333: 3326: 3319: 3312: 3305: 3301: 3294: 3276: 3269: 3261: 3254: 3246: 3238: 3226:. Retrieved 3217: 3207: 3199: 3194: 3151: 3147: 3141: 3129:. Retrieved 3118: 3110: 3102: 3079: 3071: 3063: 3035: 3027: 3015: 3007: 2999: 2991: 2986: 2978: 2970: 2961: 2944: 2936: 2912:. Retrieved 2908:the original 2894: 2882:. Retrieved 2867: 2856: 2845:. Retrieved 2841:the original 2831: 2811:. New York: 2806: 2779:. 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When the 1012:Confederacy 804:. 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History of Natchez, Mississippi

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