History of the Jews in Iran

4375: 5307: 3837:"they are obliged to live in a separate part of town … for they are considered as unclean creatures. … Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt. … For the same reason, they are prohibited to go out when it rains; for it is said the rain would wash dirt off them, which would sully the feet of the Mussulmans. … If a Jew is recognized as such in the streets, he is subjected to the greatest insults. The passers-by spit in his face, and sometimes beat him … unmercifully. … If a Jew enters a shop for anything, he is forbidden to inspect the goods. … Should his hand incautiously touch the goods, he must take them at any price the seller chooses to ask for them. ... Sometimes the Persians intrude into the dwellings of the Jews and take possession of whatever please them. Should the owner make the least opposition in defense of his property, he incurs the danger of atoning for it with his life. ... If ... a Jew shows himself in the street during the three days of the Katel ( 4252: 2528: 4135:, a Russian Jewish organization aimed at advancement of education in Jewish children started their first branch in Damavand street in Tehran. A woman's division later opened that year. First courses in masonry and carpentry were initiated that year for Kurdish and Iraqi Jewish refugees in Tehran. A year later branches were opened in Isfahan and Shiraz and curriculum were widened to dressmaking, joinery, marquetry and cabinet making. By 1954 ORT students grew to about 700 students. By 1969 student numbers had increased to over 2000. ORT continued its operation in Iran even after the Islamic revolution until it was shutdown and nationalized by the government in 1980. 4230: 2787: 4538:, describes in his memoirs that Shah became suspicious of the Jewish community in his final years, because most of the international criticism about lack of freedom in Iran and military style of government came from Jewish authors. Shah, according to Cohen, displayed a remarkable intolerance and annoyance by the Jewish community in his last annual visit in March 1978 with the community leaders. Cohen describes that Shah believed that there is an international Jewish conspiracy against him to end his reign as the king. 24: 5277:. Most Iranian Jews say that they view Iran as their home and are allowed to practice Judaism freely, but there is suspicion and fear too. Despite their Pro-Iranian stance and their refusal to travel to Israel, the Jews of Iran are denounced for betraying Iran by showing loyalty to Israel. However, Iranian Jews are allowed to visit Israel, even though Iranian passport holders are legally barred from doing so, often through Turkey, and return. Even the current chief rabbi of the Islamic Republic, 4225:

Pahlavi tilt towards a more secular domestic policy. The Iranian government informed the Germans that it considered Iranian Jews to be fully assimilated Iranians. Reza Shah declared Iran neutral at the start of World War II. He feared both Soviet and British ambitions in his country and despite the benefits of economic relations with Germany, he considered Germany to be too committed to its program of race-based expansion and ideology. Neither side had Iran’s best interests in mind.

8763: 4562: 4051:, to be victims of renewed persecutions which awaits them with each passing day. We are subject to the scorn of our enemies (Muslims) who view us as defenseless and do with us whatever they like. We live every day, hour and moment of our lives in constant dread of some new tragedy which they might bring upon us. our lives, property, honor, everything that is dear to us is at the mercy of their anger and hostility, a situation which is worse than slavery. 8773: 5371: 2857:) more than forty thousand are said to have availed themselves of the privilege, however this is not supported by modern scholarship. Lester Grabbe argues that the immigration would probably only have amounted to a trickle over decades, with the archaeological record showing no evidence of large scale increases in population at any time during the Persian period. Cyrus also allowed them to practice their religion freely (See 5357: 2755: 3739:"The Jews of Shiraz have a quarter of the city allotted to themselves, for which they pay a considerable tax to the government, and are obliged to make frequent presents. These people are more odious to the Persians than any other faith, and every opportunity is taken to oppress and extort money from them, the very boys on the street are accustomed to beat and insult them, of which treatment they dare not complain" 4470: 3953: 3571: 4167:". These changes moved the balance of power in the Jewish community from elders and Rabbis to the youth. The establishment of Zionist Organization of Persia further accelerated this transfer of power to the young Jews. The Jews of Persia understood that "Zion" is the biblical name of Jerusalem and Zionism demonstrates that end of exile and the beginning of redemption. The Persian Zionist 5088: 3872:'s (Islamic Scholar) house who sought to send him to the government authorities. However people were so angry, that they broke into the house and killed him and burned his body. Sir William Taylour Thomson contacted Iranian authorities about this matter and a levy tax was imposed on all Muslim population of the city. This angered the population even more and all of them gathered to 3457: 4061: 2877:. Any of his people among you may go up to Jerusalem in Judah and build the temple of the Lord, the God of Israel, the God who is in Jerusalem, and may their God be with them. And in any locality where survivors may now be living, the people are to provide them with silver and gold, with goods and livestock, and with freewill offerings for the temple of God in Jerusalem.'" — 4128:, as its ambassador to Persia. This was the first time in the history of United States in which a Rabbi was appointed as an Ambassador. Kornfeld actively intervened on the behalf of Persian Jewry on many occasions. In one such event, Reza Shah ordered water to be cut off from the Jewish Ghetto of Tehran and Kornfeld successfully convinced Shah to resolve the matter. 5071:, hormones for milk production, seeds, and fruit; Iran, meanwhile, provides Israel with marble, cashews, and pistachios. Based on the same report in November 2000, the Iranian government asked an Israeli company, which built Tehran's sewage pipes 30 years earlier, to visit the country for renovations. Shortly afterwards, the assistant director-general of 4374: 4513:, 80 of the 4,000 university lecturers, and 600 of the 10,000 physicians nationwide. An important factor in economic improvement of the Jews was close relations between the Shah and the state of Israel. Details of this connection and how the condition of Iranian Jews improved dramatically in a few short years still awaits rigorous exploration. 3616:, which was made a new capital. However, toward the end of his rule, the treatment of Jews became harsher; upon advice from a Jewish convert to Islam and Shi'a clergy, the Shah forced Jews to wear a distinctive badge on clothing and headgear. In 1656, all Jews were expelled from Isfahan, because of the common belief of their impurity, and 4287:). The rumors stated that Hitler had a necklace depicting the picture of Imam Ali and was planning to reveal his true religion after defeating the deceitful British, the godless Russians and the Jews. A popular folk poem at the time said: "Imam is our supporter, Hossein is our master. If Germany doesn't arrive, dirt on our heads." 3381:, Jews were heavily under the pressure of the Sassanid rulers. Several Jewish religious figures were executed and the Jewish community was under pressure. Thus, many Jews welcomed the Arab armies with open arms. One of the Jews of Isfahan, "Abu Naeem", wrote in the "stories of the news of Isfahan" that Jews rushed to the gates of 5002:. Yazdi promised him that no Jew will be executed in Iran because of their Zionist beliefs. Klarsfeld left Iran after a few days of investigation and made a documentary in which he iterated that the Iranian government has executed Elghanian because of his Jewishness. On 18 May 1979, a group of Zionist leaders went to the 5271:

that Israel was cooperating with the Shah and SAVAK, and we would be fools to say we support Israel. So we just keep quiet about it... Maybe it will work out. Anyway, what can we do? This is our home." On September 23, 2021, the wife of the Rabbi of Jews of Iran gave an interview to the Israeli newspaper

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and the financial mastermind of Nazi Germany travelled to Tehran and many important commercial agreements were signed between the two countries. In 1939, Nazi Germany sent over 7500 books with racial tones advocating for greater collaboration between Aryan Persians and Germans. In 1936, Iranians were

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Jews were often only permitted to pursue trades that were undesirable to the general Muslim population. They were expected to "undertake dirty work of every kind." Examples of such professions included dyeing (which contained strong unpleasant odors), scavenger work, cleaning excrement pits, singers,

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destroyed Rashid al-Din's tomb, and his remains were reburied at the Jewish cemetery. Rashid al-Din's case illustrates a pattern that differentiated the treatment of Jewish converts in Persia from their treatment in most other Muslim lands, where converts were welcomed and easily assimilated into the

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argues that there was no decree but that there was a policy that allowed exiles to return to their homelands and rebuild their temples. He also argues that the archaeology suggests that the return was a "trickle", taking place over perhaps decades, resulting in a maximum population of perhaps 30,000.

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was the most prosperous era for the Jews of Iran. In the 1970s, only 10 percent of Iranian Jews were classified as impoverished; 80 percent were middle class and 10 percent wealthy. Although Jews accounted for only a small percentage of Iran's population, in 1979 they comprised two of the 18 members

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with robes of honor and gifts. At nights in the royal assembly, the chief Mulla (Rabbi) of the kingdom would read and interpret for the king, sometimes from the Torah and sometimes from the Psalms, which the king enjoyed greatly. He promised, "I will take Russia, I will rebuild Jerusalem and I will

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Mary Joan Winn Leith believes that the decree in Ezra might be authentic and along with the Cylinder that Cyrus, like earlier rules, was through these decrees trying to gain support from those who might be strategically important, particularly those close to Egypt which he wished to conquer. He also

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country study on Iran states that "Over the centuries the Jews of Iran became physically, culturally, and linguistically indistinguishable from the non-Jewish population. The overwhelming majority of Jews speak Persian as their mother language, and a tiny minority, Kurdish." In 2012, Iran's official

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The desire for survival may prompt Iranian Jews to overstate their anti-Israel positions. Their response to the questions regarding Israel have been outright denial of Israel or staying quiet. An example of the dilemma of Iranian Jews can be observed in this example :"We hear the ayatollah say

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have the right to inherit their parents entire estate, the widow and orphans who did not abandon their faith must hand over their property to the apostate. A Muslim who kills a Jew will not go to a trial, even if there were witnesses to the crime, the Muslim will pay at most a fine for his deed. We

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didn't mix up our community with Israel and Zionism," and "Take it from me, the Jewish community here faces no difficulties." Privately, many Jews complain to foreign reporters of "discrimination, much of it of a social or bureaucratic nature." The Islamic government appoints the officials who run

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executives to Tehran and established major commercial ties with the new government. Rich was the only businessman able to export Iranian oil from 1979 to 1995. He claimed in his biography that he exported Iranian oil to Israel through a secret pipeline between the two countries. He further claimed

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Iranian Jews ruled by Reza Shah and later his son, Muhammad Reza Pahlavi, enjoyed many rights and freedoms that they had not previously experienced, including relative cultural and religious autonomy, increased economic opportunities, and significant political rights. Jews also benefitted from the

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The Jew (Originally Juhud (Persian:جهود), a negative term meaning Jew) who is without honor, Is a nuisance from head to toe, He is a lie from toe to head, May scum cover his father's grave, He is an enemy of the religion of Islam, Don't call him a Jew, he is an infidel, His scarf, his gown and his

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which remained influential in Iran for at least two centuries. Despite the early cooperation between Jews and Qajars, the Jews eventually suffered under their leadership. The Qajars were also Shia Muslims and many Shia anti-Jewish laws were reinstated. Rabbi David Hillel who visited Persia in 1827

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among the Jewish minority was significantly higher than the Muslim masses. In 1945, about 80 percent of the Jewish population were literate, whereas most Muslims could not read and write. In 1968, only 30 percent of Muslims were literate, whereas this figure was more than 80 percent for the Jews.

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successfully convinced US government to donate 15,000 dollars (200,000 in 2015 USD) to Persian Jewry. The JDC of Philadelphia donated another 10,000 dollars in September 1918. Thus the casualty of famine amongst the Persian Jews was minimal in comparison to Persian gentiles. Furthermore, when the

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recorded numerous instances of persecution and debasement of Persian Jews. In many of these cases, envoys from foreign governments such as British, French and Ottoman intervened on behalf of the Jews to avoid more serious repercussions. Three international Jewish organizations (Alliance Israélite

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in the late 19th and early 20th century. Many Jews who decided to stay in Iran moved to Tehran to be close to the Shah and enjoy his protection. In 1868, Jews were the most significant minority in Tehran, numbering 1,578 people. By 1884, this figure had risen to 5,571. By 1932, Tehran's Jewish

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was constructed by German engineers. The railway company was specifically ordered to avoid employing any person of Jewish origin in any of its subdivisions. Hitler personally promised that if he defeats Russia, he will return all of the Persian land taken by Russians during the nineteenth and

2869:, the Lord moved the heart of Cyrus king of Persia to make a proclamation throughout his realm and also to put it in writing: "This is what Cyrus king of Persia says: 'The Lord, the God of heaven, has given me all the kingdoms of the earth and he has appointed me to build a temple for him at 4338:

and advocated for communism. Even though Jews comprised less than 2 percent of Iranian population, almost fifty percent of the members of the Tudeh party were Jewish. Tudeh party was the only party among the Iranian political parties that accepted Jews with open arms. Most writers for party

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Possibly it was recognition of services thus rendered by the Jews of Babylonia, and by the House of David in particular, that induced the Parthian kings to elevate the princes of the Exile, who until then had been little more than mere tax collectors, to the dignity of real princes, called

3423:, riding horses, testifying in courts in cases involving a Muslim, and frequently required to wear clothes that clearly distinguished them from Muslims. Although some of these restrictions were sometimes relaxed, the overall condition of inequality remained in force until the 4198:. Furthermore, even though Reza Shah was sympathetic to the Jews in the beginning, he became distrustful of Jewish movements with the growth of Zionism. Reza Shah sought to unite the different ethnic groups in Iran under the flag of nationalism. His main purpose was to fight 3944:. Muslim dwellers of the city plundered the whole Jewish quarter, the first to start looting were the soldiers sent by the local governor to defend the Jews against the enraged mob. Twelve Jews, who tried to defend their property, were killed, and many others were injured. 4202:, but he distrusted Zionism as well. Shah did not like the growing connection between European Jewry and Persian Jews. He further arrested Shmuel Hayyim and had him executed in 1931 under the charges of conspiracy to murder the Shah and change the form of government from 4457:

airplanes to land in Iran. Fatemi, from time to time, published semi-official documents hinting that Iran no longer recognizes the state of Israel. However, Mossadegh himself continued commercial ties with the state of Israel and allowed the negotiations between the

4414:... Finally, we were free. We could really say we were free... It’s like when the weight is dropped off your shoulders. That you could speak freely without, you know, looking if someone is watching you. That you’re your own master, you’re free. I was 14 years old. 4042:

From 1860, many attempts were made by the Persian Jewish community to secure assistance from European Jews against Muslims. These requests were full of descriptions of poverty and persecution faced by Jews in Persia. The following is one example of such requests:

5306: 3728:, with the weak condition of Jews in Iran. A Dutch traveller to Shiraz at the time of Karim Khan states: "Like most of the cities of the east, the Jews of Shiraz dwell in a separate quarter of their own, and they live, at least outwardly, in great poverty." 5057:

Furthermore, many other commercial ties still exist between Iran and Israel. Israel imports most of its pistachios from Iran, and this matter has angered California pistachio producers and the US government on many occasions. In 2011, Israeli company

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and survivors were forcibly converted. However, European travellers later reported that the Jews of Tabriz and Shiraz continued to practice Judaism in secret despite a fear of further persecutions. In 1860, Jews of Hamedan were accused of mocking the

3533:, a physician, historian and statesman, who adopted Islam in order to advance his career at Öljeitü's court. However, in 1318 he was executed on fake charges of poisoning Öljeitü; for several days, crowds carried his head around his native city of 4162:

was incorporated into the curriculum of Jewish schools and Jewish newspapers were published. Jews were also allowed to hold government jobs. In 1915, two Jewish brothers, Mordechai and Asher ben Avaraham, opened the first Jewish newspaper called

5263:. This was changed as of February 4, 2015. Criticism of this policy was the downfall of the last remaining newspaper of the Iranian Jewish community, which was closed in 1991 after it criticized government control of Jewish schools. Instead of 5066:

reported that Israeli-Iranian trade, conducted covertly and illegally by dozens of Israeli companies, totals tens of millions of dollars a year. Much of this trade is conducted through a third country. Israel supplies Iran with fertilizer,

8728: 7884:"Friday Sermon In Arak, Iran By Gholamali Dorri-Najafabadi: Six Million Jews Were Not Killed In The Holocaust – It Was More Like 50 Or 60 Jews; For 70 Years, The Holocaust Has Been A Pretext To Fight Against Islam And The Hijab" 3691:

The Jews became prominent in trade in Mashhad, and established commercial relationships with the British, who favored dealing with them. After the assassination of Nader in 1747, Jews turned to the British traders and Sunni

59:, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Knowledge. 8738: 4409:

Well, on the camp, there was on that ship there was just two of us. My mother stayed behind with my grandmother and two sisters. They left about two weeks later. We arrived in at that time was Persia, now it’s Iran.

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or tank, that King and mob may be amused by seeing them crawl out half-drowned and covered with mud. The same kindly ceremony is witnessed whenever a provincial governor holds high festival: there are fireworks and

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Jews who migrated to ancient Persia mostly lived in their own communities. The Persian Jewish communities include the ancient (and until the mid-20th century still-extant) communities not only of Iran, but also the

4761: 3073:, fell into the hands of the Parthians who cut off his ears to render him unfit for rulership. The Jews of Babylonia, it seems, intended to create a high-priesthood for the exiled Hyrcanus, independent of the 5024:

Even though the new revolutionary government promoted heated anti-Israeli sentiments among its followers, many commercial ties were still maintained even after the revolution. After the revolution, selling

4968:, sentenced to death, and executed on May 8, one of 17 Iranian Jews executed as spies since the revolution. Elghanian's execution brought upon the condemnation of international Jewish organizations such as 7566: 4901: 4220:

The impact of World War II on Iranian Jews is acknowledged by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. In the entry in the Holocaust Encyclopedia on "Iran During World War II," the following is stated:

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One European traveler in 1880 wrote: "Hatred toward the Jews is not as overdone as in central Persia". In 1860, Rabbi Y. Fischel said about the Jews of Isfahan as beaten "from all sides by the gentiles."

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wrote that "appeals to Marduk in the cylinder and to Yahweh in the biblical decree demonstrate the Persian tendency to co-opt local religious and political traditions in the interest of imperial control."

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O King, let me tell you about the wickedness of Foroughi. That vile Jew will make you suffer greatly—he will write your coronation and dismissal speech, just as he wrote them for your father (Reza Shah).

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to Judaism. These instances and others show not only the tolerance of Parthian kings, as they are also a testament to the extent to which the Parthians saw themselves as heirs to the preceding empire of

4862:, many Iranian Jews joined the revolutionaries in order to lose their Jewish identity and be part of the utopia that the revolution promised. In summer of 1978, 7,000 Jews protested against the Shah in 5337:, Khamenei proclaimed that if Israel attacks Iranian nuclear facilities, Iran would retaliate against Jewish communities in the diaspora. The tombs of Mordechai and Esther were desecrated during the 4323:

1941, Shahrukh promoted the idea of revenge for the massacre of the Purim in biblical times, and suggested his Iranian followers to attack the Jews. Nightly newspapers were distributed in Tehran and

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implemented modernizing reforms, which greatly improved the life of Jews. The influence of the Shi'a clergy was weakened, and the restrictions on Jews and other religious minorities were abolished.

3515:. After Arghun's death in 1291, Sa'd al-Daula was murdered and Persian Jews suffered a period of violent clergy-instigated persecutions from the Muslim populace. The contemporary Christian historian 8733: 2833:) a new Judean uprising took place; the city was razed to the ground, and a further exile ensued. Finally, five years later, Jeremiah records a third exile. After the overthrow of Babylonia by the 6019:

Comprehensive history of the Jews of Iran: the outset of the diaspora, Ḥabīb Lavī, Hooshang Ebrami, pages 145-146, Mazda Publishers in association with the Cultural Foundation of Habib Levy, 1999.

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However, Reza Shah leaned in sympathy towards Germany, since, unlike Great Britain or the Soviet Union, Germany did not have a past record of interfering in, or occupying Iranian territory as an

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conquerors, and as a compensation for being excused from military service and payment of poor tax incumbent on Muslims. Dhimmis were also required to submit to a number of social and legal

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before doing regular prayers. Thus, Persian rulers, and to an even larger extent, the populace, sought to limit physical contact between Muslims and Jews. Jews were not allowed to attend

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Often, Iranian central government wished to help the Jews, but did not have enough influence in places where local rulers and Shia clergy were powerful. In one incident of this type in

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and met with Ayatollah Khomeini. Khomeini stressed that he differentiates between Zionism and Judaism and does not believe in common belief that all Jews are Zionists. The next day,

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power. Regardless, this made the Jewish community fearful of possible persecutions, especially due to anti-Jewish public sentiment at the time. There were many rumors in Iran that

4093: 2711:, when Assyria again invaded it, and the rest of the population was deported. From this time, no trace exists of the Kingdom of Israel and its population are commonly referred as 5720: 3546: 8457: 8452: 4949:

and pledged their support for the revolution. In late 1978, leaders of the Jewish community met with Ayatollah Khomeini in Paris and declared their support for the revolution.

4934:, Tehran's only Jewish hospital, was instrumental in helping the wounded revolutionaries. At the time, most of the public hospitals would report the wounded revolutionaries to 2929:, came to power over the Persian Empire and ordered the completion of the Temple. This was undertaken with the stimulus of the earnest counsels and admonitions of the prophets 8748: 6515: 3361:, were not exposed to such general persecutions as broke out against the more isolated Christians. In the 5th century, the Jews suffered from persecution during the reigns of 2913:

called the authenticity of the decree "dubious", citing Grabbe and adding that J. Briend argued against "the authenticity of Ezra 1.1–4 is J. Briend, in a paper given at the

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reported that a mob of Muslims had attacked the Jewish population of Tehran, and injured six Jews, but were prevented from killing anyone by the intervention of the police.

4267:. The text below the photograph: His Imperial Majesty – Reza Shah Pahlavi – Shahanshah of Iran – With the Best Wishes – Berlin 12 March 1936 – The signature of Adolf Hitler 4004:

In other times, the attacks on the Jews were related to their association with the foreigners. An event of this sort occurred in 1836, when Elyas – a Jewish banker for the

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believes that this story demonstrates that the Jews were the majority of the population of Isfahan at the time, since this act was likely to enrage the local Zoroastrians.

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Leaders of the Jewish community such as Yosef Hamadani Cohen and Yedidia Shofet were instrumental in managing the collaborations between the Jews and the revolutionaries.

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in 1948 and continued until 1953, due to the weakening of the central government and strengthening of the clergy in the course of political struggles between the Shah and

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twentieth centuries. Many gentile anti-Semites were preparing for Johoudkoshan (Massacre of the Jews) and were warning Jews in the streets to leave Iran while they can.

4398:'. Polish schools, cultural and educational organizations, shops, bakeries, businesses, and press were established to make the Poles feel more at home. The Iranian city 1119: 5127:

At the time of the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, there were approximately 140,000–150,000 Jews living in Iran, the historical center of Persian Jewry.

4251: 3037:. Among other Asiatic princes, the Roman rescript in favor of the Jews reached Prince Arsaces as well (I Macc. xv. 22); it is not, however, specified which Arsaces ( 3794:

improved his relationship towards the Jewish community and relaxed certain restrictions. However this relaxation was not perceived positively by the masses and the

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Jews trace their heritage in Iran to the Babylonian captivity of the 6th century BCE and have retained their ethnic, linguistic, and religious identity. However, a

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to open the gates for the Arabs. He further wrote that many took musical instruments to make a feast. These Jews believed that the time of the Messiah is coming.

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or Persian headdress, to have shops in the bazaar, to build the walls of their houses as high as a Moslem neighbour's, or to ride in the street. In Teheran and

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is active in arguing on behalf of a benevolence view of the Iranian Islamic government and society toward Jews. He tells visitors and reporters the Ayatollah "

1697: 5526: 1352: 1047: 4912:, started writing in support of the revolution. Its writers were not limited to Persian Jews but also included prominent non-Jewish revolutionaries such as 4516:

Even though Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was very positive towards religious minorities, and especially Jews, in the beginnings of his reign as king, he displayed

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The following street song which was common in Tehran in the 19th century demonstrates the negative view of average Persian Muslim towards the Persian Jews:

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collected from the Jews, they were allowed to revert to Judaism in 1661. However, they were still required to wear a distinctive patch upon their clothing.

4168: 5576: 3197:. Thus, then, the numerous Jewish subjects were provided with a central authority which ensured an undisturbed development of their own internal affairs. 2520::14). This event in Jewish history took place in the late 6th century BCE, by which time there was a well-established and influential Jewish community in 1239: 4766: 8347: 3971:"In Isfahan, where they are said to be 3,700 and where they occupy a relatively better status than elsewhere in Persia, they are not permitted to wear 2447: 7238:

Berke, Richard L. (February 23, 2001). "The Clinton pardons: the Democrats; This time, Clintons find their support buckling from weight of new woes".

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During the Islamic Revolution, many of the Iranian Jews, especially wealthy Jewish leaders in Tehran and many Jewish villages surrounding Esfahan and

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for fear of attacks from Muslims masses. Jewish sources report that many gentiles tried to invade the Jewish ghetto and were dispersed by the police.

3525:'s conversion to Islam in 1295 heralded for Persian Jews a pronounced turn for the worse, as they were once again relegated to the status of dhimmis. 5329:, claiming that the true figure is around 50 or 60 Jews, and that the Holocaust has been used as a "pretext to fight against Islam, Muslims, and the 5038:

that both countries were aware of this transaction. Rich obtained military weapons for Iran during the Iran-Iraq war. On many occasions, Rich helped

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Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article.

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Between Foreigners and Shi‘is: Nineteenth-Century Iran and its Jewish Minority, Daniel Tsadik, page 119 & 126, Stanford University Press, 2007.

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but Dr. Sapir's hospital was the only hospital to treat without informing the SAVAK agents. Dr. Sapir Hospital's actions were so instrumental that

4866:. Other estimates puts the Jewish participants in the protests as high as 12,000. Almost all the religious leaders of the Jewish community such as 3876:

the Jew, the governor and Shah's agents. Jewish board of deputees sent gratitude to William Taylour Thomson for intervening on behalf of the Jews.

1234: 3801:. An 1875 letter from the Tehran Jewish community indicates although the Shah is a "righteous king and a lover of all the seed of the Jews as the 8807: 8652: 3884:

shirt, His property, his children and his wife, Don't say they are bad, for they belong to you, Take them and screw them, they are lawful to you.

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In the 19th century, there were many instances of forced conversions and massacres, usually inspired by the Shi'a clergy. In 1830, the Jews of

8283: 8057: 7198: 7126: 5476: 4776: 4725: 4531: 3638:. This commerce, which was very profitable, involved trade with India and China. The head of Isfahan Jewry was known to have contacts with the 7106: 5297:, saying "The community declares that it has always obeyed the position of the supreme leader" (referring to the Ayatollah Ali Khamenei). The 3168:

speaks of the large number of Jews residing in that country, a population which was no doubt considerably swelled by new immigrants after the

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Some of the communities were isolated from other Jewish communities, to the extent that their classification as "Persian Jews" is a matter of

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Iran Facing Others: Identity Boundaries in a Historical Perspective, Abbas Amanat, Farzin Vejdani, Palgrave Macmillan, Feb 14, 2012, page 232

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https://www.cgie.org.ir/fa/article/272200/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%8C-%D9%87%D9%86%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%B9%D8%AA%DB%8C

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condemned the execution and asked US government to implement sanctions against Iran. Three days after the execution, a group of Jews led by

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was attacked by Loures, JDC sent a large number of donations. US ambassador Caldwell was also instrumental in helping the Jews of Broujerd.

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At every public festival—even at the royal salaam , before the King's face—the Jews are collected, and a number of them are flung into the

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in 1773, many Jews were killed, their properties were looted, and their women were raped. A document named "The Scroll of Persia" by Rabbi

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did not trust Haji Ebrahim and had him executed. Later, Hajj Ebrahim's daughter married the new prime minister and formed the influential

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Muslim population. In Persia, however, Jewish converts were usually stigmatized on account of their Jewish ancestry for many generations.

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Between Foreigners and Shi‘is: Nineteenth-Century Iran and its Jewish Minority, Daniel Tsadik, page 102, Stanford University Press, 2007.

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Between Foreigners and Shi‘is: Nineteenth-Century Iran and its Jewish Minority, Daniel Tsadik, page 119, Stanford University Press, 2007.

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Between Foreigners and Shi‘is: Nineteenth-Century Iran and its Jewish Minority, Daniel Tsadik, page 112, Stanford University Press, 2007.

5412: 3255:(276–293 CE) contains a list of religions (including Judaism, Christianity, Buddhism etc.) that Sassanid rule claimed to have "smashed". 3169: 721: 684: 6235: 7911: 7368:

Maor, Dafna; Coren, Ora; Melman, Yossi (29 May 2011). "13 ships owned by Israel's Ofer Brothers have docked in Iran over past decade".

6560:

Sephardi and Middle Eastern Jewries: History and Culture in the Modern Era, Harvey E. Goldberg, Indiana University Press, 1996, P. 250.

5007: 4882:, Rabbi Baalnes, and Rabbi Yadegaran participated in the protests. Other non religious leaders of the Persian Jewish community such as 4655: 3676:. Nader even employed many Jews in sensitive positions and he brought Jewish administrators as protectors of his treasures from India. 7855: 5971: 5945: 5894: 4311:

Nazi Germany had nightly broadcasts in Persian and was calling many of the leading Iranian politicians who had anti-German tendencies

4175:

is nothing but a new name and new institution, for the Zionist idea has been present in Jewish thought for over two thousands years."

3864:

in 1875, an argument occurred between a Jewish goldsmith and a customer, eventually a crowd gathered and the goldsmith was accused of

7811: 7627: 3696:

for political support. At the time, Jews formed close ties with the British and provided banking support and intelligence for them.

3679:

Nader also ordered Jewish holy books to be translated into Persian. Upon the completion of the translation, Nadir Shah presented the

1660: 8298: 8487: 7086: 5273: 3277:'s mother was Jewish, and this gave the Jewish community relative freedom of religion and many advantages. He was also friend of a 1683: 8328: 4047:"Allow us to present our supplications to you. You would not want your brethren, your own flesh and blood, to perish in frightful 2917:

on 15 December 1993, who denies that it resembles the form of an official document but reflects rather biblical prophetic idiom."

8677: 4730: 4339:

publications were Jewish. Furthermore, many Iranian Jews viewed communism as a Jewish movement since many leading members of the

4008:– "was attacked for doing its business in the bazaar." Anti-Jewish acts were sometimes linked to resentment of European powers. 3853:

wrote Iranian Jews are "mostly very poor and excepting in Tehran and some major cities, are much prosecuted and oppressed by the

3206: 3164:

that they acted. To a large extent, the revolt of the Babylonian Jews meant that the Romans did not become masters of Babylonia.

1033: 777: 6638: 6466:

The Great Famine & Genocide in Iran: 1917-1919, Mohammad Gholi Majd, University Press of America, Jul 19, 2013, Pp. 118- 119

5778: 5774: 5303:

said these statements may be motivated by the remaining Iranian Jews trying to prevent being targeted themselves by the regime.

8692: 8597: 4660: 3605:

with Muslims or even to go outside in rain or snow, ostensibly because some impurity could be washed from them upon a Muslim.

2904:

in the same place as the first but died before it was completed. The historical nature of this has been challenged. Professor

2895: 2440: 1610: 1545: 1427: 5747: 3783:

wrote of a forced conversion shortly before his trip. Stern who was a Jewish-Christian missionary wrote that all merchants in

3001:; and, as a result, Haman and his ten sons were hanged. The events of the Book of Esther are celebrated on the Jewish holiday 8217: 8153: 8145: 7948:

Iranian Jews: 'Take revenge on Israel for Haniyeh assassination' 31 July 2024 Israel National News access-date=01 August 2024

6961: 6695: 5757: 5730: 5427: 4931: 4576: 3519:

wrote that of the violence committed against the Jews during that period "neither tongue can utter, nor the pen write down".

3292:; Raba's friendship with Shapur II enabled him to secure a relaxation of the oppressive laws enacted against the Jews in the 726: 8702: 8404: 7888: 7690: 6996:

Mehrzad Boroujerdi; Kourosh Rahimkhani. "Iran's Political Elite". United States Institute of Peace. Retrieved 30 July 2013.

4771: 4691: 1169: 5867: 5845:

Hanameel was an Egyptian according to the Mishnah (Parah 3:5), and a Babylonian according to Josephus ("Ant." xv. 2, § 4).

5223:

In the mid- and late 1980s, it was estimated at 20,000–30,000, rising to around 35,000 in the mid-1990s. According to the

4394:. Iranians openly received them, supplying them with provisions. Young survivors who arrived in Iran became known as the ' 3537:, chanting "This is the head of the Jew who abused the name of God; may God's curse be upon him!" About 100 years later, 3396:, inferior subjects of the Islamic empire. Dhimmis were allowed to practice their religion, but were forced to pay taxes ( 3108:. This lack of a rigidly centralized rule over the empire had its drawbacks, such as the rise of a Jewish bandit-state in 8647: 8612: 5437: 5264: 4553: 4528:

in the United States that controls banking, politics and media and is pushing people around for the interests of Israel.

1437: 1254: 1244: 484: 8232:

Conference on Contextualizing Ethnicity: Discussions across Disciplines, Center for the International Study of Ethnicity

8537: 8532: 8427: 7835: 6286: 6179: 6145: 5019: 2527: 1833: 1783: 1748: 1442: 1307: 1174: 70: 7401:

Gindin, Thamar E. (27 June 2012). "'Israeli cherries sold in Iranian markets'". Ynetnews. Retrieved 23 September 2012.

5695:

A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud - A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1

8657: 8632: 8547: 8527: 8477: 8447: 8437: 8252: 8126: 8078: 8016: 7263: 7211: 6839: 5951: 5807: 5722:

A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud: A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1

5003: 4304: 4078: 3957: 2433: 1525: 1487: 1462: 1382: 1367: 1214: 1154: 1109: 83:

Content in this edit is translated from the existing Persian Knowledge article at ]; see its history for attribution.

6736: 5341:. On July 31,2024 the Tehran Central Jewish committee issued a statement condemning the elimination of Hamas leader 4488:

between Arabs and Israel in 1967 created a tense environment for Persian Jewry. During this time, the synagogues in

4069: 3926: 3766:. An instrumental figure in ascension of Aqa Muhammad Khan Qajar to the throne and defeat of Lotf Ali Khan was Hajj 3135:"When you see a Parthian charger chained to a tombstone in the Land of Israel, the hour of the Messiah will be near" 2937:. It was ready for consecration in the spring of 515 BCE, more than twenty years after the Jews' return from exile. 8743: 8622: 8617: 8497: 5530: 4645: 4158:

prohibited mass conversion of Jews and eliminated the Shi'ite concept of ritual uncleanness of non-Muslims. Modern

1818: 1800: 1706: 1600: 1452: 1447: 1372: 1337: 1204: 92: 7677: 5224: 4956:, the honorary leader of the Jewish community, was arrested on charges of "corruption", "contacts with Israel and 4108:

actively intervened on behalf of Persian Jews. During the great famine of Persia in 1917-1919, JDC representative

3326:. Shushandukht secured many benefits for the Jewish community and ordered construction of Jewish neighborhoods in 3251:. This resulted in the suppression of other religions. A priestly Zoroastrian inscription from the time of King 8687: 8637: 8592: 8572: 8562: 8462: 8235: 6547: 5442: 4799: 4383: 4104:

With the growing influence of United States in international affairs, many American Jewish organizations such as

2336: 2235: 1790: 1773: 1726: 1625: 1535: 1472: 1422: 1402: 1397: 1317: 1291: 1266: 1144: 1134: 1124: 1104: 1099: 3960:. Seen here is a Jewish gathering celebrating the second anniversary of the Constitutional Revolution in Tehran. 3392:

After the Islamic conquest of Persia, Jews, along with Christians and Zoroastrians, were assigned the status of

8662: 8577: 8557: 8442: 8432: 8179: 7969: 7491: 5703: 5573: 5560: 5486: 5447: 5181: 5072: 4965: 4715: 4670: 4650: 4629: 4435: 4402:

was briefly called "the City of Polish Children" because of the thousands of Polish orphans who settled there.

4340: 4109: 4089:) were instrumental in securing equal rights for the Iranian Jews and protecting Jews in antisemitic incidents. 3979:

they are also to be found in large numbers and enjoying a fair position. In Shiraz they are very badly off. In

3917:

were forcibly converted in 1866; when they were allowed to revert to Judaism, thanks to an intervention by the

3868:

Islam, a crime worthy of capital punishment in Islamic legal law. People started beating the Jew. He fled to a

2579: 1809: 1795: 1763: 1743: 1711: 1655: 1630: 1605: 1585: 1575: 1560: 1555: 1550: 1530: 1520: 1515: 1492: 1407: 1392: 1312: 1271: 1224: 1219: 1139: 1084: 6610:

Terua, Oral history of Persian Jewry, Homa Sarshar, Center for Iranian Jewish oral history, 1993, pp. 100-105.

4190:

held in Europe. However this Zionist awakening led to bitter rivalry between two leaders of Jewish community:

8707: 8642: 8607: 8542: 8522: 8512: 8472: 6573: 5875: 4391: 4005: 2230: 1768: 1753: 1716: 1678: 1650: 1640: 1635: 1620: 1615: 1595: 1580: 1565: 1540: 1506: 1477: 1377: 1362: 1286: 1276: 1194: 1164: 1089: 1075: 7037:

Terua, Oral history of Persian Jewry, Homa Sarshar, Center for Iranian Jewish oral history, 1993, pp. 90-91.

8667: 8627: 8602: 8582: 8517: 8492: 8482: 8467: 8368: 8359: 8308: 4928:. Furthermore, AJII's charter declared that the organization is at war with racism including antisemitism. 4814: 4809: 4476:, leader of the Jewish community and Zionist movement in Persia, was arrested and executed by the order of 4438:, he had a good relationship with the Jewish community. On his trip to United States, a Jewish journalist, 4233: 4182:. Many Persian Jews were poorer than their European brethren but nevertheless they enthusiastically bought 3787:

are ethnic Jews who, in order to save themselves from death, rebuke the faith of their fathers constantly.

3347: 2810: 1838: 1758: 1721: 1645: 1590: 1457: 1432: 1357: 1332: 1322: 1261: 1184: 1179: 1159: 1149: 1129: 1114: 1007: 711: 475: 470: 8348:

Iranian Jews in U.S. recall their own difficult exodus as they cling to heritage, building new communities

8343:

Christian Science Monitor: "Jews in Iran Describe a Life of Freedom Despite Anti-Israel Actions by Tehran"

7223:

Cowan, Alison Leigh (April 11, 2001). "Plotting a pardon; Rich cashed in a world of chits to win pardon".

6619:

Terua, Oral history of Persian Jewry, Homa Sarshar, Center for Iranian Jewish oral history, 1993, Page 82.

3813:, the Iranian government improved the living conditions of the Jews and reduced their taxes. In 1881, Sir 8587: 8552: 8507: 8191: 8093: 7609: 6832:

The children of Isfahan: Polish refugees in Iran, 1942-1945 : portrait photographs of Abolqasem Jala

5854: 4720: 4510: 3991:

Another European traveler reported a degrading ritual to which Jews were subjected for public amusement:

3612:(1588–1629) was initially benign. Jews prospered throughout Persia and were even encouraged to settle in 3447:) was settled by Jews in such large numbers that the whole area was called Yahudistan (land of the Jews). 3357:

and Jews suffered occasional persecution; but the latter, dwelling in more compact masses in cities like

2636: 2551: 2531:

Jerusalem is rebuilt by Cyrus, Darius, and Artaxerxes. From "Our day in the light of the prophecy", 1921.

2496:. In the book of Ezra, the Persian kings are credited with permitting and enabling the Jews to return to 1828: 1823: 1778: 1731: 1417: 1387: 1347: 1199: 505: 8040: 7392:

Cohen, Dudi (29 May 2011). "Iran in uproar over 'Israeli fruit'". Ynetnews. Retrieved 23 September 2012.

7146: 7022:

The Revolution's Forgotten Sons and Daughters: The Jewish Community in Tehran during the 1979 Revolution

5259:

Jewish schools, most of these being Muslims and requires that those schools must open on Saturdays, the

2643:(also called the Kingdom of Israel), which came into existence in about the 930s BCE after the northern 8118: 8070: 6400: 5026: 4920:. AJII's charter was very close to the ideals of the revolution. It declared that AJII was at war with 4328: 3725: 3617: 3378: 3236: 3124:. There is even an account that indicates the conversion of a small number of Parthian vassal kings of 3026: 2934: 2302: 2147: 1855: 1249: 445: 435: 171: 8026: 5281:, who often shows pro revolutionary and anti-Zionist views, has studied in Yeshivas Ateres Yisrael in 5133:

estimates that in 1948–1953, about one-third of Iranian Jews, most of them poor, emigrated to Israel.

3802: 3529:, Ghazan Khan's successor, pressured some Jews to convert to Islam. The most famous such convert was 3495:. The Ilkhanate considered all religions equal, and Mongol rulers abolished the unequal status of the 8352: 8209: 8088: 7961:

The Huddled Masses: Jewish History in the Former Soviet Union: First-hand interviews with the Émigrés

7526: 7151: 7131: 7111: 7091: 7025: 6910: 5417: 5338: 5134: 5043: 4603: 4334:

In order to fight the growing racial antisemitism among the Iranian population, many Jews joined the

4012: 3173: 2956: 2416: 2109: 1960: 1901: 792: 7383:

Petersburg, Ofer (31 May 2011). "Israel-Iran trade ties thriving". Ynetnews. Retrieved 27 July 2012.

6787: 5664:

A government census published earlier this year indicated there were a mere 8,756 Jews left in Iran.

3085:

which indicates the high esteem in which the Jews of Babylonia were held. In religious matters the

8419: 8397: 7051: 6770:"Tehran Children: Remembering Iranians' Hospitality to Polish Jewish Refugees During the Holocaust" 5452: 5267:

like in Libya, Iraq, Egypt, and Yemen, the Iranians have adopted a policy of keeping Jews in Iran.

4450: 4074: 3550: 3228: 2119: 2099: 1209: 689: 230: 78: 7582: 5046:, the US government found Marc Rich guilty and sentenced him. However, Rich was later pardoned by 3925:

ambassadors, a mob killed 18 Jews of Barforush, burning 2 of them alive. A representative of the

3133:. The Parthians were very protective of the Jewish minority as reflected in the old Jewish saying 7772: 6901: 5950:

A. Richard Diebold Center for Indo-European Language and Culture – Linguistics Research Center –

5799: 5290: 4942:

himself wrote a personal note thanking the hospital for its help after the revolution succeeded.

4264: 4203: 3850: 3814: 3791: 3771: 3708:

had a more complex relationship with the Jewish community. They enjoyed the Shah's protection in

3172:. Accustomed in Jerusalem from early times to look to the East for help, and aware, as the Roman 3022: 2260: 2250: 2215: 2094: 2084: 1867: 1038: 980: 814: 493: 450: 165: 7167: 4263:

Pahlavi in Original Frame with the Swastika and Adolf Hitler's (AH) Sign, Sahebgharanie Palace,

3846: 3668:

leader, Jews experienced a period of relative tolerance when they were allowed to settle in the

8171: 8022: 7656: 6051:

John Louis Esposito, Islam the Straight Path, Oxford University Press, January 15, 1998, p. 34.

5432: 5407: 5235: 5103: 5099: 4973: 4969: 4782: 4735: 4395: 4215: 4179: 3759: 3590: 3530: 2379: 2114: 2028: 1094: 646: 265: 235: 7521: 7507:

Geoffrey Khan, The Jewish Neo-Aramaic Dialect of Sanandaj, Piscataway NJ: Gorgias Press, p. 1.

3913:, several of them were fined and some had their ears and noses cut off as punishment. Jews of 2841:

allowed the Jews to return to their native land (537 BCE). According to the Hebrew Bible (See

2699:. Israel continued to exist within the reduced territory as an independent kingdom subject to 8342: 7959: 7414:

Sohrabi, Narciss M. (2023-02-27). "The politics of in/visibility: The Jews of urban Tehran".

7203: 6877:"Oral Histories from World War II Refugees in Iran - United States Holocaust Memorial Museum" 6663:"Oral Histories from World War II Refugees in Iran - United States Holocaust Memorial Museum" 6239: 5987: 4505: 4358: 4346: 3767: 3416: 3082: 3050: 3042: 2563: 2270: 2265: 2210: 1998: 913: 641: 628: 523: 240: 99: 7342: 7314: 3967:

described the regional differences in the situation of the Persian Jews in the 19th century:

3933:

in 1894: "every time that a priest wishes to emerge from obscurity and win a reputation for

7999: 7916: 7479:

Outcaste: Jewish life in southern Iran, Laurence D. Loeb, 1977, page 133, Gordon and Breach

6923:

Outcaste: Jewish life in southern Iran, Laurence D. Loeb, 1977, page 24, Gordon and Breach.

5969: 5956: 5904: 5294: 4961: 4879: 4319:, who was employed by German radio, performed fiery anti-Jewish broadcasts every night. On 4237: 4121: 4097: 3038: 2826: 2571: 2341: 2293: 2033: 1891: 704: 569: 558: 516: 8313: 7947: 5527:"EGHEGIS, EGHEGIZ, YEGHEGIS, or ELEGIS: - armenia - International Jewish Cemetery Project" 8: 8717: 8390: 8317: 8227: 8030: 5651: 5091: 5059: 4913: 4675: 4665: 4354: 4229: 3775: 3763: 3693: 3598: 3034: 2822: 2668: 2656: 2613: 2501: 2394: 2089: 762: 634: 537: 530: 460: 348: 223: 8325: 5619: 5010:

stated that the Iranian government does not believe that Iranian Zionists are traitors.

4082: 3581:

Further deterioration in the treatment of Persian Jews occurred during the reign of the

3097:

in particular, to which they were expected to travel in order to observe the festivals.

2786: 7462: 7449:

Sohrabi, Narciss M. (2023). "The politics of in/visibility: The Jews of urban Tehran".

7427: 6965: 5457: 5220:

was home to 700 Aramaic-speaking Jewish families. As of 2006, only two sisters remain.

5188: 5141: 5109: 5079:. He expressed an interest in purchasing irrigation pipes, pesticides and fertilizers. 5068: 4946: 4939: 4859: 4743: 4608: 4453:

on Israel's independence day in 1953. He also annulled an agreement permitting Israeli

4431: 4164: 3941: 3809:

masses are accustomed to mistreating the Jews. In 1876, in accordance to pressure from

3685: 3558: 3354: 3270: 2728: 2626: 2469: 2245: 2195: 2142: 2137: 2051: 1921: 1189: 1018: 772: 697: 551: 117: 6279:

The Jews of Iran in the Nineteenth Century: Aspects of History, Community, and Culture

6172:

The Jews of Iran in the Nineteenth Century: Aspects of History, Community, and Culture

6138:

The Jews of Iran in the Nineteenth Century: Aspects of History, Community, and Culture

5198:, left the country. In late 1979, the people who left was estimated at 50,000–90,000. 4994:

newspaper titled that "We do not believe that all Jews are Zionists". One week later,

8772: 8248: 8213: 8175: 8149: 8122: 8074: 8051: 8012: 7965: 7750: 7531: 7498:, The Council of Immigrant Associations in Israel (Pop-up info when clicking on Iran) 7466: 7431: 7207: 6835: 6744: 6691: 6543: 6282: 6175: 6141: 5995: 5821: 5813: 5803: 5753: 5726: 5699: 5556: 5482: 5255: 4960:", "friendship with the enemies of God", "warring with God and his emissaries", and " 4439: 3732: 3504: 3484: 3293: 3212: 3184: 3113: 2865:

In the first year of Cyrus king of Persia, to fulfill the word of the Lord spoken by

2834: 2680: 2493: 2389: 2331: 2311: 2128: 1688: 1327: 787: 658: 588: 465: 378: 245: 74: 7651: 3589:

the state religion. Shi'ism assigns great importance to the issues of ritual purity—

3503:

Khan, even preferred Jews and Christians for administrative positions and appointed

2538:

have lived in the territories of today's Iran for over 2,700 years, since the first

8036: 7984: 7454: 7419: 6980: 5919: 5594: 5326: 5322: 5315: 5251: 4891: 4887: 4701: 4187: 4086: 4036: 3873: 3810: 3655: 3424: 3183:

became with the fall of Jerusalem the very bulwark of Judaism. The collapse of the

3045:). Not long after, the Partho-Babylonian country was invaded by a Jewish army. The 2922: 2910: 2905: 2874: 2814: 2802: 2644: 2509: 2485: 2359: 2240: 2200: 2164: 1862: 1412: 923: 679: 583: 498: 388: 180: 6812: 6769: 4434:. Although Mossadegh viewed the establishment of the state of Israel as a form of 4327:

were often painted on Jewish homes and shops. Thus many Persian Jews welcomed the

4027:

in global affairs turned to them for assistance. In 1840, the Jewish community of

3273:

gained many advantages for the Jewish community. According to rabbinical sources,

3223:), destroyed the rule of the Arsacids, and founded the illustrious dynasty of the 8332: 8163: 8111: 8106: 7936: 7860: 7731: 7570: 7495: 7435: 6948: 6935: 6598: 5975: 5693: 5593:

Afary, Janet; Mostofi, Khosrow; Avery, Peter William; Irani, Rok; Shiri, Rasoul.

5580: 5299: 5286: 5130: 5076: 4995: 4953: 4917: 4863: 4696: 4459: 4424: 4411: 4390:

became a place of refuge for 116,000 Polish refugees, of whom, around 5,000 were

4144: 3713: 3680: 3609: 3460: 3141: 3130: 3101: 3090: 2838: 2790: 2770: 2716: 2712: 2672: 2652: 2640: 2539: 2505: 2321: 2280: 2275: 2255: 2177: 2171: 2104: 2056: 1896: 1877: 1028: 752: 669: 652: 196: 5187:

About 95% have since migrated, with the immigration accelerating after the 1979

8360:

Negaresh Sevom Iranian Jewish Cultural, Social and Analytical Website (Persian)

7522:"Jews in Iran Describe a Life of Freedom Despite Anti-Israel Actions by Tehran" 7240: 7225: 7193: 5879: 5376: 5342: 5260: 5210: 5051: 4981: 4883: 4867: 4581: 4535: 4446: 4428: 4300: 3922: 3830: 3721: 3639: 3621: 3586: 3464: 3358: 3343: 3323: 3248: 3244: 3117: 3105: 3074: 3062: 2962: 2950: 2858: 2477: 2473: 2465: 2421: 2220: 2075: 1955: 1934: 1911: 1906: 1884: 1872: 1467: 948: 882: 847: 825: 757: 600: 578: 440: 419: 395: 161: 143: 8382: 8364: 8278: 8206:

Between Foreigners and Shi'is: Nineteenth-Century Iran and its Jewish Minority

7458: 7423: 6855: 6504: 6455: