844:
157:
35:
19:
458:
439:
420:
667:
648:
610:
591:
470:
451:
432:
679:
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622:
603:
572:
553:
534:
515:
477:
401:
382:
743:
724:
705:
686:
629:
496:
209:
216:
584:
565:
546:
527:
489:
413:
394:
755:
736:
717:
698:
641:
508:
223:
1301:
830:
They have a depth of 10–40 m (33–131 ft) and a width of 0.6–1.6 km (0.37–0.99 mi). In 1955, 1999 and 2011 small to medium-sized jökulhlaup originated from some new ice cauldrons. It is still subject of discussion if they were eruption caused or initiated by heating up of the
195:
river in
September 2015 with a peak of 3,000 m/s (110,000 cu ft/s) or even more. The cauldron then partially collapsed and formed a depression of up to 110 m (360 ft) deep in its center and a maximum width of 2.7 km (1.7 mi)
815:
in the 8th century. Most of the eruptions had their origin in the ice covered caldera. The last large eruption took place in 1918 and was associated with a jökulhlaup with an estimated peak discharge of about 300,000 m/s (11,000,000 cu ft/s).
124:. It can continue to exist after the meltwater has left the eruption site and the eruption is terminated. But in most cases, ice flow will fill up the ice cauldron again and make it disappear as soon as the eruption products have cooled down enough.
117:
the meltwater reservoir becomes so large that the ice cauldron collapses inward towards the edifice, exposing the meltwater reservoir and allowing the breach of both the reservoir and the explosive lava, releasing plumes of gasses and jets of
181:. In the whole, many cauldrons are to be found within Vatnajökull glacier (8,100 km (3,100 sq mi) in 2015), the largest of which in the western part of the ice cap are the Skaftá cauldrons.
953:
761:
191:
An unusually big outburst flood (jökulhlaup) was recorded in 2015. The eastern Skaftá cauldron had accumulated meltwater in this case during around 5 years. It was discharged down the
134:(…) hydrothermal systems are created that bring heat up from a magma body, continuously melting ice into water that may be stored at the glacier bed until it breaks out in jökulhlaups
53:. They can have circular to oblong forms. Their surface areas reach from some meters (as indentations or holes in the ice) to up to 1 or more kilometers (as bowl shaped depressions).
1029:
110:
At this stage, the surface ice begins to act brittle and creates concentric fractures that cave in towards the meltwater reservoir. This is referred to as the ice cauldron
1086:
1192:
Constraining the characteristics of a future volcanogenic Jökulhlaup from Katla, Iceland, through seismic analysis and probabilistic hydraulic modelling, Master’s thesis
188:". The meltwater accumulates in lakes "under the cauldrons until it drains every 2–3 years in a jökulhlaup" of normally up to 2,000 m/s (71,000 cu ft/s).
825:
twenty permanent and 4 semi-permanent ice cauldrons could be identified on the surface of Mýrdalsjökull indicating geothermally active areas in the underlying caldera
100:
is produced. After some time, the eruption has reached a stage where the pressure drops within the ice vault and the eruption style changes to become
980:
Einarsson, Pall; Brandsdottir, Bryndis; Gudmundsson, Magnus Tumi; Bjornsson, Helgi; Gronvold, Karl; Sigmundsson, Freysteinn (2 September 1997).
857:
Ice cauldrons of course do not form only in
Iceland, but also at many other places where there is subglacial volcanic activity, e.g. in Alaska (
1327:
1133:"Tensile strength of glacial ice deduced from observations of the 2015 eastern Skaftá cauldron collapse, Vatnajökull ice cap, Iceland"
1060:
981:
1270:
56:
Their existence is connected to ice-volcano interaction in two possible ways: They can be formed in the course of a
1010:
1030:"The effect of the 2002 glacial flood on dissolved and suspended chemical fluxes in the Skaftá river, Iceland"
873:
As deepening and widening of the ice cauldrons at Katla volcano, and especially in combination with increased
1401:
1391:
804:
1011:
Helgi Björnsson: Subglacial lakes and jökulhlaups in
Iceland. Global and Planetary Change 35 (2002) 255–271
1239:
Monitoring ice-volcano interactions in
Iceland using SAR and other remote sensing techniques. Dissertation
1028:
Galeczka, I.; Eiriksdottir, E.S.; Hardardottir, J.; Oelkers, E.H.; Torssander, P.; Gislason, S.R. (2015).
1406:
215:
1271:"Geothermal activity in the subglacial Katla caldera, Iceland, 1999–2005, studied with radar altimetry"
208:
1214:
909:
121:
1396:
177:
These are two depressions in the ice cover above two subglacial lakes in the south-western part of
819:
Within the caldera 12–17 ice cauldrons are supra- and inglacial manifestations of a near-surface
843:
955:
Investing the
Mineralogy and Morphology of Subglacial Volcanoes on Earth and Mars. Dissertation
1195:(Thesis). School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Portsmouth. pp. 1–121
1237:
812:
961:(Thesis). Department of Earth, Atmospheric, & Planetary Sciences West Lafayette, Indiana
1339:
1285:
1160:
1098:
1044:
904:
165:
8:
899:
847:
57:
1343:
1289:
1102:
1048:
156:
1381:
894:
882:
800:
768:
120:“. The ice cauldron can develop further into an ice canyon, as was the case during the
101:
50:
34:
27:
1386:
1056:
93:
1351:
1269:
Guðmundsson, Magnús T.; Högnadóttir, Þ.; Kristinsson, A.B.; Guðbjörnsson, S (2007).
139:
Many examples for a decades long existence of such ice cauldrons are to be found in
18:
1355:
1347:
1293:
1245:(Thesis). Fakultät für Geowissenschaften der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
1140:
1106:
1087:"Effects of Subglacial Geothermal Activity Observed by Satellite Radar Inferometry"
1052:
796:
785:
772:
754:
735:
716:
697:
678:
659:
640:
621:
602:
583:
564:
545:
526:
488:
469:
450:
431:
412:
393:
61:
23:
827:". Others have also documented the change with time of ice cauldrons at Katla.
1297:
178:
161:
1375:
1268:
858:
820:
105:
68:
1190:
979:
862:
97:
1326:
Barr, I.D.; Lynch, C.M.; Mullan, D.; De Siena, L.; Spagnolo, M. (2018).
1145:
1132:
1027:
874:
1360:
1110:
127:
132:
Another case are ice cauldrons situated on top of geothermal areas. "
74:
833:
The geothermal heat output is in the order of a few hundred megawatt
192:
808:
792:
781:
140:
89:
85:
46:
38:
Newly formed ice cauldrons at Katla during unrest period in 2011
851:
60:
or on top of a continuously active subglacial high temperature
811:
have been attributed to Katla, and 17 of these happened since
878:
982:"Center of the Icelandic Hospot experiences Volcanic Unrest"
108:
is produced and the heat is transferred to the meltwater. "
1328:"Volcanic impacts on modern glaciers: A global synthesis"
79:
164:. Skaftá cauldrons as slight identations to the east of
1325:
868:
838:
1085:
Jónsson, S.; Adam, N.; Björnsson, H. (1 April 1998).
186:
are created by melting at subglacial geothermal areas
1163:. Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland
1084:
172:
128:
Ice cauldrons on top of subglacial geothermal areas
75:Formation and continued existence of ice cauldrons
1130:
146:
1373:
1037:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
803:glacier cap in the southern part of Iceland's
84:When an eruption takes place under a bigger
1131:Ultee, L.; Meyer, C.; Minchew, B. (2020).
1359:
1188:
1144:
831:geothermal areas under these cauldrons. "
71:may be produced in connection with them.
1235:
842:
155:
151:
33:
17:
1264:
1262:
1260:
1374:
1215:"Search:Múlakvísl & Mýrdalssandur"
951:
877:activity, are interpreted as signs of
96:stage. The heat forms an ice cave and
80:Ice cauldrons and subglacial eruptions
1184:
1182:
1180:
1178:
1161:"Katla - Monitoring of ice cauldrons"
1004:
1257:
869:Ice cauldrons and volcano monitoring
1023:
1021:
1019:
947:
945:
839:Ice cauldrons in other environments
13:
1175:
881:inflow, the cauldrons are closely
14:
1418:
1236:Scharrer, K. (4 September 2007).
784:are the ice cauldrons within the
1057:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2015.05.008
1016:
942:
753:
741:
734:
722:
715:
703:
696:
684:
677:
665:
658:
646:
639:
627:
620:
608:
601:
589:
582:
570:
563:
551:
544:
532:
525:
513:
506:
494:
487:
475:
468:
456:
449:
437:
430:
418:
411:
399:
392:
380:
221:
214:
207:
173:Skaftárkatlar (Skaftá cauldrons)
1352:10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.04.008
1319:
1229:
1207:
1153:
1124:
1078:
973:
922:
147:Ice cauldrons around the world
115:When the eruption continues, “
1:
935:
823:. K. Scharrer explains that "
92:, it normally begins with an
1091:Geophysical Research Letters
7:
888:
807:. 150–200 eruptions during
10:
1423:
1298:10.3189/172756407782282444
952:Ackiss, S. E. (May 2019).
45:are ice formations within
1013:Retrieved 31 August 2020.
915:
199:
821:magmatic storage system
1217:. Icelandic Met Office
1189:McCluskey, O. (2019).
910:1996 eruption of Gjálp
854:
791:Katla is an important
169:
39:
31:
1332:Earth-Science Reviews
1137:Journal of Glaciology
846:
813:Settlement of Iceland
780:Famous examples from
767:Ice cauldrons on the
184:These ice cauldrons "
159:
152:Examples from Iceland
37:
21:
1402:Subglacial eruptions
1392:Volcanism of Iceland
1278:Annals of Glaciology
905:Volcanism of Iceland
51:subglacial volcanoes
1344:2018ESRv..182..186B
1290:2007AnGla..45...66G
1146:10.1017/jog.2020.65
1103:1998GeoRL..25.1059J
1049:2015JVGR..301..253G
900:Subglacial eruption
848:Fourpeaked Mountain
799:situated under the
122:1996 Gjálp eruption
58:subglacial eruption
1407:Volcano monitoring
895:Subglacial volcano
855:
805:East Volcanic Zone
170:
40:
32:
1307:on 14 August 2020
1111:10.1029/98GL50567
67:In both cases, a
22:Ice cauldrons of
1414:
1366:
1365:
1363:
1323:
1317:
1316:
1314:
1312:
1306:
1300:. Archived from
1275:
1266:
1255:
1254:
1252:
1250:
1244:
1233:
1227:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1211:
1205:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1186:
1173:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1157:
1151:
1150:
1148:
1128:
1122:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1097:(7): 1059–1062.
1082:
1076:
1075:
1073:
1071:
1065:
1059:. Archived from
1034:
1025:
1014:
1008:
1002:
1001:
999:
997:
977:
971:
970:
968:
966:
960:
949:
929:
926:
763:
757:
750:
745:
744:
738:
731:
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719:
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674:
669:
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612:
611:
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586:
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548:
541:
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484:
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478:
472:
465:
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459:
453:
446:
441:
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434:
427:
422:
421:
415:
408:
403:
402:
396:
389:
384:
383:
377:
372:
367:
362:
357:
352:
347:
342:
337:
332:
327:
322:
317:
312:
307:
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297:
292:
287:
282:
277:
272:
267:
262:
257:
252:
247:
242:
237:
232:
225:
224:
218:
211:
49:that cover some
1422:
1421:
1417:
1416:
1415:
1413:
1412:
1411:
1397:Glaciovolcanism
1372:
1371:
1370:
1369:
1324:
1320:
1310:
1308:
1304:
1273:
1267:
1258:
1248:
1246:
1242:
1234:
1230:
1220:
1218:
1213:
1212:
1208:
1198:
1196:
1187:
1176:
1166:
1164:
1159:
1158:
1154:
1129:
1125:
1115:
1113:
1083:
1079:
1069:
1067:
1063:
1032:
1026:
1017:
1009:
1005:
995:
993:
978:
974:
964:
962:
958:
950:
943:
938:
933:
932:
927:
923:
918:
891:
871:
841:
797:central volcano
778:
777:
776:
765:
764:
760:
758:
751:
748:
746:
742:
739:
732:
729:
727:
723:
720:
713:
710:
708:
704:
701:
694:
691:
689:
685:
682:
675:
672:
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628:
625:
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613:
609:
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599:
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568:
561:
558:
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549:
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523:
520:
518:
514:
511:
507:
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501:
499:
495:
492:
485:
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480:
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457:
454:
447:
444:
442:
438:
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428:
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416:
409:
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387:
385:
381:
378:
375:
373:
370:
368:
365:
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360:
358:
355:
353:
350:
348:
345:
343:
340:
338:
335:
333:
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328:
325:
323:
320:
318:
315:
313:
310:
308:
305:
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300:
298:
295:
293:
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288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
275:
273:
270:
268:
265:
263:
260:
258:
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253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
233:
230:
228:
226:
222:
219:
212:
202:
175:
160:Aerial view of
154:
149:
130:
82:
77:
62:geothermal area
30:glacier in 2009
12:
11:
5:
1420:
1410:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1368:
1367:
1318:
1256:
1228:
1206:
1174:
1152:
1123:
1077:
1066:on 17 May 2021
1015:
1003:
972:
940:
939:
937:
934:
931:
930:
920:
919:
917:
914:
913:
912:
907:
902:
897:
890:
887:
870:
867:
840:
837:
766:
759:
752:
747:
740:
733:
728:
721:
714:
709:
702:
695:
690:
683:
676:
671:
664:
657:
652:
645:
638:
633:
626:
619:
614:
607:
600:
595:
588:
581:
576:
569:
562:
557:
550:
543:
538:
531:
524:
519:
512:
505:
500:
493:
486:
481:
474:
467:
462:
455:
448:
443:
436:
429:
424:
417:
410:
405:
398:
391:
386:
379:
374:
369:
364:
359:
354:
349:
344:
339:
334:
329:
324:
319:
314:
309:
304:
299:
294:
289:
284:
279:
274:
269:
264:
259:
254:
249:
244:
239:
234:
227:
220:
213:
206:
205:
204:
203:
201:
198:
174:
171:
153:
150:
148:
145:
129:
126:
118:hyaloclastites
81:
78:
76:
73:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1419:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1379:
1377:
1362:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1322:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1272:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1241:
1240:
1232:
1216:
1210:
1194:
1193:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1162:
1156:
1147:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1127:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1081:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1031:
1024:
1022:
1020:
1012:
1007:
991:
987:
983:
976:
957:
956:
948:
946:
941:
928:For a map see
925:
921:
911:
908:
906:
903:
901:
898:
896:
893:
892:
886:
884:
880:
876:
866:
864:
860:
859:Mount Redoubt
853:
849:
845:
836:
834:
828:
826:
822:
817:
814:
810:
806:
802:
801:Mýrdalsjökull
798:
794:
789:
787:
783:
774:
770:
769:Mýrdalsjökull
762:
756:
737:
718:
699:
680:
661:
642:
623:
604:
585:
566:
547:
528:
490:
471:
452:
433:
414:
395:
217:
210:
197:
194:
189:
187:
182:
180:
167:
163:
158:
144:
142:
137:
135:
125:
123:
119:
113:
111:
107:
106:Hyaloclastite
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
72:
70:
65:
63:
59:
54:
52:
48:
44:
43:Ice cauldrons
36:
29:
28:Mýrdalsjökull
25:
20:
16:
1335:
1334:(Preprint).
1331:
1321:
1309:. Retrieved
1302:the original
1281:
1277:
1247:. Retrieved
1238:
1231:
1219:. Retrieved
1209:
1197:. Retrieved
1191:
1165:. Retrieved
1155:
1136:
1126:
1114:. Retrieved
1094:
1090:
1080:
1068:. Retrieved
1061:the original
1040:
1036:
1006:
994:. Retrieved
989:
985:
975:
963:. Retrieved
954:
924:
872:
856:
832:
829:
824:
818:
790:
779:
190:
185:
183:
176:
138:
133:
131:
116:
114:
109:
83:
66:
55:
42:
41:
15:
1338:: 186–203.
1043:: 253–276.
863:Mount Spurr
771:ice cap of
179:Vatnajökull
162:Vatnajökull
98:pillow lava
1376:Categories
1361:2164/12221
936:References
88:, e.g. an
69:jökulhlaup
1382:Volcanism
1311:14 August
1249:30 August
1116:30 August
1070:31 August
996:30 August
965:28 August
883:monitored
788:caldera.
102:explosive
26:volcano,
1387:Glaciers
1139:: 1–10.
889:See also
809:Holocene
166:Hamarinn
94:effusive
47:glaciers
1340:Bibcode
1286:Bibcode
1221:15 June
1199:10 June
1167:15 June
1099:Bibcode
1045:Bibcode
875:seismic
793:caldera
782:Iceland
141:Iceland
90:ice cap
86:glacier
852:Alaska
231:4miles
193:Skaftá
1305:(PDF)
1274:(PDF)
1243:(PDF)
1064:(PDF)
1033:(PDF)
959:(PDF)
916:Notes
879:magma
786:Katla
773:Katla
200:Katla
24:Katla
1313:2020
1251:2020
1223:2024
1201:2024
1169:2024
1118:2020
1072:2020
998:2020
992:(35)
967:2020
795:and
1356:hdl
1348:doi
1336:182
1294:doi
1141:doi
1107:doi
1053:doi
1041:301
986:Eos
865:).
835:".
578:C10
559:C11
540:C12
521:C13
502:C14
483:C15
464:C16
445:C17
426:C18
407:C19
388:C20
229:7km
136:".
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