351:, injuries and accidents, and mental health issues. Dust generated during mining operations can contain harmful particles, leading to respiratory problems. The high noise levels generated by mining activities can cause hearing loss over time if proper protective measures are not in place. Miners may also be exposed to harmful chemicals used in the extraction and processing of minerals, which can cause various health issues. The physical demands of mining work, such as heavy lifting and repetitive motions, can result in musculoskeletal disorders. Injuries and accidents are also common risks in mining, including falls, equipment-related incidents, and mine collapses. The demanding nature of mining work, along with long hours and isolation, can contribute to mental health issues such as stress, anxiety, and depression. Mining companies must implement health and safety measures to mitigate these risks to protect workers and nearby communities, including personal protective equipment, dust control measures, and health and safety training. Regularly monitoring air quality, noise levels, and other potential hazards is essential to ensure a safe working environment.
99:
150:
451:, and filters. Iceland spar is also used in optical instruments for geological and biological microscopy as its birefringence helps to reveal material structure. It is also a practical tool used in education and research to demonstrate optical principles. Though its applications are less widespread than in the past, Iceland spar continues to contribute to various scientific and technological endeavours.
360:
1539:"Several variety names exist for calcite. Iceland Spar is an ice-clear variety that demonstrates the effect of double refraction or birefringence ... Young mountain ranges in Mexico and South America also host fine localities for calcite. They include Chihuahua, Chihuahua; the Santa Eulalia Dist., Chihuahua; Mapimí, Durango; Guanajuato, Guanajuato; and Charcas, San Luis Potosí; all Mexico"
1319:
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Iceland spar possesses several optical properties other than double refraction and birefringence. It is highly transparent to visible light, allowing light to pass through with minimal absorption or scattering, which is ideal for optical applications requiring clarity. Iceland spar can produce vivid
367:
Iceland spar has been historically used in telecommunications due to its unique optical properties. One of its key features, birefringence, made it worthwhile in early optical technologies, such as developing optical instruments like polarizing microscopes and constructing optical rangefinders and
503:
Due to their scientific and historical significance, conservation efforts related to
Iceland spar primarily focus on preserving specimens and mining sites. One of the challenges in preserving Iceland spar specimens is the risk of damage during extraction, handling, and storage. Mining sites that
330:
and disrupting local ecosystems. Water sources can be contaminated through the discharge of chemicals used in the extraction and processing of minerals, impacting aquatic life and water quality. Mining activities can also lead to soil erosion and degradation, mainly if proper land reclamation
291:, including magnetometry, gravity surveys, and electromagnetic surveys, are then employed to detect anomalies indicating mineralization. Field mapping of surface geology and mineralogy also plays a role in identifying potential mineralization zones.
403:
can be detected, and the direction of the sun identified to within a few degrees in both cloudy and twilight conditions using the sunstone and the naked eye. The process involves moving the stone across the visual field to reveal a yellow
201:
Iceland spar holds historical importance in optics and the study of light. One of its most notable properties is its ability to exhibit double refraction. This phenomenon was first described by the Danish scientist
2132:
Ropars, G. et al., 2011. A depolarizer as a possible precise sunstone for Viking navigation by polarized skylight. Proceedings of the Royal
Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Science. Available at:
474:
and neutralizer to adjust soil pH levels and improve crop yields. Calcite also contributes to environmental remediation efforts, treating acidic water and soil by neutralizing acidity and removing heavy metals.
446:
Despite being historically significant, Iceland spar still holds an essential place in modern applications. Due to its optical properties, Iceland spar is still used in instruments like polarizing microscopes,
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225:
studied this phenomenon and contributed to the understanding of light as a wave. Huygens, in particular, used double refraction to support his wave theory of light, in contrast to Newton's corpuscular theory.
136:
The most common crystal structure of
Iceland spar is rhombohedral, but other structures, such as scalenohedral or prismatic, can form depending on formation conditions. Iceland spar is primarily found in
2171:
Le Floch, A., Ropars, G., Lucas, J., Wright, S., Davenport, T., Corfield, M., & Harrisson, M. (2013). The sixteenth century
Alderney crystal: a calcite as an efficient reference optical compass?.
487:(compaction and cementation). Studying Iceland spar can provide valuable information about past environmental conditions, such as the presence of ancient seas and marine life, as carbonate rocks like
331:
measures are not implemented after mining ceases. Open-pit mining operations can have a significant visual impact on the landscape, altering the natural scenery of an area. These measures may include
237:, which is used in various scientific fields to study the properties of materials. Iceland spar has been used historically in optical instruments like polarizing microscopes and navigation equipment.
1814:
Saliu, Muyideen Alade; Shehu, Shaib
Abdulazeez (2012). "Effects of Calcite and Dolomite Mining on Water and Soil Qualities: A case study of Freedom Group of Companies, Ikpeshi, Edo State Nigeria".
1795:
Saliu, Muyideen Alade; Shehu, Shaib
Abdulazeez (2012). "Effects of Calcite and Dolomite Mining on Water and Soil Qualities: A case study of Freedom Group of Companies, Ikpeshi, Edo State Nigeria".
343:
Mining, including
Iceland spar mining, poses various health risks to workers and nearby communities. Some key health concerns associated with mining activities include respiratory issues,
483:
Due to
Iceland spar typically forming in sedimentary environments, particularly limestone and dolomite rocks, its formation is closely tied to these carbonate rocks' deposition and
252:. Iceland spar occurs in various locations worldwide, historically named after Iceland due to its abundance on the island. Other productive sources include China and the greater
371:
While uncommon, Iceland spar has historically been used in navigation as a polarizing filter to determine the sun's direction on overcast days. It has been speculated that the
1333:
302:, prepared for various applications, including optical instruments and jewelry, and used as a source of calcium carbonate in industries like construction and agriculture.
2186:
2661:
326:, and visual impact. Mining activities can destroy natural habitats, mainly if the mining site is located in ecologically sensitive areas, leading to the loss of
2147:
2064:
and Horváth, Gábor. 2007. "Could
Vikings have navigated under foggy and cloudy conditions by skylight polarization? On the atmospheric optical prerequisites of
2053:
1399:
1272:. Acta historica scientiarum naturalium et medicinalium (Reprod. en fac-sim. ed.). Copenhagen: the Danish national library of science and medicine.
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differs for light of different polarizations. When a ray of unpolarized light passes through the crystal, it is divided into two rays of mutually
1535:
2412:
Wojas, Natalia A.; Swerin, Agne; Wallqvist, Viveca; Järn, Mikael; Schoelkopf, Joachim; Gane, Patrick A. C.; Claesson, Per M. (2019-04-01).
504:
yield high-quality
Iceland spar specimens are also of interest for conservation. These sites may be designated protected areas to prevent
686:"Calcite and fluorite as catalyst for the Knövenagel condensation of malononitrile and methyl cyanoacetate under solvent-free conditions"
284:
185:" and can be used to determine a mineral's refractive index. Additionally, Iceland spar is optically active, meaning it can rotate the
133:
deposits. It precipitates from solutions rich in calcium and carbonate ions, influenced by temperature, pressure, and impurities.
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1305:
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polarization directed at various angles. This double refraction causes objects seen through the crystal to appear doubled.
2134:
972:
1590:
1353:
Memoir and scientific correspondence of the late Sir George Gabriel Stokes, bart., selected and arranged by Joseph Larmor
2190:
165:. This feature makes it easily identifiable and workable. One of the most remarkable properties of Iceland spar is its
2671:
2151:
1365:
1008:
335:, environmentally friendly mining techniques, and the reclamation of mined areas to restore them to a natural state.
2070:
363:
Iceland spar, possibly the Icelandic medieval sun stone used to locate the sun in the sky when obstructed from view
462:. Its high purity and brightness make it an ideal filler in paints and coatings. In metallurgy, calcite acts as a
287:, are used for initial exploration and regional assessment to identify potential areas for further exploration.
2723:
570:
2718:
1644:"Evaluation of non-destructive tools for preliminary environmental risk assessment during mining exploration"
275:
Surveying tools and techniques are combined to reduce the risk and cost of exploration to identify deposits.
1352:
2518:
Chen, Zhe; Zhou, Chuanming; Xiao, Shuhai; Wang, Wei; Guan, Chengguo; Hua, Hong; Yuan, Xunlai (2014-02-25).
17:
2030:
1642:
Duvernois, Alban; Villeneuve, Mathieu; Demers, Isabelle; Cheng, Li Zhen; Neculita, Carmen Mihaela (2024).
2703:
2728:
2713:
1130:
Choi, Ju H.; Eichele, Chad; Lin, Yuan C.; Shi, Frank G.; Carlson, Bob; Sciamanna, Steven (2008-03-01).
344:
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The mining process for Iceland spar varies based on the specific geological conditions of the deposit.
234:
181:
colours when viewed under polarized light due to its birefringent nature. This effect is known as the "
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often form in marine environments. The presence of Iceland spar can also indicate the presence of
424:
suggests that this navigational technology may have persisted after the invention of the magnetic
189:
of light passing through it, a property resulting from its asymmetrical atomic arrangement. These
1530:
862:
597:
2266:"Iceland Spar: The Helgustadir Calcite Locality and its Influence on the Development of Science"
2092:
1984:"Iceland Spar: The Helgustadir Calcite Locality and its Influence on the Development of Science"
1837:
1771:
1722:"Iceland Spar: The Helgustadir Calcite Locality and its Influence on the Development of Science"
1621:
1418:"Iceland Spar: The Helgustadir Calcite Locality and its Influence on the Development of Science"
1270:
Experiments on Birefringent icelandic crystal: with a facsimile of the original publication 1669
1223:"Iceland Spar: The Helgustadir Calcite Locality and its Influence on the Development of Science"
1085:"Iceland Spar: The Helgustadir Calcite Locality and its Influence on the Development of Science"
626:"Iceland Spar: The Helgustadir Calcite Locality and its Influence on the Development of Science"
298:
or quarrying is common for surface deposits. Once extracted, the calcite is processed to remove
2414:"Iceland spar calcite: Humidity and time effects on surface properties and their reversibility"
1578:
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1995:
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1234:
1182:
1132:"Determination of effective refractive index of molecular diamondoids by Becke line method"
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83:
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published a complete explanation of double refraction in light polarization in the 1820s.
8:
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1296:(Leiden: Van der Aa, 1690), translated by Silvanus P. Thompson, London: Macmillan, 1912,
535:
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As a type of calcite, Iceland spar can be used in construction as a building material in
405:
372:
311:
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in Iceland spar played a role in developing the wave theory of light. Scientists such as
118:, splitting a ray of light into two rays that travel at different speeds and directions.
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2281:
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1999:
1914:
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Geological Characteristics of Iceland Spar Mineral Deposit of Mashan District in Guizhou
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http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2011/10/28/rspa.2011.0369.abstract
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used its light-polarizing property to tell the direction of the sun on cloudy days for
376:
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214:
190:
158:
46:
38:
2520:"New Ediacara fossils preserved in marine limestone and their ecological implications"
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1379:
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Bartholin, Rasmus; Archibald, Thomas; Buchwald, Jed Z.; Møller Pedersen, Kurt (1991).
701:
233:
The understanding of double refraction in Iceland spar also led to the development of
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2443:
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2011:
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WANG Jing-teng, CHEN Hen-shui, YANG En-lin, WU Bo. 2009. Retrieved January 3, 2011. "
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75:
2585:"Determination of SIMS matrix effects on oxygen isotopic compositions in carbonates"
728:"Determination of SIMS matrix effects on oxygen isotopic compositions in carbonates"
268:, United States. The clearest specimens, as well as the largest, have been from the
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Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
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but can occur in different parts of the world with suitable geological conditions.
434:(1770–1851) invented the first polarizing prism, using Iceland spar to create his
1964:
1668:
1643:
1394:
522:
417:
409:
332:
315:
295:
182:
2213:
1464:
1384:. Osmania University, Digital Library Of India. Macmillan And Company., Limited.
1035:
813:
310:
Some potential environmental issues associated with Iceland spar mining include
2666:
2486:
2438:
2413:
2328:
2289:
2212:
Skomorovsky, Valery; Kushtal, Galina; Tokareva (Lopteva), Lyubov (2022-03-25).
2007:
1922:
1745:
1463:
Skomorovsky, Valery; Kushtal, Galina; Tokareva (Lopteva), Lyubov (2022-03-25).
1441:
1246:
1108:
1034:
Skomorovsky, Valery; Kushtal, Galina; Tokareva (Lopteva), Lyubov (2022-03-25).
992:
812:
Skomorovsky, Valery; Kushtal, Galina; Tokareva (Lopteva), Lyubov (2022-03-25).
649:
517:
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2015:
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Iceland spar is a colourless, transparent variety of calcium carbonate (CaCO
2569:
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2084:
1948:
968:
798:
327:
276:
218:
2238:
1489:
1060:
838:
2495:
2337:
2065:
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565:
435:
125:, mainly limestone and dolomite rocks, but it also forms in hydrothermal
1301:
248:
producing Iceland spar include many mines producing related calcite and
2600:
1517:
1357:
1000:
743:
484:
265:
149:
2543:
782:
2469:
Dhar, Priyanka; Thornhill, Maria; Kota, Hanumantha Rao (2020-09-23).
2311:
Dhar, Priyanka; Thornhill, Maria; Kota, Hanumantha Rao (2020-09-23).
488:
249:
130:
2211:
1511:
Russell, Daniel E . 17 February 2008. Retrieved December 31, 2010. "
1462:
1033:
811:
1322: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
910:"Mineral Oddities: Theme of the 2009 Tucson Gem & Mineral Show"
467:
459:
421:
384:
299:
2662:"Pynchon's First Novel in 10 Years Has Sex, Explosives (Update1)"
962:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
765:
Morse, John W.; Arvidson, Rolf S.; Lüttge, Andreas (2007-02-01).
559:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
425:
392:
193:
contribute to the mineral's scientific use and aesthetic appeal.
138:
79:
71:
2362:"The review of recent carbonate minerals processing technology"
997:
Mineralogy: an introduction to the scientific study of minerals
455:
400:
261:
245:
1816:
Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences
1797:
Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences
1641:
416:. The recovery of an Iceland spar sunstone from a ship of the
359:
110:). It crystallizes in the trigonal system, typically forming
87:
2583:
Rollion-Bard, Claire; Marin-Carbonne, Johanna (2011-06-01).
1838:"BCS 312: Land and Environments of the Circumpolar North II"
1772:"BCS 312: Land and Environments of the Circumpolar North II"
1622:"BCS 312: Land and Environments of the Circumpolar North II"
726:
Rollion-Bard, Claire; Marin-Carbonne, Johanna (2011-06-01).
1334:
Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences
470:
and refining. Additionally, it is used in agriculture as a
448:
2628:"Helgustaðanáma - Stjórnunar- og verndararáætlun 20172026"
2582:
725:
2148:"First Evidence of Viking-Like 'Sunstone' Found - Seeker"
144:
2647:
Hughes, H. Herbert., Iceland spar and optical fluorite:
2411:
1706:
Hughes, H. Herbert., Iceland spar and optical fluorite:
1690:
Hughes, H. Herbert., Iceland spar and optical fluorite:
1020:
Hughes, H. Herbert., Iceland spar and optical fluorite:
670:
Hughes, H. Herbert., Iceland spar and optical fluorite:
206:
in 1669, who observed it in a specimen of Iceland spar.
2214:"Iceland spar and birefringent filter (BF) development"
1548:
Kelley, Vincent C. 1940. Retrieved December 31, 2010. "
1465:"Iceland spar and birefringent filter (BF) development"
1036:"Iceland spar and birefringent filter (BF) development"
863:"Gaseous-Liquid Inclusions in Crystals of Iceland Spar"
814:"Iceland spar and birefringent filter (BF) development"
2366:
IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science
584:
2184:
1969:, from Polarization.net. Retrieved February 8, 2007.
1960:
1958:
979:. Springfield, Massachusetts: C. & G. Merriam Co.
574:. Springfield, Massachusetts: C. & G. Merriam Co.
526:
uses the doubling effect of Iceland spar as a theme.
157:
Iceland spar is characterized by its large, readily
1400:
A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity
1138:. Viewpoint set no. 43 “Friction stir processing”.
764:
1955:
585:
2468:
2310:
2068:Viking navigation under foggy and cloudy skies".
1899:"Mining is bad for health: a voyage of discovery"
1129:
387:) mentioned in medieval Icelandic texts, such as
2690:
2517:
1311:
953:
951:
2471:"An Overview of Calcite Recovery by Flotation"
2313:"An Overview of Calcite Recovery by Flotation"
1337:(1st ed.). James and John Knapton, et al.
498:
399:purposes. The polarization of sunlight in the
2031:"Mining calcite crystals during World War II"
767:"Calcium Carbonate Formation and Dissolution"
578:
495:, as calcite can form in hydrothermal veins.
2263:
1981:
1719:
1415:
1298:archive.org/details/treatiseonlight031310mbp
1220:
1168:
1082:
988:
986:
948:
684:Wada, Shinobu; Suzuki, Hitomi (2003-01-06).
623:
466:to lower the melting point of metals during
93:
2649:U. S. Bureau of Mines, Information Circular
2098:
1708:U. S. Bureau of Mines, Information Circular
1692:U. S. Bureau of Mines, Information Circular
1505:
1022:U. S. Bureau of Mines, Information Circular
672:U. S. Bureau of Mines, Information Circular
548:
383:, a different mineral from the gem-quality
114:. It has a Mohs hardness of 3 and exhibits
51:
2049:
2047:
1813:
1794:
1523:
1341:
860:
683:
478:
196:
2589:Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry
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2437:
2385:
2336:
2237:
1938:
1667:
1542:
1488:
1388:
1194:
1059:
983:
837:
732:Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry
2418:Journal of Colloid and Interface Science
2126:
1874:
1327:
1171:"Iceland spar and its legacy in science"
358:
148:
97:
2359:
2044:
1896:
1574:China National Knowledge Infrastructure
1561:
1377:
1286:
967:
305:
279:and remote sensing techniques, such as
14:
2691:
2622:
2620:
2618:
2407:
2405:
2259:
2257:
2028:
1977:
1975:
1875:Scott, Douglas F.; Grayson, R. Larry.
1831:
1829:
1790:
1788:
1765:
1763:
1702:
1700:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1411:
1409:
1216:
1214:
564:
441:
145:Characteristics and optical properties
102:Calcite rhombohedral crystal structure
1903:Environmental Geochemistry and Health
1870:
1868:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1860:
1858:
1856:
1854:
1835:
1769:
1619:
45:
907:
721:
719:
619:
617:
615:
606:participating institution membership
2641:
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2402:
2254:
1972:
1826:
1785:
1760:
1713:
1697:
1684:
1608:
1456:
1406:
1300:; Project Gutenberg edition, 2005,
1211:
1076:
1027:
1014:
24:
2304:
1877:"Selected Health Issues in Mining"
1851:
1583:
1558:, Volume 25, pp. 357-367
1175:History of Geo- and Space Sciences
511:
338:
25:
2740:
1403:. Dublin University Press, 1910.
1350:2010. Retrieved January 2, 2011.
805:
716:
664:
612:
2189:. Kenyon College. Archived from
2109:Secrets of the Viking Navigators
1317:
1148:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2007.10.036
957:
554:
82:, and used in demonstrating the
2654:
2511:
2353:
2270:Journal of Geoscience Education
2205:
2178:
2165:
2140:
2022:
1988:Journal of Geoscience Education
1890:
1807:
1726:Journal of Geoscience Education
1635:
1422:Journal of Geoscience Education
1371:
1261:
1227:Journal of Geoscience Education
1169:Kristjánsson, L. (2012-05-16).
1162:
1123:
1089:Journal of Geoscience Education
901:
630:Journal of Geoscience Education
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2079: (2080): 1081–1095.
1331:, ed. (1728). "Isaac Newton".
854:
758:
677:
161:crystals, easily divided into
70:, is a transparent variety of
27:Transparent variety of calcite
13:
1:
2635:Environment Agency of Iceland
1513:Helgustadir Iceland Spar Mine
702:10.1016/S0040-4039(02)02431-0
568:, ed. (1913). "Polarimetry".
541:
391:, was Iceland spar, and that
153:Calcite crystal birefringence
2670:. 2007-09-30. Archived from
2150:. 2017-07-02. Archived from
1669:10.1016/j.mineng.2023.108456
1529:Retrieved January 2, 2011. "
1378:Huygens, Christiaan (1912).
867:International Geology Review
7:
2709:Medieval history of Iceland
1579:CNKI:SUN:KJQB.0.2009-33-061
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499:Conservation and protection
10:
2745:
2487:10.1007/s42824-020-00006-y
2475:Materials Circular Economy
2439:10.1016/j.jcis.2019.01.047
2329:10.1007/s42824-020-00006-y
2317:Materials Circular Economy
2290:10.5408/1089-9995-50.4.419
2264:Kristjansson, Leo (2002).
2185:Greenslade, Thomas B. Jr.
2008:10.5408/1089-9995-50.4.419
1982:Kristjansson, Leo (2002).
1923:10.1007/s10653-019-00367-7
1746:10.5408/1089-9995-50.4.419
1720:Kristjansson, Leo (2002).
1550:Iceland Spar in New Mexico
1442:10.5408/1089-9995-50.4.419
1416:Kristjansson, Leo (2002).
1302:gutenberg.org/ebooks/14725
1247:10.5408/1089-9995-50.4.419
1221:Kristjansson, Leo (2002).
1109:10.5408/1089-9995-50.4.419
1083:Kristjansson, Leo (2002).
1011:Chap. 6, p. 128.
861:Skropyshev, A. V. (1959).
650:10.5408/1089-9995-50.4.419
624:Kristjansson, Leo (2002).
345:noise-induced hearing loss
235:polarized light microscopy
78:, originally brought from
2360:Solihin (February 2018).
2218:Solar-Terrestrial Physics
1897:Stewart, Alex G. (2020).
1469:Solar-Terrestrial Physics
1040:Solar-Terrestrial Physics
887:10.1080/00206815909473436
818:Solar-Terrestrial Physics
593:Oxford English Dictionary
349:musculoskeletal disorders
240:
94:Formation and composition
1836:Duffy, Lawrence (2015).
1770:Duffy, Lawrence (2015).
1620:Duffy, Lawrence (2015).
908:Cook, Robert B. (2009).
258:Santa Eulalia, Chihuahua
123:sedimentary environments
2378:2018E&ES..118a2065S
1196:10.5194/hgss-3-117-2012
934:10.3200/RMIN.84.1.16-25
598:Oxford University Press
479:Geological significance
380:
354:
197:Historical significance
2175:, 469(2153), 20120651.
2085:10.1098/rspa.2007.1811
2038:Mining History Journal
420:that sank in 1592 off
364:
169:, where the crystal's
154:
121:Iceland spar forms in
103:
47:[ˈsɪlvʏrˌpɛrk]
42:
2724:Transparent materials
2239:10.12737/stp-81202209
1555:American Mineralogist
1490:10.12737/stp-81202209
1061:10.12737/stp-81202209
839:10.12737/stp-81202209
493:hydrothermal activity
412:of the eye, probably
362:
347:, chemical exposure,
228:Augustin-Jean Fresnel
187:plane of polarization
152:
112:rhombohedral crystals
101:
2719:Polarization (waves)
2029:Orrell, Lew (1995).
1648:Minerals Engineering
977:Webster's Dictionary
914:Rocks & Minerals
571:Webster's Dictionary
306:Environmental issues
2536:2014NatSR...4E4180C
2430:2019JCIS..541...42W
2282:2002JGeEd..50..419K
2230:2022STP.....8a..69S
2193:on 21 December 2017
2000:2002JGeEd..50..419K
1966:The Viking Sunstone
1915:2020EnvGH..42.1153S
1738:2002JGeEd..50..419K
1660:2024MiEng.20508456D
1481:2022STP.....8a..69S
1434:2002JGeEd..50..419K
1239:2002JGeEd..50..419K
1187:2012HGSS....3..117K
1101:2002JGeEd..50..419K
1052:2022STP.....8a..69S
926:2009RoMin..84...16C
879:1959IGRv....1R...1S
830:2022STP.....8a..69S
690:Tetrahedron Letters
642:2002JGeEd..50..419K
596:(Online ed.).
442:Modern applications
312:habitat destruction
289:Geophysical surveys
2704:Carbonate minerals
2601:10.1039/C0JA00213E
2524:Scientific Reports
1136:Scripta Materialia
744:10.1039/C0JA00213E
365:
285:aerial photography
215:Christiaan Huygens
191:optical properties
155:
104:
74:, or crystallized
66:) and also called
33:, formerly called
2729:Trigonal minerals
2714:Optical materials
2544:10.1038/srep04180
2121:978-0-9721515-0-4
1381:Treatise On Light
1329:Chambers, Ephraim
1294:Treatise on Light
1279:978-87-7709-010-3
783:10.1021/cr050358j
604:(Subscription or
414:Haidinger's brush
281:satellite imagery
223:Sir George Stokes
211:double refraction
204:Erasmus Bartholin
116:double refraction
76:calcium carbonate
16:(Redirected from
2736:
2699:Calcium minerals
2683:
2682:
2680:
2679:
2658:
2652:
2645:
2639:
2638:
2632:
2624:
2613:
2612:
2595:(6): 1285–1289.
2580:
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2563:
2515:
2509:
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2498:
2466:
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2124:
2105:Karlsen, Leif K.
2102:
2096:
2058:Åkesson, Susanne
2051:
2042:
2041:
2035:
2026:
2020:
2019:
1979:
1970:
1962:
1953:
1952:
1942:
1909:(4): 1153–1165.
1894:
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1595:Umhverfisstofnun
1591:"Helgustaðanáma"
1587:
1581:
1565:
1559:
1546:
1540:
1527:
1521:
1509:
1503:
1502:
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1460:
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1395:Whittaker, E. T.
1392:
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771:Chemical Reviews
762:
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738:(6): 1285–1289.
723:
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621:
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589:
582:
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558:
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506:overexploitation
472:soil conditioner
406:entoptic pattern
324:soil degradation
270:Helgustaðir mine
171:refractive index
65:
62:
59:
56:
53:
49:
21:
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2127:
2113:One Earth Press
2103:
2099:
2062:Wehner, Rüdiger
2052:
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1980:
1973:
1963:
1956:
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1128:
1124:
1081:
1077:
1032:
1028:
1019:
1015:
993:Miers, Henry A.
991:
984:
973:"Birefringence"
958:
956:
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906:
902:
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810:
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763:
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682:
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583:
579:
555:
553:
549:
544:
532:
523:Against the Day
514:
512:Cultural impact
501:
481:
444:
418:Elizabethan era
357:
341:
339:Health concerns
333:erosion control
316:water pollution
308:
296:Open-pit mining
277:Geological maps
243:
199:
163:parallelepipeds
147:
109:
96:
68:optical calcite
63:
60:
57:
54:
35:Iceland crystal
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2742:
2732:
2731:
2726:
2721:
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2711:
2706:
2701:
2685:
2684:
2667:Bloomberg News
2653:
2640:
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2575:
2510:
2461:
2401:
2352:
2303:
2276:(4): 419–427.
2253:
2204:
2177:
2164:
2139:
2125:
2123:, 220 pp.
2097:
2054:Hegedüs, Ramón
2043:
2021:
1994:(4): 419–427.
1971:
1954:
1889:
1850:
1825:
1806:
1784:
1759:
1732:(4): 419–427.
1712:
1696:
1683:
1634:
1607:
1597:(in Icelandic)
1582:
1560:
1541:
1522:
1504:
1455:
1428:(4): 419–427.
1405:
1387:
1370:
1348:Larmor, Joseph
1340:
1310:
1285:
1278:
1260:
1233:(4): 419–427.
1210:
1181:(1): 117–126.
1161:
1142:(5): 413–416.
1122:
1095:(4): 419–427.
1075:
1026:
1013:
982:
947:
900:
853:
804:
777:(2): 342–381.
757:
715:
696:(2): 399–401.
676:
663:
636:(4): 419–427.
611:
587:"Iceland spar"
577:
546:
545:
543:
540:
539:
538:
531:
528:
518:Thomas Pynchon
513:
510:
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497:
480:
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443:
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389:Rauðúlfs þáttr
356:
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340:
337:
307:
304:
254:Sonoran Desert
242:
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107:
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26:
9:
6:
4:
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2:
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2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2674:on 2007-09-30
2673:
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2496:11250/2756873
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2372:(1): 012065.
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2192:
2188:
2187:"Nicol Prism"
2181:
2174:
2168:
2154:on 2017-07-02
2153:
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2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
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2071:Proc. R. Soc.
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2017:
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1366:1-177-14275-9
1363:
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1324:public domain
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1009:1-177-85127-X
1006:
1002:
998:
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978:
974:
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969:Webster, Noah
965:
964:public domain
954:
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561:public domain
551:
547:
537:
536:Spar sunstone
534:
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320:air pollution
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209:The study of
207:
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194:
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188:
184:
178:
176:
175:perpendicular
172:
168:
167:birefringence
164:
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142:
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134:
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119:
117:
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100:
91:
89:
85:
81:
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73:
69:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
2676:. Retrieved
2672:the original
2665:
2656:
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2634:
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2588:
2578:
2527:
2523:
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2320:
2316:
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2273:
2269:
2224:(1): 69–84.
2221:
2217:
2207:
2195:. Retrieved
2191:the original
2180:
2172:
2167:
2156:. Retrieved
2152:the original
2142:
2128:
2108:
2100:
2076:
2069:
2066:polarimetric
2037:
2024:
1991:
1987:
1965:
1906:
1902:
1892:
1883:
1844:
1819:
1815:
1809:
1800:
1796:
1778:
1729:
1725:
1715:
1707:
1691:
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1637:
1628:
1599:. Retrieved
1594:
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1572:
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1553:
1544:
1534:
1525:
1516:
1507:
1475:(1): 69–84.
1472:
1468:
1458:
1425:
1421:
1398:
1390:
1380:
1373:
1368:p. 269.
1351:
1343:
1332:
1313:
1293:
1292:C. Huygens,
1288:
1269:
1263:
1230:
1226:
1178:
1174:
1164:
1139:
1135:
1125:
1092:
1088:
1078:
1046:(1): 69–84.
1043:
1039:
1029:
1021:
1016:
996:
976:
920:(1): 16–25.
917:
913:
903:
870:
866:
856:
824:(1): 69–84.
821:
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774:
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760:
735:
731:
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689:
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671:
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569:
566:Porter, Noah
550:
521:
515:
502:
482:
453:
445:
430:
397:navigational
370:
366:
342:
328:biodiversity
309:
293:
274:
272:in Iceland.
244:
232:
219:Isaac Newton
208:
200:
179:
156:
135:
120:
105:
84:polarization
67:
34:
31:Iceland spar
30:
29:
18:Iceland Spar
2651:6468 (1931)
2530:(1): 4180.
1822:(1): 19–24.
1803:(1): 19–24.
1710:6468 (1931)
1694:6468 (1931)
1536:Granite Gap
1024:6468 (1931)
873:(9): 1–11.
674:6468 (1931)
436:Nicol prism
381:sólarsteinn
368:gunsights.
256:region, in
61:silver-rock
2693:Categories
2678:2023-05-25
2197:23 January
2158:2023-05-24
1654:: 108456.
1601:2020-08-20
1577:, P619.2
1518:mindat.org
1358:Nabu Press
1001:Nabu Press
608:required.)
542:References
485:diagenesis
300:impurities
266:New Mexico
183:Becke line
43:silfurberg
2609:1364-5544
2552:2045-2322
2505:2524-8154
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