643:, many countries around the world – including the US, UK, Australia, Japan and most countries of the European Union – have adopted industry policies. However contemporary industry policy generally accepts globalization as a given, and focuses less on the decline of older industries, and more on the growth of emergent industries. It often involves the government working collaboratively with industry to respond to challenges and opportunities. China is a prominent case where the central and subnational governments participate in nearly all economic sectors and processes. Even though market mechanisms have gained importance, state guidance through state-directed investment and indicative planning plays a substantial role in the economy. In order to catch-up and even overtake industrialized countries technologically, China's "state activities even extend to efforts to prevent the dominance of foreign investors and technologies in areas considered to be of key significance such as the strategic industries and the new technologies" including robotics and new energy vehicles.
31:
632:". President Reagan was satisfied that this objective was fulfilled in the Socrates system. Through the advances of innovation age technology, Socrates would provide "voluntary" but "systematic" coordination of resources across multiple "economic system" institutions including industry clusters, financial service organizations, university research facilities and government economic planning agencies. While the view of one US President and the Socrates team was that technology made it virtually possible for both to exist simultaneously, the industrial policy vs. free market debate continued as later under the
419:
657:
597:
Germany implemented, and South Korea adopted Export-Oriented
Industrialization (EOI) policy from 1964 based on its own decision contrary to the Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI) policy touted by international aid organizations and experts at that time. Many of these domestic policy choices, however, are now seen as detrimental to free trade and are hence limited by various international agreements such as
1376:
936:
803:
During the 2000s, China had implemented an industrial policy targeting its shipbuilding industry. The policy consisted in subsidizing entry, investment and production. It increased sectoral investment and entry rate by 270% and 200% respectively. It led to the entry of small and less productive firms
1336:
See for instance, regarding the medias industries: Violaine Hacker, « Citoyenneté culturelle et politique européenne des médias : entre compétitivité et promotion des valeurs », Nations, Cultures et
Entreprises en Europe, sous la direction de Gilles Rouet, Collection Local et Global,
551:
historians Prince & Taylor, "The relationship between government and industry in the United States has never been a simple one, and the labels used in categorizing these relationships at different times are often misleading if not false. In the early nineteenth century, for example, it is quite
627:
was initiated to address US decline in ability to compete in world markets. Project
Socrates, directed by Michael Sekora, resulted in a computer-based competitive strategy system that was made available to private industry and all other public and private institutions that impact economic growth,
775:
Debate also surrounds the issue of whether government failures are more pervasive and severe than market failures. Some argue that the lower the government accountability and capabilities, the higher the risk of political capture of industrial policies, which may be economically more harmful than
596:
developed so rapidly and successfully was down to Japan exporting to its colonies the same centralised state development that it had used to develop itself. Precisely speaking, South Korea's development can be explained by the fact that it followed the similar industrial policies that UK, US and
771:
One question is which kinds of industrial policy are most effective in promoting economic development. For example, economists debate whether developing countries should focus on their comparative advantage by promoting mostly resource- and labor-intensive products and services, or invest in
628:
competitiveness and trade policy. A key objective of
Socrates was to utilize advanced technology to enable US private institutions and public agencies to cooperate in the development and execution of competitive strategies without violating existing laws or compromising the spirit of "
504:) and upgrade. Once competitive enough, these restrictions are lifted to expose the selected industries to the international market. More contemporary industrial policies include measures such as support for linkages between firms and support for upstream technologies.
1385:, p. 1. "Perhaps not surprisingly, this recognition is now particularly evident in those parts of the world where market-oriented reforms were taken the farthest and the disappointment about the outcomes is correspondingly the greatest – notably in Latin America".
563:
Historically, there is a growing consensus that most developed countries, including United
Kingdom, United States, Germany, and France, have intervened actively in their domestic economy through industrial policies. These early examples are followed by interventionist
468:
sector, militarily important sectors, or on fostering an advantage in new technologies. In industrial policy, the government takes measures "aimed at improving the competitiveness and capabilities of domestic firms and promoting structural transformation". A country's
716:. Industrial policy is seen as harmful as governments lack the required information, capabilities, and incentives to successfully determine whether the benefits of promoting certain sectors above others exceeds the costs and in turn implement the policies. While the
779:
Of particular relevance for developing countries are the conditions under which industrial policies may also contribute to poverty reduction, such as a focus on specific industries or the promotion of linkages between larger companies and smaller local enterprises.
945:, p. 2. Rodrik uses the term in a more extended fashion, such as to encompass "non-traditional activities in agriculture or services. There is no evidence that the types of market failures that call for industrial policy are located predominantly in industry".
576:), has also been associated with active industrial policies that selectively promoted manufacturing and facilitated technology transfer and industrial upgrading. The success of these state-directed industrialization strategies are often attributed to
732:) have failed in many other regions such as Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa. Governments, in making decisions with regard to electoral or personal incentives, can be captured by vested interests, leading to industrial policies supporting local
544:, said that "the most advantageous method in which a landed nation can raise up artificers, manufacturers, and merchants of its own is to grant the most perfect freedom of trade to the artificers, manufacturers, and merchants of all other nations."
1864:
756:. Some economists argue that public action can boost certain development factors "beyond what market forces on their own would generate." In practice, these interventions are often aimed at regulating networks, public
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Economists have debated the role of industrial policy in fostering industrialization and economic development. They have also debated concerns that industrial policy threatens free trade and international cooperation.
1926:
1875:
516:
The traditional arguments for industrial policies go back as far as the 18th century. Prominent early arguments in favor of selective protection of industries were contained in the 1791
500:(ISI), where trade barriers are temporarily imposed on some key sectors, such as manufacturing. By selectively protecting certain industries, these industries are given time to learn (
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is government policy to encourage the development and growth of all or part of the economy in pursuit of some public goal. Historically, it has often focused on the
804:
and created excess capacity. The gain in producer or consumer surplus was lower than the cost of the subsidies. The policy was therefore welfare-reducing.
2214:
Prince, Carl E.; Taylor, Seth (1982). "Daniel
Webster, the Boston Associates, and the U.S. Government's Role in the Industrializing Process, 1815–1830".
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1811:
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Kicking Away the Ladder: Development
Strategy in Historical Perspective: Policies and Institutions for Economic Development in Historical Perspective
568:
strategies pursued in Latin
American countries such as Brazil, Mexico or Argentina. More recently, the rapid growth of East Asian economies, or the
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1530:
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clear that the laissez faire label is an inappropriate one." In the US, an industrial policy was explicitly presented for the first time by the
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601:
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1779:
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Dobbin, Frank. Forging
Industrial Policy: The United States, Britain and France in the Railway Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1994
1310:
2049:"Should Industrial Policy in Developing Countries Conform to Comparative Advantage or Defy it? A Debate Between Justin Lin and Ha-Joon Chang"
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496:, such as tightening credit and taxing capital gains. Traditional examples of industrial policy include subsidizing export industries and
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countries. Many types of industrial policies contain common elements with other types of interventionist practices such as
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Despite criticism, there is a consensus in recent development theory that says state interventions may be necessary when
2330:"Economic Development in Africa Report 2011: Fostering Industrial Development in Africa in the New Global Environment"
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Smith, Esther (5 May 1988). "DoD Unveils
Competitive Tool: Project Socrates Offers Valuable Analysis".
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796:. It concluded that the regions of the French empire which were more protected from trade with the
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Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialization
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Official strategic effort to encourage the development and growth of all or part of the economy
1998:"The narrow moving band, the Dutch disease, and the competitive consequences of Mrs. Thatcher"
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608:. Instead, the recent focus for industrial policy has shifted towards the promotion of local
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For the relations between industrial policy and infrastructure, see Koh, Jae Myong (2018)
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political elites while distorting the efficient allocation of resources by market forces.
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8:
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1972:
State-Directed Development: Political Power and Industrialization in the Global Periphery
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Industrial Policy in Developing Countries: Overview and lessons from seven country cases
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industrial policies, industrial policies such as import-substitution-industrialization (
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higher-productivity industries, which may only become competitive in the longer term.
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administration in August 1980, but it was subsequently dismantled with the election of
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353:
323:
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215:
151:
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Interview with US secretary of commerce Penny Pritzke by the McKinsey Global Institute
1464:"Temporary Protection and Technology Adoption: Evidence from the Napoleonic Blockade."
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2018:
1979:
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Industrial Policy and Development: The Political Economy of Capabilities Accumulation
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Governance and Upgrading: Linking Industrial Cluster and Global Value Chain Research
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2014:
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Green Infrastructure Financing: Institutional Investors, PPPs and Bankable Projects
1835:
1285:"Industry policy emerges from globalization resurgent and more important than ever"
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1009:"Industry policy emerges from globalisation resurgent and more important than ever"
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Green Infrastructure Financing: Institutional Investors, PPPs and Bankable Projects
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Manufacturing Miracles: Paths of Industrialization in Latin America and East Asia
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1920:"State Failure in Developing Countries and Strategies of Institutional Reform"
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MITI and the Japanese Miracle: The Growth of Industrial Policy, 1925–1975
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had an higher increase in mechanized cotton spinning than other regions.
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A study conducted by Réka Juhász investigated the economic effect of the
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343:
1619:
Cursory View of the Liberal and Restrictive Systems of Political Economy
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768:. Many countries are now seeing a revival of industrial policy.
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761:
287:
2406:
New Industrial and Innovation Policy, The World Bank Institute
2313:
An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
1928:
Toward Pro-Poor Policies: Aid, Institutions, and Globalization
2255:
605:
492:. Industrial policy is usually seen as separate from broader
2414:
1478:
Barwick, P. J., Kalouptsidi, M., & Zahur, N. B. (2019).
1131:
1136:
1070:"Modern Industrial Policy and the World Trade Organization"
636:, Socrates was labeled as industrial policy and de-funded.
1622:. Philadelphia, PA: J. R. A. Skerrett.
1432:
1396:"Many countries are seeing a revival of industrial policy"
990:
988:
1569:
Asia's Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization
1480:
China’s Industrial Policy : an Empirical evaluation.
712:
Some criticize industrial policy based on the concept of
598:
948:
1592:
Industrial Policy American Style: From Hamilton to HDTV
1315:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 240. Archived from
985:
2144:"Industrial Policy in Japan: A Political Economy View"
2278:(2009). "Industrial Policy: Don't Ask Why, Ask How".
1444:
1352:
1408:
1096:
1188:
1711:
1684:
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1364:
1340:
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748:occur. Market failures often exist in the form of
473:(including transportation, telecommunications and
2192:The case for industrial policy: a critical survey
1200:
1164:
1033:Juhász, Réka; Lane, Nathan; Rodrik, Dani (2024).
865:
2748:
2248:"Industrial Policy for the Twenty-First Century"
1925:. In B. Tungodden; N. Stern; I. Kolstad (eds.).
1420:
1176:
1108:
1032:
1809:
1227:
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1863:Kaufmann, Friedrich; Krause, Matthias (2009).
1862:
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580:and strong bureaucracies such as the Japanese
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442:
2213:
2156:Trade with Japan: Has the Door Opened Wider?
1682:
1142:
994:
868:"Industrial Policy and the Great Divergence"
839:Ministry of International Trade and Industry
623:, an economic development initiative called
2320:
954:
866:Juhász, Réka; Steinwender, Claudia (2024).
534:were in explicit contradiction to those of
477:) is a major enabler of industrial policy.
2447:
2433:
680:. Please do not remove this message until
526:, as well as the work of German economist
449:
435:
29:
2188:
1714:Losing Time: The Industrial Policy Debate
1528:
1450:
1358:
887:
700:Learn how and when to remove this message
2103:
2096:The National System of Political Economy
2039:
1810:Humphrey, John; Schmitz, Hubert (2000).
1777:
1736:
1683:Gereffi, Gary; Wyman, Donald L. (1990).
1414:
1308:
1102:
1035:"The New Economics of Industrial Policy"
676:Relevant discussion may be found on the
1992:
1834:
1742:"Report on the Subject of Manufactures"
1589:
1257:"Technology Official Quits At Pentagon"
1254:
1194:
1082:10.1146/annurev-economics-100223-041958
1047:10.1146/annurev-economics-081023-024638
979:
926:
880:10.1146/annurev-economics-091523-044259
592:, the reason Japanese colonies such as
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2252:Industrial Policy for the 21st Century
2242:
1744:. Philadelphia, PA: William Brown
1709:
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1966:
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829:Import substitution industrialization
739:
519:Report on the Subject of Manufactures
498:import-substitution-industrialization
2415:Mercator Institute for China Studies
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2089:
1914:
1483:National Bureau Of Economic Research
1426:
1282:
1182:
1114:
1067:
1006:
861:
859:
650:
2189:Pack, Howard; Saggi, Kamal (2006).
13:
2099:. London: Longmans, Green, and Co.
308:Trade / commerce ministry
14:
2773:
2454:
2399:
2316:. London: W Strahan and T Cadell.
2142:Okuno-Fujiwara, Masahiro (1991).
2115:Concise Encyclopedia of Economics
1865:"Industrial Policy in Mozambique"
1778:Heilmann, Sebastian, ed. (2017).
1000:
856:
2120:Library of Economics and Liberty
2068:10.1111/j.1467-7679.2009.00456.x
2006:Journal of Development Economics
1818:Institute of Development Studies
1485:. https://doi.org/10.3386/w26075
970:, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 12–51.
720:provided successful examples of
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634:George H. W. Bush administration
612:and the integration into global
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2762:Secondary sector of the economy
2280:Middle East Development Journal
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1302:
1276:
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522:of US economist and politician
1955:, London: Palgrave Macmillan.
1337:L’Harmattan, Paris, pp. 163–84
960:
570:newly industrialized countries
1:
2216:Journal of the Early Republic
2104:McKenzie, Richard B. (2002).
1255:Markoff, John (10 May 1990).
849:
2019:10.1016/0304-3878(87)90005-8
1872:German Development Institute
1784:. Rowman & Littlefield.
1590:Bingham, Richard D. (1998).
1540:German Development Institute
1518:Resources in other libraries
1309:Heilmann, Sebastian (2017).
646:
7:
2161:University of Chicago Press
1283:Wear, Andrew (2017-01-24).
1228:Humphrey & Schmitz 2000
1007:Wear, Andrew (2017-01-24).
807:
682:conditions to do so are met
641:Financial Crisis of 2007–08
10:
2778:
2381:Princeton University Press
1976:Cambridge University Press
1693:Princeton University Press
1529:Altenburg, Tilman (2011).
1492:
1439:Kaufmann & Krause 2009
1074:Annual Review of Economics
1039:Annual Review of Economics
872:Annual Review of Economics
783:
776:existing market failures.
511:
137:Deficit / surplus
2683:
2462:
2292:10.1142/S1793812009000024
2056:Development Policy Review
1846:Stanford University Press
1513:Resources in your library
238:Monetary (currency) union
2736:Public policy by country
2411:China's Political System
1781:China's Political System
1720:Harvard University Press
1710:Graham, Otis L. (1994).
1634:. London: Anthem Press.
1467:American Economic Review
1312:China's Political System
1143:Prince & Taylor 1982
995:Gereffi & Wyman 1990
834:Infant industry argument
480:Industrial policies are
1951:Koh, Jae Myong (2018).
1933:Oxford University Press
1663:Oxford University Press
1573:Oxford University Press
955:UNCTAD & UNIDO 2011
814:Green industrial policy
766:information asymmetries
2706:Public policy doctrine
2379:. Princeton, NJ:
2359:Cite journal requires
1902:Cite journal requires
1765:Cite journal requires
1718:. Cambridge, MA:
1691:. Princeton, NJ:
1068:Bown, Chad P. (2024).
494:macroeconomic policies
349:Discretionary spending
2696:Public administration
2691:Evidence-based policy
1844:. Stanford, CA:
1359:Pack & Saggi 2006
1242:Washington Technology
621:Reagan administration
541:The Wealth of Nations
2711:Public policy school
2159:. Chicago, IL:
1469:, 108 (11): 3339–76.
1462:Juhász, Réka. 2018.
1415:Lin & Chang 2009
1218:Koh 2018, pp. 28–39.
790:Continental Blockade
578:developmental states
560:the following year.
484:measures typical of
2106:"Industrial Policy"
1738:Hamilton, Alexander
1655:Stiglitz, Joseph E.
1594:. Armonk, NY:
824:Developmental state
669:of this section is
2110:David R. Henderson
1939:. pp. 165–195
1881:on 18 October 2012
1262:The New York Times
754:natural monopolies
740:Debates on process
724:interventions and
714:government failure
530:. List's views on
524:Alexander Hamilton
354:Mandatory spending
278:Non-tariff barrier
216:Monetary authority
2757:Industrial policy
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2390:978-0-691-11729-4
1985:978-0-521-54525-9
1961:978-3-319-71769-2
1836:Johnson, Chalmers
1791:978-1-4422-7736-6
1729:978-0-674-53935-8
1702:978-0-691-02297-0
1672:978-0-199-23526-1
1641:978-1-843-31027-3
1605:978-1-563-24596-1
1582:978-0-195-07603-5
1549:978-3-889-85533-6
1504:Industrial policy
1499:Library resources
718:East Asian Tigers
710:
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502:learning by doing
462:Industrial policy
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2118:(1st ed.).
2100:
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2021:. Archived from
2002:
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1916:Khan, Mushtaq H.
1911:
1905:
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421:
273:Gains from trade
263:Balance of trade
142:Finance ministry
33:
19:
18:
2777:
2776:
2772:
2771:
2770:
2768:
2767:
2766:
2747:
2746:
2745:
2740:
2716:Policy analysis
2679:
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2402:
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2391:
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2228:10.2307/3122975
2204:
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2175:
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2091:List, Friedrich
2080:
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2000:
1986:
1942:
1940:
1922:
1903:
1901:
1892:
1891:
1884:
1882:
1878:
1867:
1856:
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1801:
1799:
1792:
1766:
1764:
1755:
1754:
1747:
1745:
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1703:
1673:
1657:, eds. (2009).
1649:Cimoli, Mario;
1642:
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1249:
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1226:
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1213:
1205:
1201:
1193:
1189:
1181:
1177:
1169:
1165:
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1149:
1141:
1137:
1129:
1121:
1113:
1109:
1101:
1097:
1066:
1062:
1031:
1027:
1017:
1015:
1005:
1001:
993:
986:
978:
974:
965:
961:
953:
949:
941:
937:
925:
921:
909:
905:
864:
857:
852:
810:
786:
746:market failures
742:
706:
695:
689:
686:
675:
660:
656:
649:
584:. According to
514:
482:interventionist
475:energy industry
455:
410:
409:
405:Monetary reform
395:
387:
386:
382:Price stability
377:Economic growth
372:Balanced budget
367:
359:
358:
339:Non-tax revenue
334:
333:
313:
312:
303:Trade diversion
258:
248:
247:
201:Discount window
184:
182:Monetary policy
174:
173:
108:
98:
97:
43:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2775:
2765:
2764:
2759:
2742:
2741:
2739:
2738:
2733:
2731:Youth services
2728:
2723:
2721:Policy studies
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2687:
2685:
2681:
2680:
2678:
2677:
2672:
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2670:
2663:
2656:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2618:
2617:
2610:
2607:Pharmaceutical
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2582:
2581:
2574:
2571:Nuclear energy
2562:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2548:
2541:
2534:
2527:
2520:
2513:
2501:
2500:
2499:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2475:Climate change
2472:
2466:
2464:
2460:
2459:
2452:
2451:
2444:
2437:
2429:
2423:
2422:
2417:
2408:
2401:
2400:External links
2398:
2396:
2395:
2389:
2369:
2361:|journal=
2337:United Nations
2318:
2304:
2272:
2262:on 12 May 2013
2240:
2222:(3): 283–299.
2211:
2186:
2173:
2139:
2101:
2087:
2062:(5): 483–502.
2045:Chang, Ha-Joon
2037:
2013:(1–2): 41–55.
1990:
1984:
1964:
1949:
1912:
1904:|journal=
1860:
1854:
1832:
1826:
1807:
1790:
1775:
1767:|journal=
1734:
1728:
1707:
1701:
1680:
1677:
1671:
1651:Dosi, Giovanni
1646:
1640:
1628:Chang, Ha-Joon
1624:
1610:
1604:
1587:
1581:
1561:
1548:
1525:
1521:
1520:
1515:
1509:
1508:
1497:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1488:
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1471:
1455:
1451:Altenburg 2011
1443:
1431:
1419:
1407:
1387:
1375:
1363:
1351:
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1275:
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1199:
1187:
1175:
1163:
1147:
1145:, p. 283.
1135:
1127:
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1107:
1095:
1060:
1025:
999:
984:
972:
959:
947:
935:
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903:
854:
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851:
848:
847:
846:
844:The Lucas Plan
841:
836:
831:
826:
821:
816:
809:
806:
798:United Kingdom
785:
782:
764:or correcting
758:infrastructure
741:
738:
708:
707:
663:
661:
654:
648:
645:
639:Following the
528:Friedrich List
513:
510:
471:infrastructure
457:
456:
454:
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431:
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298:Trade creation
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23:Public finance
15:
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4:
3:
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2657:
2654:
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2649:
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2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2615:
2611:
2608:
2604:
2603:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2586:Environmental
2584:
2579:
2575:
2572:
2568:
2567:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2553:
2549:
2546:
2542:
2539:
2535:
2532:
2528:
2525:
2521:
2518:
2514:
2511:
2507:
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2497:
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2486:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2467:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2456:Public policy
2450:
2445:
2443:
2438:
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2431:
2430:
2427:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2412:
2409:
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2301:
2297:
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2201:
2194:
2193:
2187:
2176:
2174:0-226-45458-4
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2157:
2152:
2145:
2140:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2121:
2117:
2116:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2098:
2097:
2092:
2088:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2028:on 2012-09-11
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2007:
1999:
1995:
1994:Krugman, Paul
1991:
1987:
1981:
1977:
1974:. Cambridge:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1929:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1896:
1877:
1873:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1855:0-8047-1128-3
1851:
1847:
1843:
1842:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1827:1-8586-4334-1
1823:
1819:
1815:
1814:
1808:
1798:on 2017-04-26
1797:
1793:
1787:
1783:
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1643:
1637:
1633:
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1621:
1620:
1615:
1614:Carey, Mathew
1611:
1607:
1601:
1597:
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1588:
1584:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1551:
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1514:
1511:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1484:
1481:
1475:
1468:
1465:
1459:
1452:
1447:
1440:
1435:
1428:
1423:
1416:
1411:
1403:
1402:
1401:The Economist
1397:
1391:
1384:
1379:
1372:
1367:
1360:
1355:
1348:
1343:
1333:
1319:on 2017-04-26
1318:
1314:
1313:
1305:
1290:
1286:
1279:
1264:
1263:
1258:
1251:
1243:
1236:
1229:
1224:
1215:
1208:
1203:
1196:
1191:
1184:
1179:
1172:
1167:
1160:
1156:
1151:
1144:
1139:
1132:
1124:
1116:
1111:
1104:
1103:Hamilton 1827
1099:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1064:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1029:
1014:
1010:
1003:
996:
991:
989:
981:
976:
969:
963:
957:, p. 34.
956:
951:
944:
939:
932:
928:
923:
916:
912:
907:
899:
895:
890:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
862:
860:
855:
845:
842:
840:
837:
835:
832:
830:
827:
825:
822:
820:
817:
815:
812:
811:
805:
801:
799:
795:
794:French empire
791:
781:
777:
773:
769:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
750:externalities
747:
737:
735:
731:
727:
726:protectionist
723:
719:
715:
704:
701:
693:
683:
679:
673:
672:
668:
662:
653:
652:
644:
642:
637:
635:
631:
626:
622:
617:
615:
611:
607:
603:
600:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
561:
559:
558:Ronald Reagan
555:
550:
547:According to
545:
543:
542:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
520:
509:
505:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
486:mixed economy
483:
478:
476:
472:
467:
466:manufacturing
463:
452:
447:
445:
440:
438:
433:
432:
430:
429:
424:
420:
416:
415:
414:
413:
406:
403:
401:
398:
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391:
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370:
369:
363:
362:
355:
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350:
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340:
337:
336:
330:
327:
325:
322:
321:
317:
316:
309:
306:
304:
301:
299:
296:
294:
291:
289:
286:
284:
283:Protectionism
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
269:
266:
264:
261:
260:
257:
252:
251:
244:
241:
239:
236:
234:
233:Monetary base
231:
227:
224:
222:
219:
218:
217:
214:
212:
211:Interest rate
209:
207:
206:Gold reserves
204:
202:
199:
195:
192:
191:
190:
189:Bank reserves
187:
186:
183:
178:
177:
170:
167:
163:
160:
159:
158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
135:
131:
128:
127:
126:
123:
119:
116:
115:
114:
111:
110:
107:
106:Fiscal policy
102:
101:
94:
91:
89:
86:
84:
81:
79:
76:
74:
71:
69:
66:
64:
61:
59:
56:
54:
51:
49:
46:
45:
42:
37:
36:
32:
28:
27:
24:
21:
20:
2684:Other topics
2523:
2470:Agricultural
2376:
2373:Wade, Robert
2352:cite journal
2340:. Retrieved
2312:
2283:
2279:
2276:Rodrik, Dani
2264:. Retrieved
2260:the original
2251:
2244:Rodrik, Dani
2219:
2215:
2203:. Retrieved
2191:
2178:. Retrieved
2155:
2151:Paul Krugman
2113:
2095:
2079:. Retrieved
2059:
2055:
2030:. Retrieved
2023:the original
2010:
2004:
1971:
1952:
1941:. Retrieved
1927:
1895:cite journal
1883:. Retrieved
1876:the original
1840:
1812:
1800:. Retrieved
1796:the original
1780:
1758:cite journal
1746:. Retrieved
1713:
1686:
1658:
1631:
1618:
1591:
1568:
1553:. Retrieved
1531:
1503:
1482:
1474:
1466:
1458:
1446:
1434:
1422:
1410:
1399:
1390:
1378:
1366:
1354:
1342:
1332:
1321:. Retrieved
1317:the original
1311:
1304:
1292:. Retrieved
1289:The Mandarin
1288:
1278:
1266:. Retrieved
1260:
1250:
1241:
1235:
1223:
1214:
1202:
1195:Johnson 1982
1190:
1178:
1166:
1150:
1138:
1130:
1122:
1110:
1098:
1073:
1063:
1038:
1028:
1016:. Retrieved
1013:The Mandarin
1012:
1002:
980:Krugman 1987
975:
967:
962:
950:
938:
927:Bingham 1998
922:
906:
889:10419/282363
871:
802:
787:
778:
774:
770:
743:
734:rent-seeking
711:
696:
687:
665:
638:
618:
614:value chains
562:
554:Jimmy Carter
546:
539:
517:
515:
506:
490:trade policy
479:
461:
460:
256:Trade policy
243:Money supply
221:central bank
194:requirements
147:Fiscal union
62:
48:Agricultural
2627:Immigration
2614:Vaccination
2308:Smith, Adam
2286:(1): 1–29.
2163:. pp.
2041:Lin, Justin
1968:Kohli, Atul
1596:M.E. Sharpe
1383:Rodrik 2004
1371:Rodrik 2009
1347:Amsden 1992
1155:Graham 1994
943:Rodrik 2004
911:Graham 1994
630:free market
619:During the
594:South Korea
344:Tax revenue
2751:Categories
2726:Regulation
2667:Technology
2531:Investment
2524:Industrial
2200:World Bank
2032:2012-08-24
1937:World Bank
1802:2017-04-26
1661:. Oxford:
1571:. Oxford:
1323:2017-04-26
1294:26 January
1207:Kohli 2004
1171:Chang 2002
1157:, p.
1018:26 January
929:, p.
913:, p.
850:References
667:neutrality
590:Atul Kohli
538:, who, in
536:Adam Smith
532:free trade
293:Trade bloc
268:Free trade
93:Policy mix
68:Investment
63:Industrial
2653:Stem cell
2632:Knowledge
2560:Education
2342:27 August
2300:155012777
2266:24 August
2205:25 August
2180:25 August
2137:163149563
2129:317650570
2093:(1909) .
2081:25 August
1943:25 August
1885:25 August
1748:25 August
1740:(1827) .
1555:25 August
1427:Khan 2003
1268:25 August
1183:Wade 2003
1115:List 1909
1090:1941-1383
1055:1941-1383
898:1941-1383
722:heterodox
678:talk page
647:Criticism
586:Princeton
2642:Military
2637:Language
2538:Monetary
2504:Economic
2485:Domestic
2480:Cultural
2375:(2003).
2328:(2011).
2310:(1776).
2246:(2004).
2133:50016270
2076:17063817
2047:(2009).
1996:(1987).
1970:(2004).
1918:(2003).
1838:(1982).
1630:(2002).
1616:(1826).
1567:(1992).
1538:. Bonn:
808:See also
690:May 2023
671:disputed
329:Spending
157:Spending
130:internal
88:Monetary
53:Economic
41:Policies
2647:Science
2622:Housing
2596:Foreign
2517:Incomes
2236:3122975
2165:271–304
2153:(ed.).
2112:(ed.).
1493:Sources
819:Chaebol
792:on the
784:Effects
762:R&D
512:History
366:Optimum
324:Revenue
162:deficit
152:Revenue
2675:Social
2601:Health
2565:Energy
2510:Fiscal
2496:reform
2463:Fields
2387:
2322:UNCTAD
2298:
2234:
2171:
2127:
2074:
1982:
1959:
1852:
1824:
1788:
1726:
1699:
1669:
1638:
1602:
1579:
1546:
1501:about
1088:
1053:
896:
423:Portal
394:Reform
288:Tariff
118:policy
113:Budget
83:Fiscal
73:Social
58:Energy
2660:Space
2552:Trade
2333:(PDF)
2326:UNIDO
2296:S2CID
2256:UNIDO
2232:JSTOR
2196:(PDF)
2149:. In
2147:(PDF)
2108:. In
2072:S2CID
2052:(PDF)
2026:(PDF)
2001:(PDF)
1923:(PDF)
1879:(PDF)
1868:(PDF)
1536:(PDF)
606:TRIPS
602:TRIMs
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