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phenomenon that is merely related to communication. A prominent defender of this position is
Cunningham. He argues that many inner experiences discussed under this label form part of communicative processes. But he denies that they themselves are instances of communication. This pertains to forms of cognitive, perceptual, and motivational episodes commonly categorized as intrapersonal communication. He sees such categorizations as an "uncritical extension of communication terminology and metaphors to the facts of our inner life space." This is closely connected to the problem that the expression "intrapersonal communication" is often used in a very wide and ambiguous sense. However, some theorists have objected to Cunningham's critique. One argument is that communication studies in general is a multiparadigmatic discipline. This implies that it has not yet established definitions of its terms that are both precise and generally accepted. According to this view, the lack of precision does not mean that the concept is useless.
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and receiver have to be the same person. This is based on the idea that one can have imaginary dialogues with other people, such as a friend, a teacher, a lost relative, or a celebrity. OleΕ et al. hold instead that the hallmark of intrapersonal communication is that it only happens in the mind of one person. Some scholars see the process of searching and interpreting information as a central aspect of intrapersonal communication. This applies specifically to inner monologues and reflections on oneself, other people, and the environment. Frank J. Macke and Dean
Barnlund stress that the mechanical exchange of messages is not sufficient and that intrapersonal communication has to do with meaning and making sense of things. In this regard, intrapersonal communication can be distinguished from intraorganismic communication, which takes place below the personal level as an exchange of information between organs or cells.
342:, or I-positions within the same person. For example, when facing a difficult decision, one part of a person may argue in favor of one option while another part prefers a different option. Inner dialogue can also take the form of an exchange with an imagined partner. This is the case when anticipating a discussion with one's spouse or during imaginary conversations with celebrities or lost relatives. For self-talk or inner monologue, on the other hand, there is no split between different positions. It is speech directed at oneself, as when commenting on one's performance or telling oneself to "try again". Self-talk can be positive or negative depending on how the person evaluates themself. For example, after having failed an exam, a student may engage in negative self-talk by saying "I'm so stupid" or in positive self-talk, like "don't worry" or "I'll do better next time".
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the self to the same self. Others see the self as a complex entity made up of different parts and analyze the exchange as an interaction between parts. A closely related approach is to talk not of distinct parts of a single self but of different selves in the same person, like an emotional self, an intellectual self, or a physical self. On these views, intrapersonal communication is understood in analogy to interpersonal communication as an exchange between different parts or selves. In either case, intrapersonal relationships play a central role. They concern how a person relates to themselves, for example, how they see themselves and who they wish to be. Intrapersonal relationships are not directly observable. Instead, they have to be inferred based on other changes that can be perceived. For example, inferences about a person's
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communication. For example, when a person receives a message from a friend inviting them to their favorite restaurant, there are often various internal reactions to this message before sending an answer in return. These reactions include sights and scents, memories from previous visits, checking whether this would clash with other plans, and devising a route to get to the restaurant. These reactions are forms of intrapersonal communication. Other examples include self-talk in an attempt to evaluate the positions expressed by the speaker to assess whether one agrees or disagrees with them. But intrapersonal communication can also occur by itself without another party being involved.
154:, in which the sender and the receiver are distinct persons. The two phenomena influence each other in various ways. For example, positive and negative feedback received from other people affects how a person talks to themself. Intrapersonal communication is involved in interpreting messages received from others and in formulating responses. Because of this role, some theorists hold that intrapersonal communication is the foundation of all communication. But this position is not generally accepted and an alternative is to hold that intrapersonal communication is an internalized version of interpersonal communication.
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the most discussed form. It plays out in the mind of one person without externally expressing the message. It includes mental processes like thinking, meditating, and reflecting. However, there are also external forms of intrapersonal communication, like talking aloud to oneself in the form of private speech. Other examples are notetaking at school, writing a diary, preparing a shopping list, praying, or reciting a poem. External intrapersonal communication is also characterized by the fact that the sender and the receiver is the same person. The difference is that an external medium is used to express the message.
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information extracted this way in relation to each other through processes like comparing and contrasting. Memory stores previously received information. Especially relevant in regard to intrapersonal communication is the concept one has of oneself and how the newly received information relates to it. Perceptual sets are ingrained ways of organizing and evaluating this information, for example, how feminine and masculine traits are conceived. Encoding is the last step, in which the meaning processed in the previous steps is again expressed in symbolic form as a message sent to oneself.
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last step, the thus conceived ideas are encoded into a symbolic form and expressed using words, gestures, or movements. This process can happen right after the ideation or with some delay. It results in the generation and transmission of more stimuli, either purely internal or also external. The generated stimuli work as a feedback loop leading back to their reception and interpretation. In this sense, the same person is both the sender and the receiver of the messages. The feedback makes it possible for the communicator to monitor and correct messages.
354:. Other functions include self-distancing, motivation, self-evaluation, and reflection. Self-talk often happens in reaction to or anticipation of certain situations. It can help the agent prepare an appropriate response. It may also be used to regulate emotions and cope with unpleasant experiences as well as monitor oneself. Self-talk and inner dialogue are distinct phenomena but one can quickly turn into the other. For example, an intrapersonal communication may start as self-talk and then evolve into inner dialogue as more positions are considered.
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identifies two significant functions: to internalize cultural norms or ways of thinking and to regulate one's own activity. The self-regulatory function of intrapersonal communication is sometimes understood in analogy to interpersonal communication. For example, parents may influence the behavior of their children by uttering phrases like "wait, think". Once the child has learned them, they can be employed to control behavior by uttering them internally. This way, people learn to modify, accept, or reject plans of action.
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This is due to the fact that it mostly occurs internally without an immediate external manifestation. Since it is not directly observable, it has to be inferred based on other changes that can be visible. For example, when seeing that a person dresses well and takes care of their health, one may infer that certain intrapersonal relationships are responsible for this behavior. A similar inference about a person's inner life could be drawn based on whether they respond to a compliment by bragging or by playing it down.
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is the simpler case since only one person is involved. This person perceives private cues, like internal thoughts and feelings, public cues originating from the environment, and behavioral cues in the form of their own behavior. One part of communication is the process of decoding and interpreting these cues. Its goal is to make sense of them and to reduce uncertainty. It is accompanied by the activity of encoding behavioral responses to the cues. These two processes happen simultaneously and influence each other.
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729:("I") while others use second-person pronouns ("you"). Generally speaking, people are more likely to use the second-person pronoun when there is a need for self-regulation, an imperative to overcome difficulties, and facilitation of hard actions. The use of first-person intrapersonal pronouns is more frequent when people are talking to themselves about their feelings. A 2014 study by Sanda Dolcos and Dolores Albarracin indicates that using the second-person pronoun to provide
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514:, for example, intrapersonal communication develops first and manifests as a form of egocentric speech. This happens during play activities and may help the child learn to control their activities and plan ahead. Piaget holds that, at this early stage, children are not yet fully social beings and are more concerned with developing their individuality. On this view, interpersonal speech only arises later in the person's development. This view is opposed by
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response. This may cause their attention to focus mainly on their self-talk formulating a message. As a result, they may miss important aspects of what the current speaker is saying. Positive and effective self-talk, on the other hand, tends to make people better at communicating with others. One way to become better at interpersonal communication is to become aware of this self-talk and to be able to balance it with the need of listening.
570:. Their negative intrapersonal communication tends to revolve around fears that their skills are inadequate and may be exposed. In this regard, intrapersonal communication affects a person's self-view, their emotions, and whether they see themself as capable or incompetent. It can help build and maintain self-confidence but may also create defense mechanisms. Additionally, it plays a central role in self-discovery and self-delusion.
705:. A central idea in this field is that a set of negative core beliefs is responsible for negative self-talk. They can include beliefs like "I'm unlovable", "I'm unworthy", or "the world is threatening and I'm unable to face its challenges". A key therapeutic method for improving intrapersonal communication is to become aware of these beliefs and to question their truth. A further approach focuses on the practice of
518:, who argues that intrapersonal communication only happens as an internalization of interpersonal communication. According to him, children learn the tools for self-talk when their parents talk to them to regulate their behavior, for example, through suggestions, warnings, or commands. Intrapersonal communication may then be understood as an attempt by the child to regulate their behavior through similar means.
594:, it is a continuous flow of momentary states of consciousness as they are lived through by the subject. They include experiences like sensory perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and memories. The stream of consciousness is usually seen as a form of intrapersonal communication and the term is sometimes used as a synonym for interior monologue. In literary criticism, the term refers to a
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functions are problem-solving, decision-making, introspection, reflection, dreaming, and self-persuasion. The goal of some external forms of intrapersonal communication, like taking notes at school or writing a shopping list, is to aid memory. In some cases, they can also help break down and address a complex problem in a series of smaller steps, as when solving a
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existence. This can be followed by questioning and challenging negative evaluations since they are often exaggerated. The person may also try to stop them and replace them with more positive thoughts. For example, when the person becomes aware of a negative thinking process, they may try to inhibit it and direct their attention to more positive outcomes.
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in and how frequently they do so. Younger children are less likely to report using inner speech instead of visual thinking than older children and adults. But it is not known whether this is due to lack of inner speech or due to insufficiently developed introspection. A method to study intrapersonal communication in natural environments, developed by
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help people calm down and become clear on their goals and how to realistically achieve them. Another relevant form is instructional self-talk, which focuses attention on the components of a task and can improve performance on physical tasks that are being learned. However, it may have negative effects for people who are already skilled in the task.
542:, problem-solving, and planning as well as remembering. It often accompanies diverse communicative tasks, such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing, for example, to understand an expression or to formulate a new one. More specific applications are to calm oneself down in stressful situations and to internalize new knowledge when learning a
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given a task designed specifically to elicit inner speech, such as thinking silently about how their own name sounded. Forty per cent of 4-year-olds and 55 per cent of 5-year-olds admitted to having used inner speech rather than a visual method for getting the answer, figures that were significantly lower than the equivalent scores for adults.
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713:, it may improve self-esteem and intrapersonal communication. This practice consists in directing one's attention to experiences in the present moment without any evaluation of these experiences. Abstaining from value judgments may help to avoid overly critical evaluations and instead foster an attitude of acceptance.
243:. This is the case, for example, when interpreting what another person has said and when formulating a response before enunciating it. Some theorists, like Mary J. Farley, hold that intrapersonal communication is an essential part of all communication and, therefore, always accompanies interpersonal communication.
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term is usually understood in a more restricted sense. Frank J. Macke approaches this problem by arguing that intrapersonal communication has to do with meaning and that some form of communicative experience is involved. On this view, the mechanical exchange of messages alone is not sufficient for communication.
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the inner voice focuses on bad aspects of the self, often in an excessively critical way. It can take the form of telling oneself that "I'm never going to be able to do this" or "I'm no good at this". Negative self-talk can already develop during childhood based on feedback from others, particularly parents.
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A further problem in defining intrapersonal communication is that there are countless processes within the human body responsible for exchanging messages. So when understood in this very wide sense, even processes like breathing could be understood as intrapersonal communication. For this reason, the
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or a style of writing used to express this stream of experiences. This usually happens by presenting the thoughts of a character directly without any summary or explanation by the narrator. It aims to give the reader a very immediate impression of what a character's experience is like. It often takes
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in 1970. He aims to give an account of communication that encompasses both its interpersonal and its intrapersonal side. He identifies communication not with the transmission of messages but with the production of meaning in response to internal and external cues. For him, intrapersonal communication
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to the stimuli as a form of decoding. How these processes take place is influenced by factors like the communicator's social background and current environment. After the symbolic decoding process, ideation occurs in the form of thinking, organizing information, planning, and proposing messages. As a
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Various types of intrapersonal communication are distinguished in the academic literature. The term is often used in a very wide sense and includes many phenomena. A central contrast is based on whether the exchange happens purely internally or is mediated through external means. The internal type is
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Intrapersonal communication has not been researched as thoroughly as other types of communication. One reason is that there are additional problems concerning how to study it and how to conceptualize it. A difficulty in this regard is that it is not as easy to observe as interpersonal communication.
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The self is not a static or inborn entity but changes throughout life. Interactions with other people have an effect on the individual's self-image. This is especially true in relation to how they judge the person and when receiving positive or negative feedback on an important task. Inner speech is
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Different forms of self-talk can have different effects on the person. One form is coping self-talk. Its main aim is to help a person cope with a difficult situation, such as when experiencing anxiety. It consists in emphasizing the person's strengths and skills without implying perfection. This can
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Like other forms of communication, intrapersonal communication can be trained and improved to be more effective. This often happens with the goal of reducing negative self-talk and fostering positive self-talk instead. An early step is often to become aware of negative patterns and acknowledge their
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In the Barker-Wiseman model, an early step of intrapersonal communication focuses on classifying these stimuli. In this process, many of the weaker stimuli are filtered out before reaching a conscious level. But they may still affect communication despite this. A similar process groups the remaining
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with oneself. It takes place within a person. Larry Barker and Gordon
Wiseman define it as "the creating, functioning, and evaluating of symbolic processes which operate primarily within oneself". Its most typical forms are self-talk and inner dialogue. For example, when an employee decides to leave
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and characteristics. Intrapersonal communication is not as thoroughly researched as other forms of communication. One reason is that it is more difficult to study since it happens primarily as an internal process. Another reason is that the term is often used in a very wide sense making it difficult
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to study intrapersonal communication. Questionnaires sometimes used in the process include the Self-Talk Scale, the
Varieties of Inner Speech Questionnaire, and the Internal Dialogical Activity Scale. Among other things, they aim to measure what types of intrapersonal communication a person engages
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Self-talk is a form of talking to oneself. It differs from inner dialogue since it only involves one voice and not an internal exchange between several voices. A common distinction is between positive and negative self-talk based on the evaluative attitude that is expressed. For negative self-talk,
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and Sheila
Steinberg, have claimed that intrapersonal communication is the foundation of all other forms of communication. Similar claims are that intrapersonal communication is omnipresent and that it is a requirement or preliminary of interpersonal communication. However, the claim of the primacy
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or how they see themselves. This in turn has implications for how they talk to themselves in the form of positive or negative self-talk. But the converse is also true: how a person talks to themselves affects how they interact with other people. One reason for this is that some form of inner dialog
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or writing a diary or a shopping list. In this regard, it only matters that the sender and the receiver is the same person but it does not matter whether an external medium was used in the process. A slightly different conception is presented by Piotr K. OleΕ et al. They reject the idea that sender
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The child was asked questions like, 'Is she just thinking, up in her head, or is she also saying things to herself, up in her head?' The 6-and 7-year-olds acknowledged that inner speech was probably going on, but the 4-year-olds were much less likely to do so. In a second experiment, children were
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According to Larry
Ehrlich, intrapersonal communication has three main functions. One function is to monitor the environment and ensure that it is safe. In this regard, self-talk is used to analyze perceptions and to plan responses in case direct or indirect threats are detected. A closely related
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Both intrapersonal and interpersonal communication involve the exchange of messages. For interpersonal communication, the sender and the receiver are distinct persons, like when talking to a friend on the phone. For intrapersonal communication, one and the same person occupies both of these roles.
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Many theorists focus on the concept of the self in intrapersonal communication. There is a variety of definitions but many agree that the self is an entity that is unique to each individual, i.e. not shared between individuals. Some theorists understand intrapersonal communication as a relation of
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Among the inner verbal forms of intrapersonal communication, an often-discussed contrast is between self-talk and inner dialogue. In the case of inner dialogue, two or more positions are considered and the exchange takes place by contrasting them. It usually happens in the form of different voices
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In the context of organizations, the term "autocommunication" is sometimes used as a synonym. It is employed to describe self-communication in the workspace. For example, synchronous autocommunication is used when mentally reassuring oneself or drafting a letter. Asynchronous autocommunication, on
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Intrapersonal communication serves a great variety of functions. They include internalization, self-regulation, processing information, and problem-solving. Because of this, communication theorist James P. Lantolf characterizes it as an "exceptionally powerful and pervasive tool for thinking". He
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However, self-talk may also interfere with the ability to listen. For example, when a person has an important meeting later today, their thoughts may be racing around this topic, making the person less responsive to interactions in the present. In some cases, the listener is very keen on making a
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Intrapersonal communication need not be cut off from outer influences and often happens as a reaction to them. For example, hearing a familiar piece of music may stir up memories that lead to an internal dialog with past selves. In a similar sense, intrapersonal communication is not restricted to
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Stanley B. Cunningham lists a total of 17 functions or characteristics commonly ascribed to intrapersonal communication. They include talking to oneself, dialogue between different parts of the self, and perception as well as interpreting environmental cues and ascribing meaning to them. Further
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The self-concept plays a key role in intrapersonal communication. A person's self-concept is what they think and feel about themselves, for example, in relation to their appearance and attitudes as well as strengths and weaknesses. So seeing oneself as sincere, respectful, and thoughtful is one
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have been proposed. They aim to provide a simplified overview of the process of communication by showing what its main components are and how they interact. Most of them focus primarily on interpersonal communication but some are specifically formulated with intrapersonal communication in mind.
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There are many differences between self-talk and inner dialogue. Inner dialogue is usually more complex. It can be used to simulate social situations and examine a topic from different angles. Its goal is frequently to explore the differences between conflicting points of view, to make sense of
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Sheila
Steinberg follows Graeme Burton and Richard Dimbleby by understanding intrapersonal communication as a process involving five elements: decoding, integration, memory, perceptual sets, and encoding. Decoding consists in making sense of messages. Integration puts the individual pieces of
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Some criticisms focus on the concept of intrapersonal communication itself. Intrapersonal communication is commonly accepted and used as a distinct type of communication. However, some theorists reject the claim that it is actually a form of communication. Instead, they see it as a different
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The importance of intrapersonal communication is reflected by how it affects other phenomena. For example, it has been argued that people who engage in positive self-talk are usually better at problem-solving and communicating with others, including listening skills. Negative intrapersonal
803:". A similar topic is discussed by Simon Jones and Charles Fernyhough, who explain cases of auditory verbal hallucinations as a form of inner speech. Auditory verbal hallucinations are cases in which a person hears speech without any external stimulation. On their view, speech is an inner
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Another discussion in the academic literature is about the question of whether intrapersonal communication is in some sense more basic than interpersonal communication. This is based on the idea that some form of intrapersonal communication is necessary for and accompanies interpersonal
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judgment. For example, some skilled people suffer from the imposter syndrome, which leads them to believe that they are imposters lacking the skills they actually have. Self-esteem matters for mental health. Low self-esteem is linked to problems ranging from depression, loneliness, and
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in various areas, for example, concerning their body image. Positive self-talk, on the other hand, involves seeing oneself in a positive light. It is linked to mental health benefits. They include higher self-esteem and well-being as well as reducing the effects of depression and
219:. It is a self-to-self communication, in the sense that the sender and the receiver is the same person. It contrasts with interpersonal communication, in which sender and receiver are distinct persons. Intrapersonal communication is examined by the discipline known as
173:. A step commonly associated with countering negative self-talk is to become aware of negative patterns. Further steps are to challenge the truth of overly critical judgments and to foster more positive patterns of thought. Of special relevance in this regard is the
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with oneself or self-to-self communication. Examples are thinking to oneself "I will do better next time" after having made a mistake or imagining a conversation with one's boss in preparation for leaving work early. It is often understood as an exchange of
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carrying information. External stimuli belong to the senses and usually provide information about the environment. Internal stimuli include a wide range of impressions, both concerning the state of the body, like pain, but also encompassing feelings.
546:. This happens when repeating new vocabulary to oneself in order to remember it. Intrapersonal communication can also be applied to a great variety of creative tasks, like using it to come up with musical compositions, paintings, or dance routines.
487:, this may make it hard for them to accept praise from other people. On a more basic level, it can affect how messages from other people are interpreted. For example, an overly self-critical person may interpret an honest compliment as a form of
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The most typical forms of intrapersonal communication happen internally, like thinking and daydreaming (top images). However, some forms make use of an external medium, like note taking at school or writing a shopping list for oneself (bottom
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as sender and receiver. Others see the self as a complex entity and understand the process as an exchange between different parts of the self or between different selves belonging to the same person. Intrapersonal communication contrasts with
103:. Self-talk involves only one voice talking to itself. For inner dialogue, several voices linked to different positions take turns in a form of imaginary interaction. Other phenomena related to intrapersonal communication include planning,
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concerns the properties that a person ascribes to themself. The ideal-self is the ideal the person strives toward or what they want to be like. Self-worth corresponds to whether they see themself overall as a good or a bad person.
79:. Some researchers see this as the only form. In a wider sense, however, there are also types of self-to-self communication that are mediated through external means, like when writing a diary or a shopping list for oneself. For
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Despite this difference, the two are closely related. For example, some theorists, like Linda
Costigan Lederman, conceptualize inner dialogue in analogy to social interaction as an exchange between different parts of the self.
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Beilock, S. L.; Carr, T.H.; McMahon, C.; Starkes, J. L (2002). "When paying attention becomes counterproductive: Impact of divided versus skill focused attention on novice and experienced performance of sensorimotor skills".
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strongly associated with a sense of self. The development of this sense in children is tied to the development of language. There are, however, cases of an internal monologue or inner voice being considered external to the
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self-concept while seeing oneself as mean, abusive, and deceitful is another. The terms "self-image" and "self-esteem" are sometimes used as synonyms but some theorists draw precise distinctions between them. According to
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Barnlund's model of intrapersonal communication. The green, blue, and gray areas symbolize different types of cues. The orange arrows represent that the person decodes certain cues. The yellow arrow is their behavioral
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forms like some forms of imagination, visualization, or memory. In this regard, intrapersonal communication can be used, for example, to explore how a piece of music would sound or how a painting should be continued.
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Dolcos, Sanda; Albarracin, Dolores (October 2014). "The inner speech of behavioral regulation: Intentions and task performance strengthen when you talk to yourself as a You: Self-talk person and self-regulation".
629:. Closely related phenomena are introspective writing and inner speech writing. They are usually understood as forms of externalized inner speech in which the person writes down portions of their inner dialogue.
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of intrapersonal communication is not generally accepted and many theorists hold that social interaction is more basic. They often see inner speech as an internalized or derivative version of social speech.
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controlled by the agent. But in some pathological cases, it is not recognized as an action. This leads to an auditory verbal hallucination since the voice is experienced as an external or alien element.
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is usually involved when talking to others to interpret what they say and to determine what one wants to communicate to them. For example, if a person's intrapersonal communication is characterized by
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For some people, negative self-talk is not just an occasional occurrence but happens frequently. In such cases, it can have detrimental effects on mental health. For example, it can affect emotional
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Many theorists use the term "self-esteem" instead of "self-worth". Self-esteem is a central aspect characterizing intrapersonal communication and refers to a person's subjective evaluation of their
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Some theorists, like James Watson and Anne Hill, restrict the definition of intrapersonal communication to inner experiences or "what goes on inside our heads", like talking to oneself within one's
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function is to bring harmony between the inner and outer world by making sense of oneself and one's environment. A third function is of a more existential nature and aims at dealing with
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Inner speech may be needed for many higher mental processes to work. It has a vital role in mental functions such as shaping and controlling one's thoughts, regulating one's behavior,
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and making sense of things. Intrapersonal communication can happen alone or in social situations. It may be prompted internally or occur as a response to changes in the environment.
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Honeycutt, James M.; Ford, Sherry G. (January 2001). "Mental
Imagery and Intrapersonal Communication: A Review of Research on Imagined Interactions (IIs) and Current Developments".
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161:, specifically in relation to positive and negative self-talk. Negative self-talk focuses on bad aspects of the self, at times in an excessively critical way. It is linked to
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Oliver, Emily J.; Markland, David; Hardy, James; Petherick, Caroline M. (September 2008). "The effects of autonomy-supportive versus controlling environments on self-talk".
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communication, on the other hand, is linked to insecurities and low self-esteem and may lead to negative interactions with others. For example, people suffering from the
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Because of its many functions and influences, intrapersonal communication is usually understood as a significant psychological phenomenon. It plays a key role in
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The two phenomena also influence each other in various ways. For example, the positive and negative feedback a person receives from other people shapes their
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Daniels, Professor Harry; Daniels, Harry; Cole, Michael; Wertsch, James V.; Wertsch, Professor and Chair
Department of Education James V. (30 April 2007).
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work early, they may engage in an inner dialogue by mentally going through possible negative comments from their boss and potential responses. Other inner
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in which sender and receiver are the same person. Some theorists use a wider definition that goes beyond message-based accounts and focuses on the role of
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A closely related issue concerns the questions of how interpersonal and intrapersonal communication interact in the development of children. According to
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Barnlund, Dean C. (5 July 2013). "A Transactional Model of Communication". In Akin, Johnnye; Goldberg, Alvin; Myers, Gail; Stewart, Joseph (eds.).
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and characteristics. As a subjective evaluation, it may differ from the facts and is often based mainly on an emotional outlook and less on a
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According to the model proposed by Barker and Wiseman in 1966, intrapersonal communication starts with the reception of external and internal
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Rimes, Katharine A.; Watkins, Ed (December 2005). "The effects of self-focused rumination on global negative self-judgements in depression".
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taking turns in arguing for their position. This can be conceptualized in analogy to interpersonal communication as an exchange of different
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Intrapersonal communication encompasses a great variety of phenomena. A central type happens purely internally as an exchange within one's
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Jones, Simon R.; Fernyhough, Charles (June 2007). "Thought as action: Inner speech, self-monitoring, and auditory verbal hallucinations".
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690:. A common idea in this regard is that positive self-talk enhances performance while negative self-talk hinders it. There is some
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Barker, Deborah R.; Barker, Larry L. (January 1992). "Criteria for Evaluating Models of Intrapersonal Communication Processes".
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230:. But in a wider sense, it also includes external forms of self-to-self communication, such as speaking to oneself aloud during
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Hatzigeorgiadis, A.; Zourbanos, N.; Galanis, E.; Theordorakis, Y. (2011). "Self-talk and sports performance: A meta-analysis".
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Lantolf, James P. (18 August 2009). "Intrapersonal Communication Theories". In Littlejohn, Stephen W.; Foss, Karen A. (eds.).
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discuss which components are involved and how they interact. Many models hold that the process starts with the perception and
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Evidence-Based School Mental Health Services: Affect Education, Emotion Regulation Training, and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
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Barker and Wiseman understand intrapersonal communication as a complex process involving the interaction of various elements.
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situations in which a person is alone. Instead, it also happens in social circumstances and may occur simultaneously with
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an unpunctuated and disjointed form that violates rules of grammar and logic. Often-discussed examples are found in
4955:
4870:
2701:
2314:
2089:
1358:
401:
2121:
1942:
1821:
4910:
4753:
Wrench, Jason S.; Punyanunt-Carter, Narissra M.; Thweatt, Katherine S. (2020). "3. Intrapersonal Communication".
2198:
2214:
2052:
1840:
1688:
1280:
5396:
4836:
4120:
3082:
2073:
1899:
1444:
365:
and understanding as well as conceptualization and interpretation of environmental cues. Further phenomena are
4031:
Lantolf, James P. (2003). "Intrapersonal Communication and Internalization in the Second Language Classroom".
2473:
2417:
2249:
1047:
900:
5112:
1704:
1346:
1314:
1264:
876:
645:. This pertains specifically to positive and negative self-talk as well as its relation to the self-concept.
470:
Intrapersonal communication contrasts with interpersonal communication, in which several people are involved.
4754:
3756:
Gammage, Kimberley L; Hardy, James; Hall, Craig R (October 2001). "A description of self-talk in exercise".
2008:
1330:
1010:
829:, is to have participants describe their inner experience at random intervals the moment a beeper goes off.
5422:
5142:
5092:
5032:
2105:
702:
4661:
Vargas, Divane; Evangelista, Priscila Araujo; Ueda, Natalia Mayumi; Santana, Karen Oliveira (April 2023).
3689:
Farley, Mary J. (September 1992). "Thought and Talk: The Intrapersonal Component of Human Communication".
2944:
Applegate, James L. (January 1992). "Theoretical Choices That Clarify the Present and Define the Future".
535:. Many theorists also draw a close connection to the processes of searching and interpreting information.
5122:
5107:
4935:
4930:
3739:
Clinical Handbook of Psychological Disorders in Children and Adolescents: A Step-by-Step Treatment Manual
3284:
2270:
605:
461:
361:, and internal conflict resolution, as well as judgments about oneself and other people. Other forms are
240:
151:
134:
5047:
3402:"Maintaining a Positive Self-Image by Stereotyping Others: Self-Threat and the Stereotype Content Model"
3279:
1460:
4895:
864:
466:
2401:
5228:
5097:
5062:
4663:"Communication as pillar for anxiety management in the nursing during the COVID-19: a scoping review"
855: β The mind's ability to imagine the different positions of participants in an internal dialogue
726:
4182:
4990:
4920:
4875:
1793:
426:
326:
84:
321:, like self-talk and inner dialogue. Its hallmark is that messages are expressed using a symbolic
34:
Intensive thinking to oneself is a typical form of intrapersonal communication, as exemplified by
5162:
5147:
4985:
4975:
4216:
587:
394:
130:
5238:
3052:
Barker, Larry L.; Wiseman, Gordon (1 September 1966). "A Model of Intrapersonal Communication".
5333:
4177:
4092:
Littlejohn, Stephen W.; Foss, Karen A. (18 August 2009). "Constitutive View of Communication".
3462:
Cunningham, Stanley B. (1 January 1992). "Intrapersonal Communication: A Review and Critique".
784:
2695:
2533:
2499:
2455:
2427:
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can be drawn based on whether they respond to a compliment by bragging or by playing it down.
5157:
5087:
4960:
4859:
4168:
Martin, J.R. (2013). "Out of Nowhere: Thought Insertion, Ownership and Context-Integration".
2711:
2515:
2352:
2227:
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2192:
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2099:
2067:
1834:
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1539:
1507:
1489:
1340:
1136:
919:
551:
410:
220:
138:
357:
Intrapersonal communication is linked to a great range of phenomena. They include planning,
346:
strange positions, and to integrate different perspectives. It also plays a central role in
247:
the other hand, takes the form of reminders or diaries. This term is also sometimes used in
5368:
5167:
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5082:
5072:
5067:
1415:
1413:
1411:
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8:
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3559:
DeLucia-Waack, Janice L.; Gerrity, Deborah A.; Kalodner, Cynthia R.; Riva, Maria (2004).
804:
595:
418:
stimuli according to their urgency. It runs in parallel with attempts to attach symbolic
4237:
Silent Statements: Narrative Representations of Speech and Silence in the Gospel of Luke
1875:
284:
5152:
5127:
5102:
5027:
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4786:
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The Counselor and the Group, Fourth Edition: Integrating Theory, Training, and Practice
4393:
4359:
4332:
4203:
3964:
3889:
3840:
3640:
Fatal Words and Friendly Faces: Interpersonal Communication in the Twenty-first Century
3426:
3401:
3200:
Honeycutt, James (18 June 2014). "Imagined Interactions". In Berger, Charles R. (ed.).
3158:
3065:
2985:
2483:
733:
is more effective in promoting the intentions to carry out behaviors and performances.
691:
600:
5253:
3922:
Media Convergence: The Three Degrees of Network, Mass, and Interpersonal Communication
3769:
3720:
Contemporary Nursing Knowledge: Analysis and Evaluation of Nursing Models and Theories
3702:
2782:
637:
The way intrapersonal communication is conducted can be responsible both for positive
83:
intrapersonal communication, messages are formulated using a language, in contrast to
5183:
4816:
4760:
4739:
4720:
4701:
4647:
4626:
4605:
4588:
4557:
4536:
4517:
4498:
4479:
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4439:
4422:
4364:
4331:
OleΕ, Piotr K.; Brinthaupt, Thomas M.; Dier, Rachel; Polak, Dominika (6 March 2020).
4317:
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800:
792:
772:
764:
666:
559:
347:
170:
4571:
Tod, D.; Hardy, J.; Oliver, E. (2011). "Effects of self-talk: A systematic review".
4397:
4207:
3844:
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2986:"Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: A conceptual and empirical review"
5308:
5000:
4806:
4798:
4682:
4674:
4580:
4414:
4385:
4354:
4344:
4333:"Types of Inner Dialogues and Functions of Self-Talk: Comparisons and Implications"
4314:
The Senses in Religious Communities, 1600β1800: Early Modern 'Convents of Pleasure'
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3885:
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2162:, Intrapersonal Communication and Internalization in the Second Language Classroom.
826:
687:
583:
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5343:
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5218:
5208:
5198:
5193:
5020:
4191:
3952:
3339:
Chandler, Daniel; Munday, Rod (10 February 2011). "intrapersonal communication".
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2411:
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104:
4495:
Developmental Psychology: Childhood & Adolescence: Childhood and Adolescence
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5298:
5273:
5258:
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4418:
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2581:
846:
821:
775:. Self-esteem also affects how a person communicates with themself and others.
710:
642:
620:
484:
231:
4678:
4389:
4111:
Lotman, IοΈ UοΈ‘. M. (1990). "2. Autocommunication: T and 'Other' as addressees".
4052:
Lawson, Celeste; Gill, Robert; Feekery, Angela; Witsel, Mieke (12 June 2019).
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5411:
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3828:
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436:
378:
195:
158:
120:
60:
3853:
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746:, the self-concept has three parts: self-image, ideal self, and self-worth.
716:
5338:
5278:
5268:
5213:
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351:
208:
174:
4584:
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3621:
Transparent Minds: Narrative Modes for Presenting Consciousness in Fiction
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3004:
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5318:
4925:
2569:
2545:
1434:
1432:
743:
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610:
511:
449:
293:
204:
178:
88:
40:
4828:
4787:"Splitting of the Mind: When the You I Talk to is Me and Needs Commands"
4474:
Schinke, Robert J.; McGannon, Kerry R.; Smith, Brett (5 February 2016).
3112:
Prisoners Of Hate: The Cognitive Basis of Anger, Hostility, and Violence
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supporting this position but it has not yet been thoroughly researched.
686:. The effects of positive and negative self-talk are often discussed in
145:
of a message that becomes a new stimulus. Some models identify the same
4995:
4950:
4945:
4785:
Zell, Ethan; Warriner, Amy Beth; AlbarracΓn, Dolores (September 2012).
3658:
2770:
2040:
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1166:
1164:
1162:
870:
768:
747:
670:
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579:
563:
532:
362:
215:. As a form of communication, it involves the sending and receiving of
200:
108:
3611:
3379:
The Voices Within: The History and Science of How We Talk to Ourselves
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4980:
3400:
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755:
679:
539:
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248:
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24:
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Lane, Shelley D.; Abigail, Ruth Anne; Gooch, John (28 April 2016).
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2593:
2557:
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1676:
796:
759:
314:
142:
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Emilien, Gerard; Weitkunat, Rolf; LΓΌdicke, Frank (14 March 2017).
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2433:
2379:
2377:
2375:
2373:
1958:
1887:
683:
567:
488:
350:
construction and self-organization. One function of self-talk is
317:. Most discussions in the academic literature are concerned with
216:
166:
65:
30:
4756:
Interpersonal Communication: A Mindful Approach to Relationships
3978:"CBT: A way to reshape your negative thinking and reduce stress"
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Intrapersonal communication: different voices, different minds
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Lederman, Linda Costigan (2002). Schement, Jorge Reina (ed.).
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2744:
2165:
2004:
1606:
1374:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1219:
1217:
1006:
849: β Psychological technique related to the placebo effect
578:
Intrapersonal communication is also relevant in the field of
382:
124:
35:
4660:
4375:
2587:
2336:
2184:
2182:
2180:
1750:
1738:
1723:
1661:
1646:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1203:
1201:
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Examples of specific forms of self-talk and their effects
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Some forms of self-talk address the self by employing
177:, i.e. how a person sees themself, specifically their
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3688:
3501:
3485:Dictionary of media and communications
3482:
3263:. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 1β58.
2723:
2292:
2111:
1713:
1600:
1466:
1352:
1320:
1270:
1231:
952:
885: β Internal process while reading
861: β Words in the mind during sleep
4832:
4531:Sullivan, Larry E. (31 August 2009).
4452:
4253:
3920:Jensen, Klaus Bruhn (17 March 2022).
3817:Perspectives on Psychological Science
3656:
3600:European Journal of Social Psychology
3539:
2395:
1846:
1812:Emilien, Weitkunat & LΓΌdicke 2017
1694:
1636:
1553:
131:Models of intrapersonal communication
4715:Vocate, Donna R. (6 December 2012).
4600:Trotzer, James P. (21 August 2013).
4094:Encyclopedia of Communication Theory
4014:Encyclopedia of Communication Theory
3976:LaMotte, Sandee (27 November 2021).
3278:Cameron, Claire (19 November 2015).
3240:Bottigheimer, Ruth B. (April 1989).
3128:
3110:Beck, Aaron T. (14 September 2010).
3109:
2983:
2576:Zell, Warriner & AlbarracΓn 2012
2479:
2407:
1990:Collange, Fiske & Sanitioso 2009
1870:1.1 Communication: History and Forms
1624:
203:are also commonly included, such as
3852:Healthdirect staff (4 March 2022).
3523:The Cambridge Companion to Vygotsky
13:
4622:Business Communication for Success
4535:. SAGE Publications. p. 271.
4254:Minai, Asghar T. (20 March 2017).
3540:Deetz, Stanley (25 October 2011).
3135:The American Journal of Psychiatry
3114:. Harper Collins. pp. 40β42.
3066:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1966.tb00031.x
2925:Anderson, James A. (23 May 2012).
2452:Schinke, McGannon & Smith 2016
319:verbal intrapersonal communication
14:
5434:
4497:. Cengage Learning. p. 290.
4273:Moseley, Peter (21 August 2014).
3582:. Psychology Press. p. 293.
3502:Danesi, Marcel (1 January 2000).
3305:. SAGE Publications. p. 55.
3301:Carroll, Craig E. (31 May 2016).
3087:. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 48.
2868:, pp. 633, 635β636, 640β641.
1504:Fawcett & DeSanto-Madeya 2012
190:Definition and essential features
5392:
5391:
5046:
4667:Patient Education and Counseling
3995:Communication in a Civil Society
3758:Psychology of Sport and Exercise
573:
292:
283:
272:
263:
4911:Computer-mediated communication
4643:Communication in the Real World
1970:
1520:
1476:
649:Positive and negative self-talk
194:Intrapersonal communication is
4436:Communication: An Introduction
4407:Behaviour Research and Therapy
4312:Nicky Hallett (3 March 2016).
3905:. Cambridge University Press.
3886:10.1080/23808985.2001.11679007
3476:10.1080/23808985.1992.11678829
3147:10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08050721
3045:10.1080/23808985.1992.11678831
2958:10.1080/23808985.1992.11678830
2636:Borgatta & Montgomery 2000
2564:Gammage, Hardy & Hall 2001
2496:Flessner & Piacentini 2019
2009:3. Intrapersonal Communication
1573:Lane, Abigail & Gooch 2016
1536:Lane, Abigail & Gooch 2016
1113:
1110:, Intrapersonal communication.
1011:3. Intrapersonal Communication
701:A similar approach is used in
1:
4738:. Bloomsbury Publishing USA.
3997:. Routledge. pp. 62β63.
3770:10.1016/S1469-0292(01)00011-5
3703:10.1016/s0001-2092(07)70190-4
2910:. Hampton Press. p. 52.
2049:, pp. 597, 599β600, 603.
1986:, Intrapersonal communication
1129:, Intrapersonal communication
889:
877:Internal Family Systems Model
820:A further approach is to use
562:are continuously affected by
5033:Text and conversation theory
4192:10.1016/j.concog.2012.11.012
3953:10.1016/j.concog.2005.12.003
3781:. Springer. pp. 14β15.
3544:. Routledge. p. 633-4.
3487:. M.E. Sharpe. p. 164.
2908:Advertising in Everyday Life
2906:Alperstein, Neil M. (2003).
2600:Dolcos & Albarracin 2014
2528:Tod, Hardy & Oliver 2011
894:
737:Self-concept and self-esteem
703:cognitive behavioral therapy
582:. Of particular interest to
7:
5418:Intrapersonal communication
4556:. Oxford University Press.
4239:. De Gruyter. p. 124.
3941:Consciousness and Cognition
3362:. OUP Oxford. p. 448.
3343:. OUP Oxford. p. 225.
3225:. Macmillan Reference USA.
3202:Interpersonal Communication
2890:Catt & Eicher-Catt 2010
2818:Catt & Eicher-Catt 2010
2736:Jones & Fernyhough 2007
2540:Hatzigeorgiadis et al. 2011
1451:Chandler & Munday 2011a
1244:Catt & Eicher-Catt 2010
879: β Psychotherapy model
867: β German psychologist
840:
462:Interpersonal communication
241:interpersonal communication
181:or how they evaluate their
152:interpersonal communication
49:Intrapersonal communication
10:
5439:
4604:. Routledge. p. 444.
4512:Steinberg, Sheila (2007).
4478:. Routledge. p. 451.
4419:10.1016/j.brat.2004.12.002
3924:. Routledge. p. 120.
3722:. F.A. Davis. p. 87.
3638:Ehrlich, Larry G. (2000).
3418:10.1521/soco.2009.27.1.138
2969:. Routledge. p. 689.
2929:. Routledge. p. 239.
2898:
2321:Diaz, Berk & Diaz 2014
1906:Burton & Dimbleby 2006
1882:Chandler & Munday 2011
1800:Littlejohn & Foss 2009
1643:, Models Of Communication.
865:Friedemann Schulz von Thun
459:
385:, imagining, and feeling.
22:
18:Communication with oneself
5387:
5176:
5055:
5044:
4884:
4866:
4679:10.1016/j.pec.2022.10.073
4390:10.1007/s11031-008-9097-x
4316:. Routledge. p. 50.
4221:The Literary Encyclopedia
4217:"Stream of consciousness"
3674:. Springer. p. 163.
3542:Communication Yearbook 15
3222:Encyclopedia of Sociology
2927:Communication Yearbook 11
2765:Barker & Wiseman 1966
2349:Gravell & France 2013
1965:Barker & Wiseman 1966
1760:Barker & Wiseman 1966
1745:Barker & Wiseman 1966
1733:Barker & Wiseman 1966
1683:Barker & Wiseman 1966
1668:Barker & Wiseman 1966
1656:Barker & Wiseman 1966
1486:DeLucia-Waack et al. 2004
1189:Honeycutt & Ford 2001
1151:Barker & Wiseman 1966
976:Barker & Wiseman 1966
873: β Personality model
633:Relation to mental health
388:
137:of internal and external
4991:Nonviolent communication
4921:History of communication
4803:10.1177/1948550611430164
4516:. Juta and Company Ltd.
4350:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00227
4297:. SAGE. pp. 23β24.
3901:Hurlburt, R. T. (2011).
3829:10.1177/1745691611413136
3093:10.1515/9783110878752.43
3054:Journal of Communication
3039:(1): 633, 635β6, 640β1.
2866:Barker & Barker 1992
2692:Michal Beth Dinkler 2013
2440:Rimes & Watkins 2005
1896:, pp. 139, 148β149.
1246:, pp. 34β36, 43β44.
254:
87:forms sometimes used in
4986:Nonverbal communication
4976:Models of communication
4337:Frontiers in Psychology
4170:Conscious and Cognition
3483:Danesi, Marcel (2009).
3185:10.1037/1076-898X.8.1.6
3012:Baldick, Chris (2015).
2789:Charles Fernyhough 2016
2384:Healthdirect staff 2022
2244:Stream of Consciousness
2128:Shaffer & Kipp 2010
1949:Archer & Smith 2011
785:auditory hallucinations
588:stream of consciousness
522:Function and importance
395:models of communication
4438:. SAGE. p. 81-2.
4378:Motivation and Emotion
4115:. Tauris. p. 20.
3858:Healthdirect Australia
3657:Ellis, Albert (2023).
2984:Baer, Ruth A. (2003).
2967:Personality Assessment
1831:Watson & Hill 2015
1038:Watson & Hill 2015
812:Research and criticism
799:, this can be called "
471:
432:
406:
45:
5138:Mediated cross-border
4860:Communication studies
4585:10.1123/jsep.33.5.666
4215:Mepham, John (2003).
3005:10.1093/clipsy.bpg015
2892:, pp. 34, 43β44.
2442:, pp. 1673β1681.
727:first-person pronouns
676:personality disorders
552:mathematical equation
469:
429:
404:
221:communication studies
33:
5073:Communication theory
5068:Communication design
3619:Dorrit Cohn (1978).
3563:. SAGE. p. 77.
1967:, pp. 173, 175.
163:psychological stress
5423:Human communication
4780:. Macmillan Pub Co.
2880:, pp. 621β632.
2767:, pp. 172β173.
2738:, pp. 391β399.
2726:, pp. 111β122.
2602:, pp. 636β642.
2590:, pp. 200β212.
2578:, pp. 549β555.
2566:, pp. 233β247.
2552:Beilock et al. 2002
2542:, pp. 348β356.
2530:, pp. 666β687.
2305:Daniels et al. 2007
2174:, pp. 600β603.
1685:, pp. 173β175.
1627:, pp. 969β977.
1615:, pp. 599β603.
1383:, pp. 599β604.
1234:, pp. 481β484.
1191:, pp. 315β345.
793:divine intervention
596:narrative technique
377:as well as memory,
5103:Discourse analysis
5028:Telecommunications
4971:Meta-communication
3663:dictionary.apa.org
2803:, pp. xiβxii.
2708:Nicky Hallett 2016
2588:Oliver et al. 2008
2337:Vargas et al. 2023
2189:MacNeil-Kelly 2020
1772:Lawson et al. 2019
692:empirical evidence
601:Dorothy Richardson
472:
433:
407:
46:
5405:
5404:
4413:(12): 1673β1681.
3788:978-1-4899-2955-6
3612:10.1002/ejsp.2048
3381:. Profile Books.
3084:Language Behavior
2820:, pp. 35β36.
2512:Nelson-Jones 2008
2146:, pp. 47β52.
1924:, pp. 148β9.
1790:, pp. 43β46.
1365:Bottigheimer 1989
801:thought insertion
773:teenage pregnancy
592:mental phenomenon
560:imposter syndrome
53:autocommunication
5430:
5395:
5394:
5050:
5001:Public relations
4896:Biocommunication
4853:
4846:
4839:
4830:
4829:
4824:
4814:
4781:
4770:
4749:
4730:
4711:
4692:
4690:
4657:
4636:
4615:
4596:
4567:
4546:
4527:
4508:
4489:
4470:
4449:
4430:
4401:
4372:
4362:
4352:
4327:
4308:
4289:
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4285:
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4250:
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4211:
4185:
4164:
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4126:
4107:
4088:
4067:
4048:
4027:
4008:
3989:
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3935:
3916:
3897:
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3848:
3811:
3792:
3773:
3752:
3733:
3714:
3685:
3666:
3653:
3634:
3615:
3593:
3574:
3555:
3536:
3517:
3498:
3479:
3458:
3439:
3429:
3406:Social Cognition
3396:
3373:
3354:
3335:
3316:
3297:
3295:
3293:
3274:
3255:
3236:
3215:
3196:
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3125:
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3048:
3027:
3008:
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2980:
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2887:
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2875:
2869:
2863:
2857:
2851:
2845:
2839:
2833:
2827:
2821:
2815:
2804:
2798:
2792:
2791:, 4. "Two Cars".
2786:
2780:
2777:OleΕ et al. 2020
2774:
2768:
2762:
2756:
2750:
2739:
2733:
2727:
2721:
2715:
2705:
2699:
2689:
2683:
2677:
2671:
2665:
2659:
2649:
2643:
2633:
2620:
2614:
2603:
2597:
2591:
2585:
2579:
2573:
2567:
2561:
2555:
2554:, pp. 6β16.
2549:
2543:
2537:
2531:
2525:
2519:
2509:
2503:
2493:
2487:
2477:
2471:
2465:
2459:
2449:
2443:
2437:
2431:
2421:
2415:
2405:
2399:
2393:
2387:
2381:
2368:
2365:OleΕ et al. 2020
2362:
2356:
2346:
2340:
2334:
2328:
2318:
2312:
2302:
2296:
2290:
2284:
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2268:
2258:
2247:
2237:
2231:
2221:
2212:
2202:
2196:
2186:
2175:
2169:
2163:
2153:
2147:
2141:
2135:
2125:
2119:
2109:
2103:
2096:Dorrit Cohn 1978
2093:
2087:
2077:
2071:
2061:
2050:
2044:
2038:
2032:
2026:
2020:
2014:
1974:
1968:
1962:
1956:
1946:
1940:
1934:
1925:
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1913:
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1897:
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1598:
1592:
1589:OleΕ et al. 2020
1586:
1580:
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1559:
1530:OleΕ et al. 2020
1524:
1518:
1480:
1474:
1464:
1458:
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1442:
1439:OleΕ et al. 2020
1436:
1427:
1417:
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1287:
1278:
1268:
1262:
1256:
1247:
1241:
1235:
1229:
1192:
1186:
1180:
1177:OleΕ et al. 2020
1174:
1157:
1117:
1111:
1101:
1064:
1054:
1045:
1035:
1014:
1004:
979:
973:
956:
950:
944:
938:
923:
913:
827:Russell Hurlburt
731:self-suggestions
688:sport psychology
584:literary studies
373:, thinking, and
296:
287:
276:
267:
5438:
5437:
5433:
5432:
5431:
5429:
5428:
5427:
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5407:
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5401:
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4505:
4486:
4467:
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4324:
4305:
4283:
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4223:
4183:10.1.1.676.1811
4161:
4142:
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4104:
4085:
4064:
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4005:
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3981:
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3289:
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3252:
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3212:
3131:Cognitive Model
3122:
3103:
3024:
2988:
2977:
2937:
2918:
2901:
2896:
2888:
2884:
2876:
2872:
2864:
2860:
2854:Cunningham 1992
2852:
2848:
2842:Cunningham 1992
2840:
2836:
2830:Cunningham 1992
2828:
2824:
2816:
2807:
2799:
2795:
2787:
2783:
2779:, pp. 2β3.
2775:
2771:
2763:
2759:
2753:Cunningham 1992
2751:
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2734:
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2722:
2718:
2706:
2702:
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2674:
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2438:
2434:
2422:
2418:
2406:
2402:
2394:
2390:
2382:
2371:
2367:, pp. 1β3.
2363:
2359:
2347:
2343:
2335:
2331:
2319:
2315:
2303:
2299:
2291:
2287:
2277:Alperstein 2003
2275:
2271:
2259:
2250:
2238:
2234:
2222:
2215:
2203:
2199:
2187:
2178:
2172:Cunningham 1992
2170:
2166:
2154:
2150:
2142:
2138:
2126:
2122:
2110:
2106:
2094:
2090:
2078:
2074:
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2047:Cunningham 1992
2045:
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2029:
2021:
2017:
2013:
1975:
1971:
1963:
1959:
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1613:Cunningham 1992
1611:
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1562:
1558:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1481:
1477:
1465:
1461:
1449:
1445:
1441:, pp. 1β2.
1437:
1430:
1418:
1387:
1381:Cunningham 1992
1379:
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1363:
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1347:
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926:
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901:
897:
892:
883:Subvocalization
853:Dialogical self
843:
814:
791:, or a kind of
783:. Examples are
739:
719:
665:, anxiety, and
651:
635:
576:
544:second language
524:
504:James Honeycutt
464:
458:
391:
375:self-persuasion
367:data processing
359:problem-solving
352:self-regulation
307:
306:
305:
304:
299:
298:
297:
289:
288:
279:
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269:
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117:self-persuasion
105:problem-solving
51:(also known as
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11:
5:
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5143:Organizational
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5093:Cross-cultural
5090:
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4941:Intrapersonal
4938:
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4908:
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4885:
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4873:
4867:
4864:
4863:
4856:
4855:
4848:
4841:
4833:
4826:
4825:
4797:(5): 549β555.
4782:
4771:
4765:
4750:
4744:
4731:
4725:
4712:
4706:
4693:
4658:
4652:
4637:
4631:
4616:
4610:
4597:
4579:(5): 666β687.
4568:
4562:
4547:
4541:
4528:
4522:
4509:
4503:
4490:
4484:
4471:
4465:
4450:
4444:
4431:
4402:
4384:(3): 200β212.
4373:
4328:
4322:
4309:
4303:
4290:
4270:
4264:
4251:
4245:
4232:
4212:
4176:(1): 111β122.
4165:
4159:
4146:
4140:
4127:
4121:
4108:
4102:
4089:
4083:
4068:
4062:
4049:
4043:
4028:
4022:
4009:
4003:
3990:
3973:
3947:(2): 391β399.
3936:
3930:
3917:
3911:
3898:
3880:(1): 315β345.
3869:
3849:
3823:(4): 348β356.
3812:
3806:
3793:
3787:
3774:
3764:(4): 233β247.
3753:
3747:
3734:
3728:
3715:
3697:(3): 481β484.
3686:
3680:
3667:
3654:
3648:
3635:
3629:
3616:
3606:(6): 636β642.
3594:
3588:
3575:
3569:
3556:
3550:
3537:
3531:
3518:
3512:
3499:
3493:
3480:
3470:(1): 597β620.
3459:
3453:
3440:
3397:
3387:
3374:
3368:
3355:
3349:
3336:
3330:
3317:
3311:
3298:
3275:
3269:
3256:
3250:
3237:
3231:
3216:
3210:
3197:
3167:
3141:(8): 969β977.
3126:
3120:
3107:
3101:
3078:
3060:(3): 172β179.
3049:
3028:
3022:
3009:
2999:(2): 125β143.
2981:
2975:
2962:
2952:(1): 621β632.
2941:
2935:
2922:
2916:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2894:
2882:
2878:Applegate 1992
2870:
2858:
2856:, p. 616.
2846:
2844:, p. 604.
2834:
2832:, p. 598.
2822:
2805:
2793:
2781:
2769:
2757:
2755:, p. 597.
2740:
2728:
2716:
2700:
2684:
2672:
2660:
2644:
2621:
2619:, p. 142.
2617:Steinberg 2007
2604:
2592:
2580:
2568:
2556:
2544:
2532:
2520:
2504:
2488:
2472:
2460:
2444:
2432:
2416:
2400:
2388:
2369:
2357:
2341:
2329:
2313:
2297:
2285:
2269:
2248:
2232:
2213:
2205:Rosengren 1999
2197:
2176:
2164:
2148:
2136:
2120:
2104:
2088:
2072:
2051:
2039:
2037:, p. 155.
2035:Steinberg 2007
2027:
2025:, p. 139.
2023:Steinberg 2007
2015:
2012:
2011:
2002:
1993:
1987:
1976:
1969:
1957:
1941:
1939:, p. 141.
1937:Steinberg 2007
1926:
1922:Steinberg 2007
1914:
1898:
1894:Steinberg 2007
1886:
1874:
1866:UMN staff 2013
1855:
1839:
1820:
1804:
1792:
1780:
1764:
1762:, p. 177.
1749:
1747:, p. 176.
1737:
1735:, p. 175.
1722:
1703:
1687:
1672:
1670:, p. 174.
1660:
1658:, p. 172.
1645:
1629:
1617:
1605:
1593:
1581:
1560:
1557:
1556:
1551:
1542:
1533:
1532:, pp. 1β3
1526:
1519:
1516:
1515:
1513:UMN staff 2010
1510:
1501:
1492:
1482:
1475:
1459:
1443:
1428:
1385:
1373:
1357:
1345:
1329:
1313:
1309:Steinberg 2007
1298:
1290:Honeycutt 2014
1279:
1263:
1248:
1236:
1193:
1181:
1158:
1155:
1154:
1148:
1139:
1130:
1119:
1112:
1065:
1046:
1015:
980:
978:, p. 173.
957:
955:, p. 164.
945:
941:UMN staff 2010
924:
898:
896:
893:
891:
888:
887:
886:
880:
874:
868:
862:
856:
850:
847:Autosuggestion
842:
839:
822:questionnaires
813:
810:
738:
735:
718:
715:
711:self-awareness
650:
647:
643:mental illness
634:
631:
621:Virginia Woolf
575:
572:
554:line by line.
523:
520:
485:self-criticism
460:Main article:
457:
454:
390:
387:
301:
300:
291:
290:
282:
281:
280:
271:
270:
262:
261:
260:
259:
258:
256:
253:
232:private speech
191:
188:
135:interpretation
101:inner dialogue
17:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5435:
5424:
5421:
5419:
5416:
5415:
5413:
5398:
5390:
5389:
5386:
5380:
5377:
5375:
5372:
5370:
5367:
5365:
5362:
5360:
5357:
5355:
5352:
5350:
5347:
5345:
5342:
5340:
5337:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5325:
5322:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5280:
5277:
5275:
5272:
5270:
5267:
5265:
5262:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5242:
5240:
5237:
5235:
5232:
5230:
5227:
5225:
5222:
5220:
5217:
5215:
5212:
5210:
5207:
5205:
5202:
5200:
5197:
5195:
5192:
5190:
5187:
5185:
5182:
5181:
5179:
5175:
5169:
5166:
5164:
5161:
5159:
5156:
5154:
5151:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5133:Media studies
5131:
5129:
5126:
5124:
5123:International
5121:
5119:
5116:
5114:
5111:
5109:
5108:Environmental
5106:
5104:
5101:
5099:
5098:Developmental
5096:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5086:
5084:
5081:
5079:
5078:Communicology
5076:
5074:
5071:
5069:
5066:
5064:
5061:
5060:
5058:
5054:
5049:
5039:
5036:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5026:
5022:
5019:
5018:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4969:
4967:
4966:Media ecology
4964:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4952:
4949:
4947:
4944:
4942:
4939:
4937:
4936:Interpersonal
4934:
4932:
4931:Intercultural
4929:
4927:
4924:
4922:
4919:
4917:
4914:
4912:
4909:
4907:
4906:Communication
4904:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4893:
4891:
4883:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4868:
4865:
4861:
4854:
4849:
4847:
4842:
4840:
4835:
4834:
4831:
4822:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4804:
4800:
4796:
4792:
4788:
4783:
4779:
4778:
4772:
4768:
4766:9781942341772
4762:
4759:. Open SUNY.
4758:
4757:
4751:
4747:
4745:9781628921496
4741:
4737:
4732:
4728:
4726:9781136601842
4722:
4719:. Routledge.
4718:
4713:
4709:
4707:9780203357804
4703:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4680:
4676:
4672:
4668:
4664:
4659:
4655:
4653:9781946135070
4649:
4645:
4644:
4638:
4634:
4632:9781946135056
4628:
4624:
4623:
4617:
4613:
4611:9781135434120
4607:
4603:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4586:
4582:
4578:
4574:
4569:
4565:
4563:9780198603450
4559:
4555:
4554:
4548:
4544:
4542:9781452261515
4538:
4534:
4529:
4525:
4523:9780702172618
4519:
4515:
4510:
4506:
4504:9780495601715
4500:
4496:
4491:
4487:
4485:9781317692324
4481:
4477:
4472:
4468:
4466:9780028653860
4462:
4458:
4457:
4451:
4447:
4445:9781446224809
4441:
4437:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4412:
4408:
4403:
4399:
4395:
4391:
4387:
4383:
4379:
4374:
4370:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4342:
4338:
4334:
4329:
4325:
4323:9781317016335
4319:
4315:
4310:
4306:
4304:9781446243312
4300:
4296:
4291:
4280:
4276:
4271:
4267:
4265:9783110849806
4261:
4257:
4252:
4248:
4246:9783110331141
4242:
4238:
4233:
4222:
4218:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4166:
4162:
4160:9781793620675
4156:
4152:
4147:
4143:
4141:9781441979070
4137:
4133:
4128:
4124:
4118:
4114:
4109:
4105:
4103:9781412959377
4099:
4095:
4090:
4086:
4084:9780028653853
4080:
4076:
4075:
4069:
4065:
4063:9781108594417
4059:
4055:
4050:
4046:
4044:9780521821315
4040:
4036:
4035:
4029:
4025:
4023:9781412959377
4019:
4015:
4010:
4006:
4004:9781315450384
4000:
3996:
3991:
3979:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3937:
3933:
3931:9781000545623
3927:
3923:
3918:
3914:
3912:9781139499606
3908:
3904:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3870:
3859:
3855:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3813:
3809:
3807:9780387245782
3803:
3799:
3794:
3790:
3784:
3780:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3754:
3750:
3748:9781462540297
3744:
3740:
3735:
3731:
3729:9780803637948
3725:
3721:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3692:
3687:
3683:
3681:9783319505305
3677:
3673:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3655:
3651:
3649:9780761817208
3645:
3641:
3636:
3632:
3630:9780691101569
3626:
3622:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3595:
3591:
3589:9781317783053
3585:
3581:
3576:
3572:
3570:9780761924692
3566:
3562:
3557:
3553:
3551:9780415876940
3547:
3543:
3538:
3534:
3532:9780521831048
3528:
3524:
3519:
3515:
3513:9780802083296
3509:
3505:
3500:
3496:
3494:9780765680983
3490:
3486:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3460:
3456:
3454:9780309034784
3450:
3446:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3398:
3395:
3390:
3388:9781782830788
3384:
3380:
3375:
3371:
3369:9780199568758
3365:
3361:
3356:
3352:
3350:9780199568758
3346:
3342:
3337:
3333:
3331:9780838641477
3327:
3323:
3318:
3314:
3312:9781483376509
3308:
3304:
3299:
3288:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3272:
3270:9780340809532
3266:
3262:
3257:
3253:
3251:9780812212945
3247:
3243:
3238:
3234:
3232:9780028648538
3228:
3224:
3223:
3217:
3213:
3211:9783110276794
3207:
3203:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3127:
3123:
3121:9780062046000
3117:
3113:
3108:
3104:
3102:9783110878752
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3085:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3029:
3025:
3023:9780198715443
3019:
3015:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2987:
2982:
2978:
2976:9781135595432
2972:
2968:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2942:
2938:
2936:9781135148447
2932:
2928:
2923:
2919:
2917:9781572735132
2913:
2909:
2904:
2903:
2891:
2886:
2879:
2874:
2867:
2862:
2855:
2850:
2843:
2838:
2831:
2826:
2819:
2814:
2812:
2810:
2802:
2801:Hurlburt 2011
2797:
2790:
2785:
2778:
2773:
2766:
2761:
2754:
2749:
2747:
2745:
2737:
2732:
2725:
2720:
2713:
2709:
2704:
2697:
2693:
2688:
2681:
2676:
2669:
2664:
2657:
2653:
2652:Thompson 2000
2648:
2641:
2637:
2632:
2630:
2628:
2626:
2618:
2613:
2611:
2609:
2601:
2596:
2589:
2584:
2577:
2572:
2565:
2560:
2553:
2548:
2541:
2536:
2529:
2524:
2517:
2513:
2508:
2501:
2497:
2492:
2485:
2481:
2476:
2469:
2464:
2457:
2453:
2448:
2441:
2436:
2429:
2425:
2420:
2413:
2409:
2404:
2397:
2392:
2385:
2380:
2378:
2376:
2374:
2366:
2361:
2354:
2350:
2345:
2339:, p. 27.
2338:
2333:
2326:
2322:
2317:
2310:
2306:
2301:
2294:
2289:
2282:
2278:
2273:
2266:
2262:
2257:
2255:
2253:
2245:
2241:
2236:
2229:
2225:
2224:Guerrero 2006
2220:
2218:
2210:
2206:
2201:
2194:
2190:
2185:
2183:
2181:
2173:
2168:
2161:
2157:
2152:
2145:
2144:Barnlund 2013
2140:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2117:
2113:
2108:
2101:
2097:
2092:
2085:
2081:
2080:Anderson 2012
2076:
2069:
2065:
2064:Guerrero 2006
2060:
2058:
2056:
2048:
2043:
2036:
2031:
2024:
2019:
2010:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1997:
1994:
1992:, p. 138
1991:
1988:
1985:
1981:
1980:Lederman 2002
1978:
1977:
1973:
1966:
1961:
1954:
1950:
1945:
1938:
1933:
1931:
1923:
1918:
1911:
1907:
1902:
1895:
1890:
1883:
1878:
1871:
1867:
1862:
1860:
1852:
1848:
1843:
1836:
1832:
1827:
1825:
1817:
1813:
1808:
1801:
1796:
1789:
1788:Barnlund 2013
1784:
1777:
1773:
1768:
1761:
1756:
1754:
1746:
1741:
1734:
1729:
1727:
1719:
1715:
1710:
1708:
1700:
1696:
1691:
1684:
1679:
1677:
1669:
1664:
1657:
1652:
1650:
1642:
1638:
1633:
1626:
1621:
1614:
1609:
1602:
1597:
1590:
1585:
1578:
1574:
1569:
1567:
1565:
1555:
1552:
1550:
1546:
1545:Lederman 2002
1543:
1541:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1528:
1527:
1523:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1487:
1484:
1483:
1479:
1472:
1468:
1463:
1456:
1452:
1447:
1440:
1435:
1433:
1425:
1421:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1390:
1382:
1377:
1370:
1366:
1361:
1354:
1349:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1326:
1322:
1317:
1311:, p. 62.
1310:
1305:
1303:
1295:
1291:
1286:
1284:
1276:
1272:
1267:
1261:, p. 48.
1260:
1259:Barnlund 2013
1255:
1253:
1245:
1240:
1233:
1228:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1218:
1216:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1198:
1190:
1185:
1178:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1153:, p. 173
1152:
1149:
1147:
1143:
1142:Sullivan 2009
1140:
1138:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1124:
1123:Lederman 2002
1121:
1120:
1116:
1109:
1105:
1104:Lederman 2002
1100:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1092:
1090:
1088:
1086:
1084:
1082:
1080:
1078:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1070:
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