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when creation in the likeness of God is complete. Humanity currently exists in the image of God and is being developed into spiritual maturity. Hick proposed that human morality is developed through the experience of evil and argued that it is possible for humans to know God, but only if they choose to out of their own free will. Hick acknowledges that some suffering seems to serve no constructive purpose and instead just damages the individual. Hick justifies this by appealing to the concept of mystery. He argues that, if suffering was always beneficial to humans, it would be impossible for humans to develop compassion or sympathy because we would know that someone who is suffering will certainly benefit from it. However, if there is an element of mystery to suffering, to the effect that some people suffer without benefit, it allows feelings of compassion and sympathy to emerge.
2142:, proposing a theodicy which John Hick later identified as Irenaean in nature. Schleiermacher began his theodicy by asserting that God is omnipotent and benevolent and concluded that, because of this, "God would create flawlessly". He proposed that it would be illogical for a perfect creation to go wrong (as Augustine had suggested) and that evil must have been created by God for a good reason. Schleiermacher conceived a perfect world to be one in which God's purposes can naturally be achieved, and will ultimately lead to dependence on God. He conceived sin as being an obstruction to humanity's dependence on God, arguing that it is almost inevitable, but citing Jesus as an example of a sinless man, whose consciousness of God was unobstructed. This theology led Schleiermacher to
1988:
remain hidden, otherwise freewill would be compromised. (4) This hiddenness is created, in part, by the presence of evil in the world. (5) The distance of God makes moral freedom possible, while the existence of obstacles makes meaningful struggle possible. (6) The end result of beings who complete the soul-making process is "a good of such surpassing value" that it justifies the means. (7) Those who complete the process will be admitted to the kingdom of God where there will be no more evil. Hick argues that, for suffering to have soul-making value, "human effort and development must be present at every stage of existence including the afterlife".
2082:. His suffering, being swallowed by a whale, both enabled God's plan to be fulfilled and also brought Jonah closer to God: Jonah ended up repenting for his sin and the people of Nineveh turn to God. As Irenaeus said, "For as He patiently suffered Jonah to be swallowed by the whale, not that he should be swallowed up and perish altogether, but that, having been cast out again, he might be the more subject to God, and might glorify Him the more who had conferred upon him such an unhoped-for deliverance, and might bring the Ninevites to a lasting repentance, so that they should be converted to the Lord, who would deliver them from death".
2203:
beings that would always freely choose to do good, but argued that a genuine relationship requires the possibility of rejection. Irenaeus' notion of humans existing at an "epistemic distance" from God also influenced Hick, as it would ensure a free choice in belief in God. Hick argued that a world without pain or suffering would prevent moral development; such a world would have no fixed structure, or have a structure subject to divine intervention, preventing humans from coming to any harm. Hick argued that this would leave humans unable to help or harm one another, allowing them no moral choices and so preventing moral development.
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upon those seemingly immoral or in need of development. He also challenged the suffering both of animals and of young children. Neither of these instances of suffering serve any useful purpose, as they cannot lead to moral development. Finally, he questioned whether the current universe is the best possible world for the moral development of humans. Citing the examples of those who die young and those who experience too great a pain to learn from it, as well as people who suffer too little to learn anything, he suggests this world is not ideally suited to human development.
2122:, Origen casts human development as a progression though a series of stages which take place in this life and after death. Origen believed that all humans will eventually reach heaven as the logical conclusion of God being 'all in all'. Hell is a metaphor for the purification of our souls: our sinful nature goes to 'Hell' and our original nature, created by God, goes to heaven. Scott argues that significant aspects of Origen's theology mean that there is a stronger continuation between it and Hick's theodicy. These aspects are Origen's allegorical treatment of
2333:. This is however not a final argument, given the nature of Dostoyevsky's work as polyphonic. In the novel, the character Ivan Karamazov presents an account of incredible cruelty to innocent people and children to his theist brother, Alyosha. Following this, Ivan asks his brother if he would, hypothetically, choose to be the architect of the eternal happiness of mankind, which would come into existence, if, and only if he would torture an innocent child, a necessary evil, after which this eternal happiness would come into existence.
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that God could implant such knowledge, arguing that humans would question its reliability. Swinburne argued that humans must have first hand experience of natural evil in order to understand the consequences of moral evil and that for God to give humans moral free will, he must allow human suffering. Swinburne conceived Hell as being a separation from God, rejecting the notion of eternal physical punishment, and argued that people who had chosen to reject God throughout their lives would continue to do so after death.
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because the brain's development is dependent upon the stimulation it receives. When the brain receives the powerful stimulus that experiences like bereavement, life-threatening illness, and other deeply painful experiences provide, a prolonged and difficult internal struggle, where the individual completely re-examines their self-concept and perceptions of reality, reshapes neurological structures. The literature refers to
2062:, then in the likeness of God. Irenaeus believed the first stage is complete, but the second stage requires humans to develop and grow into the likeness of God, a stage which Irenaeus believed is still in progress. He believed that, in order to achieve moral perfection, humans must be given free choice, with the actual possibility of choosing to do evil. Irenaeus argued that for humans to have free will, God must be at an
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1984:, written in 1966. For Augustine, humans were created perfect but fell, and thereafter continued to choose badly of their own freewill. In Irenaeus' view, humans were not created perfect, but instead, must strive continuously to move closer to it. The Irenaean theodicy is distinguished by its acceptance that God is responsible for evil, but that he is not at fault since it is necessary for a greater good.
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incomplete, entailing the potential, not yet actualised, for humans to reach perfection. To achieve this likeness of God, humans must be refined and developed. The theodicy proposes that evil and suffering exists in the world because this is the best way for humans to develop. As such, the
Irenaean theodicy is sometimes referred to as the "soul-making theodicy", a phrase taken from the poet
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to donate one's meal to those who are starving is valuable because starvation exists. If persecution and starvation did not occur, there would be no reason to consider these acts virtuous. If the virtues developed through soul-making are only valuable where suffering exists, then it is not clear what would be lost if suffering did not exist.
1905:(all-powerful and perfectly loving) God in the face of evidence of evil in the world. Numerous variations of theodicy have been proposed which all maintain that, while evil exists, God is either not responsible for creating evil, or he is not guilty for creating evil. Typically, the Irenaean theodicy asserts that the world is the
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evil, but maintains that he is blameless, and does everything in his power to bring about good. In his introduction to process theology, C. Robert Melse argued that, although suffering does sometimes bring about good, not all suffering is valuable and that most does more harm than good. Process theologian
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rejects the
Irenaean theodicy as unsatisfactory, arguing that the magnitude of suffering experienced by some people is excessive, supporting Eleanor Stump's view that the suffering endured by those with terminal illnesses cannot be for moral development, and that such illnesses do not fall more often
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theory, arguing that all humans would eventually reach heaven. Hick believed that there would be no benefit or purpose to an eternal Hell, as it would render any moral development inconsequential. The eternal suffering of Hell could not be explained in terms of human development, so Hick rejected it.
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criticised the universalism of John Hick's theory. Blocher argued that universalism contradicts free will, which is vital to the
Irenaean theodicy, because, if everyone will receive salvation, humans cannot choose to reject God. Hick did attempt to address this issue: he argued that a free action is
2310:
However, the virtues identified as the result of "soul-making" may only appear to be valuable in a world where evil and suffering already exist. A willingness to sacrifice oneself in order to save others from persecution, for example, is virtuous because persecution exists. Likewise, the willingness
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indicate this has to do with the plasticity of the brain. The brain is highly plastic in childhood development, becoming less so by adulthood once development is completed. Thereafter, the brain resists change. The neurons in the brain can only make permanent changes "when the conditions are right"
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in a state either of innocence or of virtue. In the former case, which is that of the actual moral achievements of mankind, the individualâs goodness has within it the strength of temptations overcome, a stability based upon an accumulation of right choices, and a positive and responsible character
2198:
Hick used
Irenaeus' notion of two-stage creation and supported the belief that the second stage, being created into the likeness of God, is still in progress. He argued that to be created in the image of God means to have the potential for knowledge of and a relationship with God; this is fulfilled
1987:
The key points of a soul-making theodicy begin with its metaphysical foundation: that "(1) The purpose of God in creating the world was soul-making for rational moral agents". (2) Humans choose their responses to the soul-making process thereby developing moral character. (3) This requires that God
1950:
ultimate response to the problem of evil is that it is not a problem that can be solved. Christians simply cannot claim to know the answer to the "Why?â of suffering and evil. Plantinga stresses that this is why he does not proffer a theodicy but only a defense of theistic belief as rational in the
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view of free will, a view that one's free actions are not caused by any outside agent. He argued that, in order for people to make free moral decisions, they must be aware of the consequences of such decisions. Knowledge of these consequences must be based on experienceâSwinburne rejected the idea
2109:
also presented suffering as necessary for the development of human beings. Theologian Mark Scott has argued that John Hick's theodicy is more closely aligned with Origen's beliefs than
Irenaeus' and ought to be called an "Origenian theodicy". Origen used two metaphors for the world: it is a school
2016:
According to the
Irenaean tradition, humans are not created perfectly, but in a state of imperfection. The theodicy teaches that creation has two stages: humans were first created in the image of God, and will then be created in the likeness of God. Humans are imperfect because the second stage is
2376:
The
Irenaean theodicy is challenged by the assertion that many evils do not promote spiritual growth, but can instead be destructive of the human spirit. Hick acknowledges that this process often fails in our world. Horrendous suffering often leads to dehumanization, and its victims become angry,
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has presented a challenge to the
Irenaean theodicy. The doctrine proposes that God is benevolent but suggests that his power is restricted to persuasion, rather than coercion and so is unable to prevent certain evil events from occurring. Process theology accepts God's indirect responsibility for
2202:
The value Hick placed on free will was the result of his belief that it is necessary for genuine love: he believed that love which is not freely chosen is valueless. A genuinely loving God, he argued, would have created humans with free will. Hick held that it would be possible for God to create
2174:
in 1966, in which he developed a theodicy based on the work of
Irenaeus. Hick distinguished between the Augustinian theodicy, based on free will, and the Irenaean theodicy, based on human development. Hick framed his theodicy as an attempt to respond to the problem of evil in light of scientific
2069:
Because
Irenaeus saw the purpose of the world to be the development of the moral character of humans, he believed that a good world would be best suited to that purpose. Irenaeaus believed that this world would include some suffering and evil to help people draw closer to God. He perceived God's
2301:
asserts that human character can be developed directly in constructive and nurturing loving ways, and it is unclear why God would consider or allow evil and suffering to be necessary or the preferred way to spiritual growth. Hick answers that "...one who has attained to goodness by meeting and
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2033:. This is based on the Irenaean idea of human development, suggesting that the best possible world would be best suited to human development: a world containing evil and suffering would allow development better than one which does not, so the world is considered the best possible world.
1930:
discussed the similarities of the preceding theodicies, calling them all "Irenaean". He supported the view that creation is incomplete and argued that the world is best placed for the full moral development of humans, as it presents genuine moral choices. British philosopher
2008:(all-powerful and perfectly loving) God exists, there should be no evil in the world. Evidence of evil in the world would make the existence of God improbable. The theodicy attempts to demonstrate that the existence of God remains probable, despite the occurrence of evil.
2286:
in 2004, presenting a challenge to the Irenaean theodicy. Phillips maintained throughout his work that humans are incapable of fully understanding God, and presented an understanding of the moral diversity of human existence. With reference to the suffering of
1959:
challenged the instrumental use of suffering, suggesting that love cannot be expressed through suffering. However, Dostoyevsky also states that the beauty of love is evident, in that love can continue to grow, withstand and overcome even the most evil acts.
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These are experiences that form a catalyst in an individual's life so that the individual is personally transformed, often emerging with a sense of learning, strength and growth, that empowers them to pursue different paths than they otherwise would have.
2355:
But Dostoyevsky's work, polyphonic in nature, also states that the love Christ showed to all people and for all people, which is Alyosha's final stance in the novel, is the only good, and in the face of evil, the beauty that will save the world.
2215:
Despite this, he did not reject the existence of Hell outright, as to do so could make living morally in this life irrelevant. Rather, he argued that Hell exists as a mythological concept and as a warning of the importance of this life.
1921:, presented a response to the problem of evil which cast the world as a schoolroom or hospital for the soul; theologian Mark Scott has argued that Origen, rather than Irenaeus, ought to be considered the father of this kind of theodicy.
1909:
because it allows humans to fully develop. Most versions of the Irenaean theodicy propose that creation is incomplete, as humans are not yet fully developed, and experiencing evil and suffering is necessary for such development.
1925:
argued in the nineteenth century that God must necessarily create flawlessly, so this world must be the best possible world because it allows God's purposes to be naturally fulfilled. In 1966, philosopher
2150:
If we proceed on this definite assumption that all belonging to the human race are eventually taken up into loving fellowship with Christ, there is nothing for it but this single divine fore-ordination.
2066:(or intellectual distance) from humans, far enough that belief in God remains a free choice. As Irenaeus said, "there is no coercion with God, but a good will is present with Him continually".
2295:, a Catholic philosopher, recalls that D. Z. Phillips critiqued the Irenaean theodicy in his classes, summarising its essence as, "Here you go, a bit of cancer should help toughen you up!"
2074:
that his creation was good to mean that the world is fit for purpose, rather than being free from suffering. To illustrate the benefits of suffering, Irenaeus cited the Biblical example of
1917:, after whom the theodicy is named, proposed a two-stage creation process in which humans require free will and the experience of evil to develop. Another early Christian theologian,
2414:
one which reflects that character of a person, and that humans were created with a "Godward bias", so would choose salvation. Blocher proposed that Hick must then accept a level of
2315:
says that such a discussion between genuine and apparent evil and good presupposes that such virtues as charity are only instrumentally valuable instead of intrinsically valuable.
2093:. He believed that there would be 6000 years of suffering before the world ends in a fiery purge. This fire would purify believers ahead of a new human community existing in the
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eventually mastering temptation, and thus by rightly making responsible choices in concrete situations, is good in a richer and more valuable sense than would be one created
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proposed that, to make a free moral choice, humans must have experience of the consequences of their own actions and that natural evil must exist to provide such choices.
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contested "the utility of soul making". He argued that the Irenaean theodicy supposes that God inflicts pain for his own ends, which Griffin regarded as immoral.
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developed a theodicy based on the idea that the creation of humans is still in progress. He proposed that creation consists of two distinct parts: first in the
2291:, he rejected any theodicy which presents suffering as instrumental, arguing that such suffering cannot be justified, regardless of any good that comes of it.
2097:. The afterlife, Irenaeus proposed, focuses more on time than space; he looked forward to a time in which humans are fully developed and live the life of God.
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freewill defense argues that, while this may be the best world God could have created, God's options were limited by the need to allow freewill.
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has challenged the Irenaean tradition by teaching that God using suffering for his own ends would be immoral. Twentieth-century philosopher
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and a hospital for souls, with God as Teacher and Physician, in which suffering plays both an educative and healing role. Through an
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2126:, the presentation of the world as a hospital or schoolroom, the progression he advocates of the human soul, and his universalism.
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argued that the magnitude of suffering is excessive and that, in some cases, cannot lead to moral development. French theologian
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D. Z. Phillips argued that the magnitude of suffering experienced in the Holocaust cannot be justified by any apparent gains
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Typical to variations of the Irenaean theodicy is the notion that the present world is the greatest possible world, or the
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criticised Hick's universalism, arguing that such a view negates free will, which was similarly important to the theodicy.
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bitter, vindictive and spiritually worse. Yet, life crises are a catalyst for change that is often positive. Neurologists
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The philosophy of the English-speaking world in the twentieth century: Meaning, knowledge, and value, Part 2
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Resonant Leadership: Renewing Yourself and Connecting with Others Through Mindfulness, Hope, and Compassion
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Geeks and Geezers: How Era, Values, and Defining Moments Shape Leaders - How Tough Times Shape Good Leaders
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Bennett, Gaymon; Peters, Ted; Hewlett, Martinez J.; Russell, Robert John (2008).
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Tedeschi, Richard G.; Park, Crystal L.; Calhoun, Lawrence G., eds. (1998).
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Process theologian David Ray Griffin contested "the utility of soul making"
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Faith seeking understanding: an introduction to Christian theology
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Defining Moments When Managers Must Choose Between Right and Right
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Posttraumatic Growth: Positive Changes in the Aftermath of Crisis
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Evil and the Cross: An Analytical Look at the Problem of Pain
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that comes from the investment of costly personal effort."
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in which humans are fully morally developed. He proposed a
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3315:(Revised and Expanded ed.). Oxford University Press.
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In the early 19th century, Friedrich Schleiermacher wrote
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Bennett, Peters, Hewlett & Russell 2008, pp. 127â128
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According to its proponents, Second-century philosopher
3873:. Translated by Kerri A. Pierce. Dalkey Archive Press.
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The nature of his theodicy required Hick to propose an
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A concise encyclopedia of the philosophy of religion
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3909:Where Was God: Evil, Theodicy, and Modern Science
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3626:
3607:
3572:John Hick: a critical introduction and reflection
3550:
3531:
3354:
3287:
2693:
2542:
2540:
2538:
3986:
3831:
3774:
3736:
3588:
3512:
3380:(illustrated ed.). Harvard Business Press.
3028:
3026:
3024:
3015:"Edward Feser: Unbroken and the problem of evil"
2846:
2553:International Journal for Philosophy of Religion
3925:
3569:
3436:
3223:
3154:
3083:
2624:
3887:
3493:
3313:The Redemptive Self: Stories Americans Live By
2587:
2535:
2341:"No, I wouldn't agree," said Alyosha quietly.
3963:
3683:
3669:. Temple University Press. pp. 151â169.
3455:
3375:
3361:Bennis, Warren G.; Thomas, Robert J. (2002).
3335:
3021:
2659:
2657:
2155:Friedrich Schleiermacher, The Christian Faith
1991:
1866:
1643:
3798:. Continuum International Publishing Group.
3793:
3536:. Continuum International Publishing Group.
3413:
3360:
3610:Encountering evil: live options in theodicy
3532:Campbell, Hugh; Wilkinson, Michael (2010).
3376:Boyatzis, Richard E.; McKee, Annie (2005).
3171:
2810:
2808:
2476:
2327:presented a similar argument in his novel,
2129:
1996:The Irenaean theodicy is a response to the
3721:
3702:
3253:
2707:
2705:
2654:
2611:
2609:
2454:Religious responses to the problem of evil
2284:The Problem of Evil and the Problem of God
2024:
1913:Second-century theologian and philosopher
1873:
1859:
1650:
1636:
3928:Philosophy of religion: the big questions
3812:
3732:collection. T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh.
3329:
3004:Wilkinson & Campbell 2010, p. 183â184
2482:
3868:
3414:Alles, Gregory; Ellwood, Robert (2006).
3181:Animal Suffering and the Problem of Evil
2805:
2593:
2507:
2269:
2244:
2040:
1661:
3534:Philosophy of Religion: An Introduction
3310:
3304:
3288:Horowitz, D. S.; Van Eeden, R. (2015).
2711:Engel, Soldan & Durand 2007, p. 214
2702:
2672:Engel, Soldan & Durand 2004, p. 214
2606:
3987:
3739:Process theology: a basic introduction
3234:
2842:
2840:
2838:
2631:substantive revision on 21 August 2009
3159:. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
3155:Tooley, Michael (16 September 2002).
3089:
3060:
2995:Wilkinson & Campbell 2010, p. 183
2932:Campbell & Wilkinson 2010, p. 181
2851:. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2633:. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2625:Tooley, Michael (16 September 2002).
2549:"The Failure of Soul-Making Theodicy"
2318:
2000:which raises the problem that, if an
3815:Philosophy of Religion: An Anthology
3813:Pojman, Louis; Rea, Michael (2011).
3725:Adversus haereses (Against Heresies)
3259:
3032:
2847:Cramer, David C. (3 November 2009).
2546:
2512:. Dalkey Archive Press. p. 51.
2487:. Springer Netherlands. p. 33.
2218:
1897:). It defends the probability of an
1626:Philosophy of religion article index
523:Proper basis / Reformed epistemology
3418:The encyclopedia of world religions
2835:
2366:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
2240:
13:
2012:Creation and development of humans
14:
4006:
3340:. Harvard Business Review Press.
3336:Badaracco Jr., Joseph L. (2016).
2663:Svendsen & Pierce 2010, p. 51
2532:Svendsen & Pierce 2010, p. 15
2359:
2265:
3591:Western philosophy: an anthology
3365:. Harvard Business School Press.
2766:Barber & Neville 2005, p. 82
2690:Ellwood & Alles 2006, p. 446
2428:
2418:, though not going all the way.
2404:
3760:. University Press of America.
3612:. Westminster John Knox Press.
3460:. University Press of America.
3439:Creation, evolution and meaning
3407:
3394:
3209:. Routledge. pp. 99, 117.
3198:
3178:Nicola Hoggard Creegan (2013).
3148:
3139:
3130:
3054:
3007:
2998:
2989:
2980:
2971:
2962:
2953:
2944:
2935:
2926:
2917:
2908:
2899:
2890:
2881:
2872:
2863:
2826:
2817:
2796:
2793:Engel & Soldan 2008, p. 213
2787:
2778:
2769:
2760:
2751:
2737:
2723:
2714:
2684:
2675:
2666:
3945:Thiselton, Anthony C. (2005).
3869:Svendsen, Lars Fr. H. (2010).
3779:. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing.
3479:. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
3458:Dostoevsky's polyphonic talent
3061:Allan, Leslie (28 July 2015).
2645:
2618:
2526:
2508:Svendsen, Lars Fr. H. (2010).
2485:Alvin Plantinga "Self Profile"
2175:development, such as Darwin's
2036:
1951:face of unanswered questions.
1:
3262:Brain Plasticity and Behavior
2832:Pojman & Rea 2011, p. 349
2469:
3665:Geivett, R. Douglas (1995).
3631:. Rowman & Littlefield.
2235:
2160:
7:
3756:Little, Bruce Alva (2005).
2986:Thiselton 2005, pp. 131â133
2421:
2105:Early Christian theologian
2049:
2031:best of all possible worlds
1907:best of all possible worlds
1715:Best of all possible worlds
215:Best of all possible worlds
10:
4011:
3907:Stilwell, Gary A. (2009).
3646:Erickson, Millard (1998).
3608:Davis, Stephen T. (2001).
3551:Canfield, John V. (1997).
2600:Graduate Theological Union
1998:evidential problem of evil
1992:Evidential problem of evil
1971:
114:Scripture (religious text)
3796:Irenaeus: An Introduction
3775:Migliore, Daniel (2004).
3737:Melse, C. Robert (1993).
3589:Cottingham, John (1996).
3517:. John Wiley & Sons.
3513:Bretherton, Luke (2011).
3235:Wexler, Bruce E. (2008).
3090:Mesle, C. Robert (1986).
2547:Kane, G. Stanley (1975).
2185:fell away from perfection
2100:
3926:Stump, Eleonore (1999).
3705:Evil and the God of Love
3570:Cheetham, David (2003).
3437:Attfield, Robin (2006).
3311:McAdams, Dan P. (2013).
3038:Evil and the God of Love
2887:Cheetham 2003, pp. 48â49
2594:Anderson, A. K. (2005).
2171:Evil and the God of Love
2130:Friedrich Schleiermacher
1982:Evil and the God of Love
1923:Friedrich Schleiermacher
1213:Friedrich Schleiermacher
1020:Philosophers of religion
3892:. Springe. p. 88.
3888:Sharma, Arvind (2006).
3834:The Journal of Religion
3629:The Study of Philosophy
3494:Blocher, Henri (2005).
3422:. Infobase Publishing.
3096:The Journal of Religion
2896:Stump 1999, pp. 222â227
2784:Scott 2010, pp. 322-333
2775:Bretherton 2011, Ch. 10
2280:Dewi Zephaniah Phillips
2025:Greatest possible world
633:Incompatible properties
3964:Vermeer, Paul (1999).
3707:. Palgrave Macmillan.
3688:. Ashgate Publishing.
3684:Hall, Lindsey (2003).
3574:. Ashgate Publishing.
3456:Barnhart, Joe (2005).
3441:. Ashgate Publishing.
2464:Theodicy and the Bible
2353:
2348:The Brothers Karamazov
2330:The Brothers Karamazov
2275:
2250:
2158:
2046:
1671:
1077:Gaunilo of Marmoutiers
34:Philosophy of religion
3794:Minns, Denis (2010).
3477:The evolution of evil
3157:"The Problem of Evil"
3136:Aitfield 2006, p. 137
3063:"The Problem of Evil"
3040:. London: Macmillan.
2959:Migliore 2004, p. 129
2869:Davis 2001, pp. 40â41
2699:Davis 2001, pp. 40â42
2627:"The Problem of Evil"
2398:life-changing events.
2335:
2273:
2248:
2148:
2044:
1665:
1590:Faith and rationality
1575:Criticism of religion
1498:Robert Merrihew Adams
1488:Nicholas Wolterstorff
977:Secular Shrine Theory
811:Divine command theory
608:Fate of the unlearned
3871:A philosophy of evil
3817:. Cengage Learning.
3264:. Psychology Press.
3260:Kolb, Bryan (2013).
3145:Barnhart 2550, p. 25
2849:"John Hick (1922â )"
2814:Hall 2003, pp. 21â22
2681:Eriksen 1998, p. 447
2651:Svendsen 2010, p. 43
2510:A Philosophy of Evil
2444:Augustinian theodicy
2346:Fyodor Dostoyevsky,
2223:British philosopher
2181:Augustinian theodicy
1710:Augustinian theodicy
1610:Religious philosophy
1605:Religion and science
1595:History of religions
1082:Pico della Mirandola
1042:Anselm of Canterbury
764:Theories of religion
3930:. Wiley-Blackwell.
3911:. Outskirts Press.
3730:Ante-Nicene Fathers
3722:Irenaeus (c. 180).
3703:Hick, John (2010).
3593:. Wiley-Blackwell.
3498:. Kregel Academic.
3400:Blocher 2005, p. 52
3017:. 30 December 2010.
2823:Geivett 1995, p. 29
2253:The development of
2191:, described in the
2177:theory of evolution
2140:The Christian Faith
2070:declaration in the
1938:The development of
1893:(a response to the
1278:Friedrich Nietzsche
1165:Gottfried W Leibniz
1160:Nicolas Malebranche
1092:King James VI and I
659:Omnipotence paradox
424:Fine-tuned universe
311:Process-theological
3949:. Baker Academic.
3650:. Baker Academic.
3648:Christian Theology
2977:Melse 1993, pp. 18
2968:Melse 1993, pp. 13
2923:Stump 1999, p. 155
2914:Little 2005, p. 73
2878:Scott 2010, p. 320
2757:Minns 2010, p. 144
2565:10.1007/BF00136996
2409:French theologian
2325:Fyodor Dostoyevsky
2319:Fyodor Dostoyevsky
2276:
2251:
2091:Book of Revelation
2064:epistemic distance
2047:
1957:Fyodor Dostoyevsky
1740:Inconsistent triad
1720:Divine retribution
1672:
1580:Ethics in religion
1538:William Lane Craig
1458:J. L. Schellenberg
1398:Charles Hartshorne
1150:Desiderius Erasmus
1047:Augustine of Hippo
543:Intelligent design
459:Necessary existent
419:Existential choice
221:Inconsistent triad
167:Religious language
162:Logical positivism
76:Intelligent design
16:Christian theodicy
3975:978-90-04-11650-4
3956:978-0-8010-3120-5
3937:978-0-631-20604-0
3918:978-1-4327-3529-6
3899:978-1-4020-5013-8
3880:978-1-56478-571-8
3824:978-1-111-30544-4
3805:978-0-567-03366-6
3786:978-0-8028-2787-6
3767:978-0-7618-2989-8
3748:978-0-8272-2945-7
3741:. Chalice Press.
3714:978-0-230-25279-0
3695:978-0-7546-3400-3
3676:978-1-56639-397-3
3657:978-0-8010-2182-4
3638:978-0-7425-4892-3
3619:978-0-664-22251-2
3600:978-0-631-18627-4
3581:978-0-7546-1599-6
3562:978-0-415-05605-2
3543:978-1-4411-6773-6
3524:978-1-4443-5769-1
3505:978-0-8254-2076-4
3486:978-3-525-56979-5
3467:978-0-7618-3097-9
3448:978-0-7546-0475-4
3429:978-0-8160-6141-9
3191:978-0-19-993184-2
3047:978-0-06-063902-0
2905:Hall 2003, p. 133
2615:Hall 2003, p. 132
2394:crucible moments,
2391:defining moments,
2323:Russian novelist
2225:Richard Swinburne
2219:Richard Swinburne
2118:and the books of
1948:Alvin Plantinga's
1944:Alvin Plantinga's
1933:Richard Swinburne
1887:Irenaean theodicy
1883:
1882:
1745:Irenaean theodicy
1730:Epicurean paradox
1660:
1659:
1560:
1559:
1508:Peter van Inwagen
1493:Richard Swinburne
1433:George I Mavrodes
1293:Vladimir Solovyov
1243:SĂžren Kierkegaard
1170:William Wollaston
1117:William of Ockham
1097:Marcion of Sinope
1007:Transcendentalism
754:
753:
677:
676:
644:No limits fallacy
575:Arguments against
533:Responses to evil
449:Mystical idealism
233:
232:
157:Euthyphro dilemma
4002:
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2975:
2969:
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2957:
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2950:Hall 2003, p. 74
2948:
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2727:
2721:
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2438:
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2432:
2351:
2255:process theology
2241:Process theology
2156:
1940:process theology
1875:
1868:
1861:
1674:
1673:
1652:
1645:
1638:
1600:Natural theology
1543:Ali Akbar Rashad
1391:Reinhold Niebuhr
1341:Bertrand Russell
1336:George Santayana
1253:Albrecht Ritschl
1238:Ludwig Feuerbach
1025:
1024:
670:Russell's teapot
660:
640:
628:Hitchens's razor
471:Nyayakusumanjali
342:
341:
281:Form of the Good
248:
247:
216:
146:
145:
130:Theological veto
115:
98:
97:Religious belief
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2436:Religion portal
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2388:turning points,
2364:Writing in the
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2313:C. Robert Mesle
2299:G. Stanley Kane
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2072:Book of Genesis
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2039:
2027:
2014:
1994:
1974:
1895:problem of evil
1889:is a Christian
1879:
1850:
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1785:Saint Augustine
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1778:Notable figures
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1769:
1765:Problem of evil
1705:Absence of good
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1553:Alexander Pruss
1533:Jean-Luc Marion
1523:Herman Philipse
1478:Alvin Plantinga
1473:Dewi Z Phillips
1418:Walter Kaufmann
1408:Frithjof Schuon
1381:Rudolf Bultmann
1371:Pavel Florensky
1351:Sergei Bulgakov
1318:Joseph Maréchal
1298:Ernst Troeltsch
1283:Harald HĂžffding
1263:Usman dan Fodio
1233:William Whewell
1223:Georg W F Hegel
1218:Karl C F Krause
1195:Johann G Herder
1185:Baron d'Holbach
1135:Augustin Calmet
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1012:
1011:
982:Shendao shejiao
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756:
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638:
618:God of the gaps
588:Atheist's wager
276:Divinely simple
261:Anthropopathism
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188:Problem of evil
172:Verificationism
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1953:D. Z. Phillips
1903:omnibenevolent
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1569:Related topics
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1548:Yujin Nagasawa
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639:Inconsistency
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375:Consciousness
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345:Arguments for
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326:Unmoved mover
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321:Supreme Being
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103:Reincarnation
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71:Enlightenment
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3161:. Retrieved
3150:
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3075:12 September
3073:. Retrieved
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2853:. Retrieved
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2637:17 September
2635:. Retrieved
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2528:
2509:
2503:
2484:
2478:
2408:
2397:
2393:
2390:
2387:
2383:Bruce Wexler
2375:
2363:
2354:
2347:
2339:
2336:
2328:
2322:
2309:
2303:
2297:
2293:Edward Feser
2283:
2278:Philosopher
2277:
2252:
2222:
2212:universalist
2205:
2201:
2197:
2169:
2164:
2149:
2144:universalism
2139:
2135:
2133:
2124:Adam and Eve
2104:
2084:
2068:
2060:image of God
2053:
2028:
2015:
1995:
1986:
1981:
1975:
1937:
1912:
1886:
1884:
1760:Natural evil
1744:
1698:Key concepts
1679:
1423:Martin Lings
1413:J. L. Mackie
1376:Emil Brunner
1361:Paul Tillich
1346:Martin Buber
1327:Contemporary
1273:W K Clifford
1258:Afrikan Spir
1204:19th-century
1175:Thomas Chubb
1126:Early modern
1107:Adi Shankara
987:Spiritualism
962:Perennialism
920:metaphysical
786:Antireligion
700:Christianity
538:Teleological
397:metaphysical
384:
380:Cosmological
368:Resurrection
316:Summum bonum
226:Natural evil
206:
18:
3728:. from the
3163:12 February
2855:6 September
2602:: 132, 138.
2559:(1): 1â22.
2416:determinism
2229:libertarian
2208:eschatology
2189:fall of man
2114:reading of
2112:allegorical
2087:eschatology
2078:, from the
2037:Development
1528:Kai Nielsen
1513:Cornel West
1463:Paul Draper
1453:Graham Oppy
1443:Antony Flew
1428:Peter Geach
1356:René Guénon
1308:Lev Shestov
1303:Rudolf Otto
952:Panentheism
890:Inclusivism
826:Exclusivism
821:Esotericism
796:Creationism
776:Agnosticism
682:By religion
665:Poor design
506:Mulla Sadra
481:Ontological
454:Natural law
434:Mathematics
392:contingency
286:Holy Spirit
252:Conceptions
202:Augustinian
66:Eschatology
61:Cataphatism
3102:(4): 413.
3034:Hick, John
2470:References
2379:Bryan Kolb
2282:published
2168:published
2085:Irenaeus'
2019:John Keats
2002:omnipotent
1899:omnipotent
1755:Moral evil
1750:Misotheism
1448:Kurt Godel
1366:Karl Barth
1180:David Hume
1102:Maimonides
1087:Heraclitus
1072:Al-Ghazali
967:Polytheism
937:Nondualism
915:humanistic
910:Naturalism
900:Monotheism
863:Henotheism
858:Gnosticism
583:747 gambit
548:Watchmaker
501:Meinongian
414:Experience
142:Challenges
81:Liberation
56:Apophatism
3968:. BRILL.
3862:170899610
3124:170193070
2581:170214854
2304:ab initio
2236:Reception
2166:John Hick
2161:John Hick
1978:John Hick
1928:John Hick
1840:Swinburne
1830:Plantinga
1825:Nietzsche
1735:Free will
1725:Dystheism
1518:Loyal Rue
1248:Karl Marx
1067:Gaudapada
992:Shamanism
957:Pantheism
942:Nontheism
925:religious
905:Mysticism
878:religious
873:Christian
841:Christian
720:Mandaeism
715:Mormonism
690:Abrahamic
648:Nonbelief
613:Free will
562:Trademark
335:Existence
291:Maltheist
91:Mysticism
51:Afterlife
43:Religious
3995:Theodicy
3989:Category
3036:(1966).
2573:40021034
2459:Theodicy
2422:See also
2350:, p. 308
2344:â
2153:â
2136:Speeches
2056:Irenaeus
2050:Irenaeus
1915:Irenaeus
1891:theodicy
1795:Epicurus
1689:Theodicy
1680:a series
1677:Part of
1668:Irenaeus
1615:Theology
1585:Exegesis
1062:Boethius
1057:Averroes
1052:Avicenna
1033:medieval
947:Pandeism
868:Humanism
848:Feminist
801:Dharmism
771:Acosmism
732:Hinduism
727:Buddhism
603:Evil God
553:Junkyard
464:Seddiqin
444:Morality
439:Miracles
363:Trilemma
306:Personal
301:Pandeist
271:Demiurge
207:Irenaean
197:Theodicy
45:concepts
26:a series
24:Part of
3116:1202728
2120:Solomon
1972:Outline
1820:Maistre
1815:Leibniz
1029:Ancient
972:Process
932:New Age
883:secular
836:atheist
816:Dualism
791:Atheism
781:Animism
742:Sikhism
737:Jainism
710:Judaism
511:Spinoza
266:Brahman
86:Miracle
3972:
3953:
3934:
3915:
3896:
3877:
3860:
3854:651707
3852:
3821:
3802:
3783:
3764:
3745:
3711:
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3635:
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3597:
3578:
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3540:
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3464:
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3426:
3384:
3344:
3319:
3268:
3243:
3213:
3188:
3122:
3114:
3044:
2579:
2571:
2516:
2491:
2116:Exodus
2107:Origen
2101:Origen
1919:Origen
1845:Wiesel
1790:Ehrman
1666:Saint
1002:Theism
895:Monism
695:BahĂĄÊŒĂ
528:Reason
496:Anselm
409:Desire
404:Degree
353:Beauty
125:Spirit
28:on the
3858:S2CID
3850:JSTOR
3120:S2CID
3112:JSTOR
3066:(PDF)
2577:S2CID
2569:JSTOR
2076:Jonah
997:Taoic
806:Deism
747:Wicca
705:Islam
491:Modal
486:Gödel
386:kalÄm
3970:ISBN
3951:ISBN
3932:ISBN
3913:ISBN
3894:ISBN
3875:ISBN
3819:ISBN
3800:ISBN
3781:ISBN
3762:ISBN
3743:ISBN
3709:ISBN
3690:ISBN
3671:ISBN
3652:ISBN
3633:ISBN
3614:ISBN
3595:ISBN
3576:ISBN
3557:ISBN
3538:ISBN
3519:ISBN
3500:ISBN
3481:ISBN
3462:ISBN
3443:ISBN
3424:ISBN
3382:ISBN
3342:ISBN
3317:ISBN
3300:(1).
3266:ISBN
3241:ISBN
3211:ISBN
3186:ISBN
3165:2012
3077:2018
3042:ISBN
2857:2011
2639:2011
2514:ISBN
2489:ISBN
2396:and
2381:and
2138:and
2004:and
1955:and
1901:and
1885:The
1835:Rowe
1805:Hume
1800:Hick
1031:and
623:Hell
598:Evil
429:Love
120:Soul
3842:doi
3104:doi
2561:doi
1980:in
243:God
3991::
3856:.
3848:.
3838:90
3836:.
3298:13
3296:.
3292:.
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3225:^
3118:.
3110:.
3100:66
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2807:^
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2656:^
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