Islamic Courts Union

510:

pivotal moment in the civil war, as it signified the emergence of the first major non-warlord affiliated Somali armed force in the city. A 'Shari’ah Implementation Council' was created that same year, which began to consolidate resources and power on the basis of Islamic doctrine instead of clannism. Professor Mark Fathi Massoud draws a comparison between the Somalis' late 1990s and early 2000s turn towards local religious courts for self-governance and the historical patterns observed in early democratic Western Europe and colonial North America. In both cases, the establishment of courts and the invocation of the divine played crucial roles in state-building. Massoud highlights that the Sharia courts' use of religion to foster stability has parallels with those courts that significantly influenced the nascent phases of democratic states. During August 2000, Islamic Courts fighters were operating in the

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several well-known Somali scholars such as Sheikh Sharif Sharafow, Sheikh Ibrahim Suley and Sheikh Mohamed Moallin Hassan established Sharia courts to rescue these civilians from attack and to address the rising lawlessness. The first Shari'a courts were started on a very small local neighborhood level by Somali religious leaders as a way to address issues in their communities. Most problems they dealt with were related to petty crimes and family disputes. In the chaotic political context of war torn Mogadishu the religious leaders were considered by most Somalis as some of the only people who could be trusted to impartially resolve disputes. Importantly, the courts also did not take positions on national-political or clan affairs, lending significant credence to their purported impartiality.

1682:, was outright banned. During the civil war many Somalis had relied the selling and distribution of the drug as one of their sole sources of income and consequently the ban had serious repercussions on people's ability to afford basic necessities. Charcoal exports were banned, on account of the industry devastating Somalia's fragile environment. Once again many Somalis had relied on the practice to make ends meet. Many Somali citizens had criticized the early Islamic courts for handing punishments out to petty criminals far more frequently than powerful gangsters and warlords. Radical elements in ICU, who viewed the TFG as an Ethiopian puppet, reportedly engaged in assassinations of TFG personnel. A United Nations monitoring group claimed the courts had sent 700 troops to fight alongside 729: 1245:, Sudan. The talk initially began positively but rapidly collapsed over the issue of Ethiopian forces deployed to Somalia at the request of the TFG. The ICU insisted that the presence of Ethiopian forces was the priority and should be dealt with first, while the TFG insisted that an agreement on a unified government had to be made before removing the Ethiopian presence. Neither side was willing to compromise on the issue of Ethiopian troops, leading to the collapse of the talks. On 22 June 2006, the ICU and the TFG mutually recognized each other and that neither would engage in hostile propaganda against the other. Both parties agreed to renew talks and meet again in Khartoum. 942:, resulting in significant influx of investors and former refugees. Another action that significantly increased the ICU's popularity was the restoration of proper ownership regarding land and homes that had been lost or stolen during the civil war. It was noted that as the courts were taking over the city many people simply left the homes they occupied before the rightful owners had even taken their cases to the specialized Sharia courts that were setup for property disputes. During this period the ICU also began to expand its authority by validating major transactions such as the purchase of vehicles or homes and overseeing marriages and divorces. 721:(‘the Youth’) emerged, related to but seemingly autonomous of the broad based Courts movement." At the time it was widely believed in Mogadishu that Somali warlords were cooperating with U.S. intelligence agents to kidnap alleged terror suspects, particularly prominent religious leaders. This atmosphere forced the ICU to take a more confrontational stance against the warlords. The CIA backed warlords had a notorious pattern of seizing innocent clerics with little or no intelligence value, which greatly fed into the already existing perception among Somalis that the Americans and the warlords were waging a war against Islam under the guise of the 1491: 1011:, once one of the busiest in East Africa, was also reopened by the courts, marking a crucial step in revitalizing the region's economic infrastructure. The formation of a sanitation committee and the organization of a substantial clean-up campaign on 20 July 2006 resulted in the first clearing of war debris and rubbish from Mogadishu's streets in over a decade. This successful initiative was further expanded to regions surrounding the capital. In August 2006, the courts issued a directive imposing a ban on the export of rare birds and wildlife from Somalia. Simultaneously, a prohibition on 417:

chaos in their community. Soon Ali Dheere had a staff that apprehended bandits and thieves in the area to bring them to be put on trial. His success in bringing order to his neighborhood in Mogadishu became well known throughout the city and led to the establishment of other copycat Sharia courts. The court did not shy away from strict punishments and even carried out executions. Soon word began rapidly spreading that law and order was being established in Dheeres sector of the city and the crime rate in the area subsequently dropped dramatically.

73: 673:, CIA-operated flights into Somalia had been bringing in $ 100,000 to US$ 150,000 per month for the warlords and he further claimed that the flights remained in Somalia for the day so that CIA agents can confer with them. The CIA also gave its newfound allies surveillance equipment for "tracking al Qaeda suspects". According to multiple U.S. officials, the decision to use of the warlords as proxies was born from fears of once again committing large numbers of American soldiers to Somalia following the disastrous 1993 177: 1492: 1494: 1495: 1678:(Consultative or Legislative Council), Sheikh Aweys. These ideological divisions became clear when various wings of the Islamic Courts started making policies and statements without reference to the collective leadership. Many of them – mostly "radically" conservative social policies – were not popular among the wider population. Somalia's only popular drug, 630:"...the leadership was often referred to as jihadist, extremist, and at times terrorist by some observers without much evidence to support the allegations. For example, the assessment of the Islamic Courts by U.S. officials was that less than 5% of the Islamic Courts leadership can be considered extremist, according to a senior State Department official." 1558:, the insurgency in 2008 was effectively being waged by two distinct groups, the nationalist leaning ICU insurgents and the increasingly international jihadist oriented Al-Shabaab. Residents reported that Islamic Courts insurgents had far more popular support than Al-Shabaab and receiving significant funds from both the local business communities and the 951: 1269:, the deputy leader of the ICU executive council, stated soon after that, "The Somali government has violated the accord and allowed Ethiopian troops to enter Somali soil." The TFG claimed that no Ethiopians were in Somalia and that only their troops were in Wajid. Soon after, residents reported two military helicopters landing at the town's airstrip. 782:

the union played a significant role in the organizations ability to maintain combat operations against the warlords. In the view of Mary Harper, a journalist with BBC Africa, the Islamic Courts Union was in reality more of a loose federation and only began to unite into a homogeneous body with a clear authority when its existence was threatened by the

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in much of southern Somalia. By the late 1990s, Mogadishu experienced growing optimism as the Islamic Courts, in collaboration with the business community, dismantled hundreds of illegal checkpoints and arrested thousands of militia members operating them. The chairman of the courts declared that these were the first step towards establishing an

1570:. In late July, forces loyal to the ICU engaged in a battle with Ethiopian troops in Beledweyne. The ENDF shelled the western part of Beledweyne with rocket and mortar fire, resulting in an exodus of civilians. By November 2008, ICU insurgents once again controlled the cities of Jowhar and Beledweyne. These regions operated independently of 1586:

Somalia's most dominant insurgent factions, eclipsing the influence of the Islamic Courts. Some foreign diplomats feared that Al-Shabaab would wage an all out war against other insurgents following the Ethiopian withdrawal. In January 2009, fighters who claimed loyalty to Islamic Courts Union engaged in a large military confrontation in

1353:, the decision to invite Ethiopian troops to invade Somalia created an ideal trigger for extremists to carry out Somalia's first ever suicide attack, as the deployment of foreign troops loyal to the Christian-dominated government in Ethiopia was viewed by the majority of ordinary Somali citizens as a threat to the nations sovereignty. 1087:, felt pressure and pronounced that they would use Sharia as a basis for governing their regions." Many Somalis across the nation held fundraising drives at mosques for the Islamic Courts. Several hundred men from Somaliland joined the Courts militia, while the contribution from ICU supporters in Puntland was primarily financial and 915:

avoided areas within reach of the court forces. Community reintegration programs were offered to former militiamen, and in an effort to restructure the security wing, formalized military and police training was introduced to the different court forces. Additionally, the city witnessed a ban on the open possession of firearms unless

453:, Aidids prime rival controlling the northern part of the city, issued a decree to dismantle Ali Dheere's Court after perceiving the Sheikhs rising popularity as a threat to his own authority. As the years passed, with nothing but warlords offering to replace its authority, the rule of the sharia courts began to cement. 790:, being both in contention with the ICU and backed by the United States, openly opposed the Americans operation to fund the warlords. Despite significant opposition in the government, several members of the CIA backed warlord alliance were holding senior posts within the TFG while fighting against the ICU was ongoing. 1031:

enhancing traffic flow in Mogadishu, deploying personnel to regulate traffic and dismantle roadblocks at major roads and junctions. Consequently, the following weeks witnessed a noteworthy decline in the prices of goods. Researchers conducting fieldwork in Somalia during May 2023 observed that some of the only

812:, gained total authority over the capital and proceeded to establish a 65-mile radius of control around the city. This was a seminal moment in modern Somali history, as the ICU was now the first group to have consolidated control over all of Mogadishu since the collapse of the Somali state. According to 1633:

During the period the of Courts governance, the number of militia road checkpoints in Somalia (along with the cost of passing them) drastically fell. After the invasion, militia checkpoints once again proliferated in large parts of southern Somalia in early 2007. The locations of these checkpoints on

926:

and pirate activity completely ceased due to aggressive anti-piracy operations. According to courts officials, the organization was sending large contingents of troops into the central Somali regions to crack down on pirate operations based there. In one notable incident after pirates hijacked a ship

793:

By April 2006 much of Mogadishu had fallen under the control of the ICU after clashes with the warlord alliance. The cities air and seaports came under the organizations direct control for the first time. In May they seized the very building where the warlord alliance had been founded and established

772:

to prevent bloodshed in Mogadishu. The ICU pledged to abide by a ceasefire, but mediators between the two organizations reported that the warlord alliance had delayed and refused to commit themselves. The Americans approved greater funding for the Somali warlords and further encourage them to counter

416:

Primarily his court focused on aiding merchants and store owners resolve their disputes, helping people arrange legal agreements for large purchases like homes, and trying people for crimes. Local scholars, elders, businessmen and political leaders cooperated with Dheere in a bid to end the spiraling

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was elected head of the organization and promptly declared war on Ethiopian forces. The ARS further announced its refusal to hold talks with the TFG until an Ethiopian withdrawal. In June 2008 the ARS and TFG signed a peace accord agreeing to the cessation of all hostilities between the two parties.

509:

During 2000, having liberated a significant portion of the city from warlord control, eleven of the individual Sharia courts amalgamated to establish the Islamic Courts Council. This consolidation led to the unification of their militias into a single cohesive combat force. This development marked a

456:

By 1999 the multiple Islamic courts had jurisdiction over much of the south of the city as well and five active Sharia courts were operating in the region. The courts were not an organized movement or a government, but represented the closest thing Somalia had to either. Their influence was enhanced

1486:

In the last days of December 2006, Ethiopian and TFG troops entered Mogadishu. Following the Ethiopian invasion and subsequent occupation, Somalia once again began slipping into a state of chaos. Between 2007 and 2008 approximately two-thirds of Mogadishu's residents were forced to flee the growing

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stated that whoever was responsible for the attack had wanted the ICU/TFG talks slated for 30 September 2006 to fail. Eventually the TFG, which had blamed previous attacks on warlords, for the first time accused radical elements within the ICU of the attack. 10 days before the assassination attempt

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over the months since the first incursion. In August, around 100 TFG troops defected over to the ICU. By September, contingent of 7,000 Ethiopian troops had penetrated deep into Somalia. The Ethiopians had complete control over the TFG headquarters and had begun arming warlords defeated by the ICU.

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that morning in support of the TFG, and that Ethiopian forces had also been probing Somali border towns. He would go on to threaten to fight Ethiopian troops if they continued intervening and further stated, "We want the whole world to know what’s going on. The United States is encouraging Ethiopia

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reported that during the meeting ‘the blueprint for a very American supported Ethiopian invasion of Somalia was hatched’. No Somali officials were involved in the discussions. Pentagon officials and intelligence analysts reported that the invasion had been planned during the summer of 2006 and that

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six months prior to the full scale December 2006 invasion. Participants deliberated on various scenarios, with the 'worst-case scenario' being the potential takeover of Somalia by the Islamic Courts Union. The documents revealed that the US found the prospect unacceptable and would back Ethiopia in

592:

The TFG operated entirely outside of Somalia due to instability in Mogadishu and consequently was criticized by Somali citizens and international community. At the time the TFG was only recognized by Kenya and Ethiopia, as the European Union, the United States and other members of the international

469:

from local warlords. By the end of the year, their coordinated efforts had begun to weaken the warlords' dominance in the capital. By mid-1999, Islamic Courts operating in the central regions were securing roads from Galkayo to Guriel and providing the only functioning detention and prison services

425:

In 1994 and 1995 other Sharia courthouses began opening up in northern Mogadishu, operating independently in their own self contained jurisdictions in the city. During these early years the courts began gaining considerable support for deploying security forces to protect schools and hospitals from

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report on Somalia investigating the allegations found no evidence to support to the assertion that women had ever been banned from working by the Islamic Courts. It was further revealed in interviews with local residents and courts officials that there had been some prohibitions on watching soccer

1299:

that the organization would invoke a jihad against Ethiopian forces if they did not withdraw. Numerous Somali witnesses and a BBC correspondent reported seeing Ethiopian Army trucks and hundreds of soldiers crossing the border and entering Baidoa. The TFG publicly denied the existence of Ethiopian

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Sharif stated that the courts had no intention of attacking Ethiopia, but claimed that Ethiopian forces had 'brought war' by beginning an incursion into Somalia. The Ethiopian government would deny the deployment of its forces in Somalia and countered that the ICU was marching towards its borders.

781:

A public uprising occurred in support of the Courts against the warlord alliance. The ICU enjoyed widespread support from Mogadishu citizens and business community against the warlords, greatly aiding its ability to seize and control large swathes of the city. The broad support of Somali women for

716:

Beginning in 2005 Mogadishu was hit by a significant wave of unexplained assassinations and disappearances. The Islamic Courts claimed that covert US government operations and warlords were targeting high ranking ICU officials. According to C. Barnes & H. Hassan, "It was in this context that a

689:

The ICU did not maintain a significant fighting force as the organization was overwhelmingly focused on providing legal and social services. The deficiency in firepower was especially pronounced in heavy weaponry. According to senior Islamic court officials the union only possessed a total of four

538:

during the spring of 2000, the momentum of the Islamic Courts was slowed as they opted to back the first attempt since the collapse of the state at forming a government. The chairman of the Islamic Courts was elected as a member of the Transitional National Assembly. Openly threatened by warlords,

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With its newfound position of authority, the ICU seized on its popularity and began pushing deep into the regions surrounding the city for the first time. Their offensive capability was greatly aided by new weaponry it had captured from the CIA backed warlord alliance. The Islamic Courts movement

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Corridor,' a vital transport and trade route to Kenya. Under the courts' administration, transportation costs on the corridor plummeted by 50%. Traders involved in studies on the route hailed the period under ICU control as a 'golden era of overall land trade.' Additionally, the courts focused on

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noted that goal of the union was to "...lay the foundations for some institutions in Somalia that might form the basis for a better and more peaceful, secure Somalia where the rule of law is important." In mid June, ICU leaders sent a cable to Washington stating that the courts had no interest in

398:

had a significant impact on the expansion of the Sharia courts system in the city. Dheere, who lived in one of the most dangerous regions of war-torn Mogadishu, became exhausted with the growing anarchy. He decided to put his religious training to use by setting up the first major Sharia court in

293:, stayed behind and broke away, initially greatly empowering themselves as a popular resistance movement against the occupation. During 2007 and 2008, ICU forces participated in the insurgency against Ethiopian troops occupying Somalia. High-ranking members of the Islamic Courts later founded the 365:

The first appearance of Sharia courts to build local stability began immediately after the state completely collapsed in January 1991. In the weeks following the total collapse, militias that had toppled the government began hunting down civilians based off their clan identity. Around this time,

1528:

did not heavily participate in the insurgency or large scale fighting for much of 2007, opting instead to carry out bombings and assassinations while further establishing itself. During 2007, members of the Islamic Courts led the resistance to the occupation, attracting significant support from

914:

After coming in control of the entirety of Mogadishu, the ICU revived sixteen previously defunct police stations in the city, deploying nearly 600 personnel and dozens of vehicles to fortify the nascent law enforcement framework. This resulted in a steep drop in banditry within days, as thieves

1585:

By November 2008, insurgency had effectively won. The majority of south and central Somalia, along with the capital was now under the control of Islamist factions. Ethiopia had redeployed much of its army out of Somalia by the end of the year. By the end of 2008, Al-Shabaab had emerged as one

1542:

near the Kenyan border in mid October. At the end of October 2007, some of the heaviest fighting in months broke out between the ENDF and ICU insurgents in the capital when Ethiopian troops launched an offensive on ICU positions. By November, small pockets of Islamic Courts Union control were

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The TFG was alarmed by the rapid territorial expansion of the ICU and feared that it was attempting to encircle its capital in Baidoa. Neither party was willing to go to continue the Khartoum conference. The TFG insisted that the ICU withdraw to the territory it had occupied during the June

2912:

Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Report Submitted to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, U.S. House of Representatives and Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate by the Department of State in Accordance with Sections 116(d) and 502B(b) of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as

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by financial donors abroad who sought to bring any semblance of stability to the country. While many Somalis voiced disapproval of the more fundamentalist ways of the original Sharia courts, it was noted that most felt that they were well organized and effective civil administrators.

1248:

During the talks another significant deployment of Ethiopian troops occurred on July 20, 2006, when they moved into Somalia. Local witnesses reported 20 to 25 armored vehicles crossing the border. The Ethiopian government once again denied the presence of any troops inside Somalia.

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since the collapse of the state. The period that followed is widely heralded as the most stable and productive period Somalia had seen up to that point since the outbreak of the civil war. Residents of Mogadishu were finally able to move around the city without fear of attack, the

551:

was elected as chairman of the Islamic Courts. The previous year Ahmed had been a school teacher that had become frustrated with the return of insecurity in north Mogadishu and successfully pushed to rejuvenate the Islamic Courts system in the region. Following the failure of the

226:, necessitating cooperation which resulted in their unification by 2000. The Islamic Courts Union (ICU) was a broad-based organization comprising various courts with diverse goals, from national political ambitions to local dispute resolution and promoting Islam. Because of 1312:, the failure of the second Khartoum talks stemmed from incompetent mediation, as he argues that the roadblock could have been resolved if the mediators had suggested and pushed for a simultaneous withdrawal of both ICU and Ethiopian forces under international supervision. 1123: 995:

clan, the ICU took deliberate measures to ensure clan bias did not influence legal proceedings. This approach ultimately earned them a reputation for impartiality. The Courts made efforts towards patching together neighborhoods that had been divided by the civil war.

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backlash in Somalia and greatly empower Islamist factions. As fighting for the city was ongoing in March 2006, the courts succeeded in seizing critical roads and infrastructure from the ARPCT. Prominent locals had urged the ICU and the warlord alliance to agree to a

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Instead of acting like the Taliban and ruthlessly imposing a harsh religious orthodoxy, as many feared, the Islamists seem to be trying to increase public support by softening their views, at least officially, delivering social services and pushing for democratic

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observed that, "...school attendance is rising, particularly among girls." During the ICU's brief control of southern Somalia, the organization made numerous declarations condemning discrimination against what the courts considered to be "oppressed clans" (e.g.,

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games on television late at night, but merely due to disturbances and fighting. Cinemas had also been restricted, though only in the mornings at the direct request of Mogadishu parents who were frustrated with the issue of children skipping school to see films.

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Despite the general collapse of the organization in early 2007, members of the Islamic Courts Union regrouped and continued fighting against the Ethiopian occupation during 2007 and 2008. The Ethiopian government accused ICU fighters of fighting alongside the

605:

As the courts started to unify in the early 2000s, tensions escalated with the warlords. Within the framework of the War On Terror, the U.S. government perceived the rise of an Islamic movement in Somalia as a potential terror risk. From 2003 onwards, the

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reported that residents in Baidoa had witnessed a large column of at least 72 armed ENDF vehicles and troops transports depart from city. The ICU claimed that the ENDF had also sent another large deployment across the Somali border. Following the battle,

1396:. High ranking Somaliland military officers defected to the ICU. Islamic Courts officials reported around 100 fighters from Puntland had defected to join their ranks in mid-November. On 29 November 2006, the courts claimed Ethiopian forces had shelled 777:

during meeting about Somalia in March 2006. At the time of the meeting there was fierce fighting in between the warlords and the Islamic Courts around Mogadishu, and the decision was taken to make counter-terrorism the top policy priority for Somalia.

564:

was formed in 2004. Previously aligned closely with Ethiopia, Yusuf's leadership received significant support from the Ethiopian government. This support was believed to be pivotal in his electoral victory for the TFG leadership in an election held in

1611:, an obscure organization at this point, gained immense popularity as a resistance group fighting against the Ethiopians. Consequently, much of Somalia south of Mogadishu became Al Shabaab ruled territory. The Islamic Courts Union had actively fought 1493: 2307:...other parts of Somalia such as Beledweyne on the Ethiopian border, and Giohar, north of Mogadishu are now falling under the control of a more moderate insurgent group, the Islamic Courts Union. This group receives strong support... 970:, the ICU did not forcefully impose religious edicts on Somali society and openly pushed for resumption of democratic elections, defying international expectations. Commenting on the state of education in the wake of the takeover, 593:

community refused to fully recognize the TFG's legitimacy until it operated from Mogadishu. To counter this, the TFG moved into Somalia for the first time in 2005, eventually setting up its headquarters south west of Mogadishu in

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during his return to the capital in August 2000, and soon handed over their heavy weaponry to the newly formed TNG. During 2001 the TNG gradually absorbed the Islamic courts and their militia, ceasing function by the years end.

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This invasion chased out or killed many affiliates of the UIC, leaving behind a battle-hardened small contingent of youth who made up a marginal faction of the UIC prior to the Ethiopian invasion. This group goes by the name of

1673:

There was serious ideological friction between the ‘moderate’ wing of the Islamic Courts led by the Chairman of the Islamic Courts’ "Executive Council", Sheikh Sharif, and the "radical" wing led by the Chairman of the Courts’

1449:, had been laying the ground work for the invasion within and outside Somalia since late 2005. During the invasion the United States provided satellite surveillance of ICU forces to the ENDF, along with extensive military and 1336:, when a truck loaded with explosives attempted to assassinate President Abdullahi Yusuf. The ICU denied responsibility for the assassination attempt, instead pinning the blame on Ethiopian provocateurs. TFG Foreign Minister 1537:

announced that the Islamic Courts movements was still intact and operating in Somalia. As fighting in Mogadishu escalated, ICU insurgents in southern Somalia found a window of opportunity and peacefully captured the town of

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The ICU continued to gain territory around Baidoa and lacking any troops of its own the TFG requested foreign support. On 20 July 2006, Ethiopia deployed hundreds of troops to Baidoa. This prompted an immediate warning from

1606:

In the wake of the ICU's disintegration, fringe Islamic groups began empowering themselves as Somalis from many walks of life rallied against the Ethiopian invasion and violence greatly escalated over the following years.

377:

region during 1992. The court had more success than its counterparts in Mogadishu, and consequently Luuq district was the safest area in Somalia during much of the 1990s. The court was later dissolved in 1997 when the

991:. The courts deliberately orchestrated marriages between women from discriminated groups to men from larger Somali clans to challenge popular perceptions. While many of the initial Mogadishu courts were linked to the 1171:. Although the Ethiopian government denied claims of ENDF forces crossing the border, residents in towns within Somalia reported encounters with Ethiopian troops inquiring whether the ICU had reached the area. 4757:

Further, the Ethiopian threat has become a reality as nearly 7,000 of its troops have deeply penetrated Somalia and completely control the headquarters of the TFG; it is also arming defeated warlords long its

1524:. The invasion resulted in the deaths of many Islamic Courts Union affiliates, leaving a vacuum for the small group of several hundred youth that served as the ICU's Shabaab militia to gain prominence, though 763:(ARPCT). The decision to support these warlords generated dissent within the CIA, the US State Department, and European states. Many officials expressed apprehensions that this backing could lead to a major 1440:

and armour. The timing and scale of the attack surprised many international observers, leading many to conclude that it was 'fairly obvious that Ethiopia had received significant help' during the invasion.

1273:

confirmed reports of Ethiopian troops in Wajid during interviews with local residents and aid workers. Following the towns seizure, the ICU pledged to wage a holy war to drive out ENDF forces in Somalia.

1307:

Eventually talks did resume, but in September instead of July 2006. Negotiations quickly broke down over the issues of Ethiopian forces and ICU expansion. According to former Somali diplomat and writer

5448: 5082: 1225:

urged the ICU and TFG to unite and form a government to attain a lasting peace in Somalia. In late June, the UN formally created a contact group to directly communicate with the Islamic Courts. The

357:. The manifesto warned that he had committed serious transgressions against the laws of Islam and called for him to peacefully step down and transition power, but their attempts were unsuccessful. 1381:

reported that the Ethiopian military incursion had set off a fierce reaction even among the most moderate of the ICU, and a recruitment mobilization began to raise a force to take back Burhakaba.

1261:. Two days later, another contingent of Ethiopian troops crossed into Somalia, leading to the collapse of the Khartoum peace talks between the ICU and TFG. Approximately 200 ENDF troops seized 1550:(ARS) were the primary insurgent forces operating in Somalia. During June 2008 the ICU publicly declared it would continue its attacks on ENDF/TFG bases and a new Islamic court was opened in 1392:. Several weeks later after intense local pressure, Puntland declared it would move towards adopting Sharia following a meeting between committee of religious heads and leader of the state, 1453:

extending to the provision of spare parts. The European Union was reportedly 'exceptionally unhappy' about the heavy US support for the invasion, and held back funds for the newly created

1229:

reported that the development reflected a growing realization within the UN that the ICU was the first serious governing body to appear since the collapse of the Somali state in 1991.

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troops had built up inside Somalia by this point. The escalation of Ethiopian troop deployments into Somalia during July 2006 began raising fears of a possible 'all-out war' in the

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Hirsh, Michael; Bartholet, Jeffrey (5 June 2006). "Fighting in the Shadows; Battles rage near the scene of 'Black Hawk Down'--And a covert American hand is tied to the warlords".

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The UIC had succeeded in creating a semblance of a state in the war-torn country for the first time in 15 years, thereby earning qualified legitimacy in the eyes of the population

4694: 2010: 426:

warlord incursions and predatory bandits. Before the establishment of these courts, acts of rape had become commonplace in north Mogadishu since 1991. The establishment of the

1291:(IGAD) were both viewed as biased by the ICU and TFG. The ICU accused the IGAD of being partial to the TFG, while the TFG accused the Arab League of complicity with the ICU. 677:. Many of the warlords the Americans funded to fight the Islamic Courts Union were many of the same ones that had fought directly against the Americans in Mogadishu during 2869: 821: 783: 760: 711: 699: 254: 281:, supported by the United States. Much of the organizational structure of the ICU disintegrated early on in 2007 due to the invasion as the ENDF/US forces brought the 5357: 1460:

To avoid turning Mogadishu into a war zone once again, the ICU withdrew from the city on December 26, 2006. The top leaders of the Islamic Courts Union, including

477:

At a June 1999 meeting, several Islamic Courts unanimously declared their refusal to participate in any "clannish armed confrontations." They appealed to warlord

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an Islamic Court in its place. Two of the defeated warlords allegedly fled to an American naval vessel off the Somali coast according to witnesses in Mogadishu.

610:(CIA) initiated covert operations against the Islamic Courts Union, aiming to depose them from power. The union consisted of about eleven courts in this period. 5394: 1214:

The TFG, overshadowed by the achievements of the ICU, was in dire need of the popularity and military capacity of the courts and the ICU in turn was in need of

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publicly denied conflict between the two groups and claimed that although there had been past differences, both factions cooperated on the grounds opposing an

338:. After existing for about 300 years, it declined during the 17th century after abandoning Sharia and becoming oppressive. During the 19th century, before the 274:

were opened for the first time in over a decade, a massive debris clean up campaign was started and there was a significant reduction of arms on the streets.

230:, the initiative widely gained popularity and acceptance, along with significant financial backing from the Somali business community. By originating from the 1356:

The first clash between ICU and ENDF forces occurred on 9 October 2006. TFG forces, backed by the Ethiopian troops, attacked the ICU positions at the town of

4209: 5092: 1206:, "We are ready for partnership with the Americans. We would like to work with them if they respect us and stop interfering with Somali internal affairs," 4613: 2259: 1283:

conference, while the ICU demanded the withdrawal of Ethiopian military contingents in Somalia before discussions resumed. The two primary mediators, the

1304:, claimed that sightings of Ethiopian forces in Somalia were a result of confused identity as Ethiopia had merely provided 4,000 uniforms to TFG forces." 369:

Around the same time as the creation of the Mogadishu courts, Sheikh Mohamed Haji Yusuf and Sheikh Mohamud A. Nur established a new Islamic court in the

2845: 4487: 1202:

was named head of the ICUs newly formed 88 member parliament, the Council of the Islamic Courts. Several days later Aweys stated in an interview with

569:. Before becoming president of the TFG during 2004, Abdullahi Yusuf was a member of an Ethiopian-backed coalition of warlords that had undermined the 353:, a group of sixty highly prominent members of Somali society under the banner of "Islamic Call" published a public manifesto addressed to President 2478: 2361:

Cassanelli, Lee V. (1975). "Migrations, Islam, and politics in Somali Benaadir, 1500–1843". In Marcus, Harold G.; Schoonmaker, Kathleen M. (eds.).

1026:, creating a more favourable environment for trade. As they advanced through southern Somalia, the ICU eliminated all militia checkpoints on the ' 5479: 3352: 3684: 577:, notes that Ethiopia's deep involvement in the formation of the TFG led many Somalis to view the government as inauthentic and essentially a 1191:

The TFG denied accusations of an Ethiopian military deployment counter claiming that ICU was fabricating a pretext to assault its capital in

894:, referred to as a 'Golden era' of Somali politics by top UN officials, saw the ICU undertake significant reformative and security measures. 5631: 2102: 669:

officers landed on warlord-controlled airstrips in Mogadishu with large amounts of money for distribution to Somali militias. According to

1693:

The ICU was accused of enacting extremist policies such as banning television, shutting down cinemas and preventing women from working. A

653:

had become increasingly concerned with the growing power of the Islamic Courts Union, and feared that they would make Somalia a haven for

4459: 4357: 3986: 3938: 570: 553: 531: 4253: 222:

courts to impose law and order on the volatile neighborhoods of Mogadishu. These independent courts found their existence threatened by

4706: 1504: 1288: 862: 787: 557: 298: 282: 1971: 5945: 5697: 4535: 4375: 1707: 1657: 1651: 1547: 1388:

government officials threatened to "either incarcerate, kill or deport" religious leaders who formed an Islamic Court in the city of

294: 131: 5960: 5950: 1944: 1369:

announced "This is clear aggression...Our forces will face them soon if they do not retreat from Somali territories" and declared

493:

region at the time, to resolve their conflict peacefully through dialogue. The courts opposed Aidid's attempts to capture Bay and

434:

to rapists. By 1997 there had been seven cases of execution by stoning in Somalia. It has been noted that suppression of war time

4510: 1219: 897: 5502: 3590: 3188: 1349:

that his militia would eject the TFG by force if they did not withdraw from the city. According to Professor Robert Pape of the

1521: 1004: 678: 3933: 931:

and demanded a US$ 1,000,000 ransom, ICU forces carried out an anti-piracy operation with a force of 30 fighters deployed off

5970: 4151: 4014: 3328: 3127: 2809: 2503: 2454: 2342: 1928: 1859: 1809: 1778: 5425: 3737: 2446:

Violations of the rules applicable in non-international armed conflicts and their possible causes : the case of Somalia

5677: 3263: 2643: 728: 582: 5294: 5068: 3019: 406:(Translation: "Oh god save me from the troubles that are associated with the day of judgement and those of Siisii Street") 5911: 5347: 5264: 1044: 430:

made a considerable impact on the security situation as the courts made a point of handing out the capital punishment of

17: 1916:

Historical Sociology of State Formation in the Horn of Africa: Genesis, Trajectories, Processes, Routes and Consequences

1797:

Historical Sociology of State Formation in the Horn of Africa: Genesis, Trajectories, Processes, Routes and Consequences

5772: 4185: 3711: 1665:

Though successful, the talks were once again threatened by the issue of Ethiopian military forces deployed in Somalia.

999:

The capital witnessed a small building boom. By 19 June 2006, the ICU founded several clinics and schools in the city.

5528: 958:, appointed head of the Foreign Affairs department for the union. He had previously worked as an administrator at the 211:

government in most of southern and central Somalia, succeeding in creating the first semblance of a state since 1991.

5848: 5815: 3293: 3227: 2031: 1425: 1068: 919:, and foreign visitors were publicly advised to provide two weeks' prior notice of their arrival for their security. 870: 586: 5554: 3047: 1579: 1517: 1500: 1454: 1433: 1321: 1254: 1152: 399:

Somalia. The infamous "Siisii Street" ran through his community and became notorious for its dangerous reputation.

5488: 5033: 4333: 2209: 1012: 1000: 267: 5596: 4068:"Self-defence, Intervention by Invitation, or Proxy War? The Legality of the 2006 Ethiopian Invasion of Somalia" 2698: 2364:

Proceedings of the First United States Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Michigan State University, 2–5 May, 1973

441:

The first court did not start in southern Mogadishu until 1998, as the de facto ruler of the territory, General

277:

Six months into their reign, the Islamic Courts Union was toppled during the final days of 2006 by a full scale

3165: 1753: 1694: 1481: 1377:

government denied that ENDF troops were in Somalia, but local residents in Burhakaba confirmed their presence.

1057:

acquired a leaked document detailing a confidential meeting between senior American and Ethiopian officials in

1048: 623: 573:

formed in 2000 that the Islamic Courts had supported. Professor Jude Cocodia, a political science scholar from

278: 3398: 1265:, taking control of the airport. Following the deployment at Wajid, the ICU walked out of talks with the TFG. 1022:

The courts secured broad support from the Mogadishu business community by addressing issues such as theft and

869:

so that it could move into Mogadishu and reunite Somalia. Several days after the city came under ICU control,

5627: 4863: 3913: 3872: 1420:

launch a full scale invasion into Somalia to topple the ICU and install the TFG. Alongside these troops, the

306: 5867:"Rejecting African Solutions to African Problems: The African Union and the Islamic Courts Union in Somalia" 5371: 4479: 4034: 3464: 2736:"Rejecting African Solutions to African Problems: The African Union and the Islamic Courts Union in Somalia" 285:(TFG) to power. Following the collapse of courts rule, much of the high ranking leadership sought refuge in 3490: 1487:

violence in the city, and Somalia began to experience one of the worst humanitarian crises in its history.

1421: 902: 886:

Over the ensuing months, the eleven amalgamated Islamic Courts initiated a drive to establish stability in

749: 650: 148: 4909: 2990: 1143:, far inside Somalia, to build a bridgehead for a future large scale military operation. On 16 June 2006, 824:

soon collapsed, with the majority of its commanders publicly resigning or expressing support for the ICU.

4483: 1639: 1608: 1595: 1571: 1539: 1525: 1156: 756: 718: 670: 666: 646: 607: 290: 258: 1035:

still circulating in the country were ones issued by the ICU government over a decade and half earlier.

5832: 5563: 5458: 4800: 2576: 2085: 809: 803: 695: 674: 250: 215: 1079:, "...the enthusiasm of the population for change, was such that far off regions in the country, like 5965: 5124: 4515: 3637: 2784:

Korotayev, Andrey; Voronina, Elena (2024), Besenyő, János; Issaev, Leonid; Korotayev, Andrey (eds.),

2735: 2428: 774: 640: 486: 5866: 2600: 622:-infused brand of Islam'. According to a report by Ted Dagne, an Africa Research Specialist for the 1342: 482: 465:

During April 1999, several Sharia courts united for the first time, seizing control of Mogadishu's

446: 305:, became president of Somalia in 2009, replacing successfully the Transitional Government with the 289:. In the insurgency that followed, a youth militia within the military wing of the Islamic Courts, 2060: 581:

under Ethiopian influence. This sentiment was further amplified by historical events, such as the

5955: 5244: 3551: 3425: 2664: 2284: 2112: 1332:

On 18 September 2006, the first suicide bombing in Somali history occurred in the TFG capital of

935:. The vessel was recaptured by the Courts fighters after a gun battle with the pirates onboard. 497:, asserting that the nations current problems could only be solved through the implementation of 246:

controlling much of the city - the ICU gained the confidence of a populace exhausted by warfare.

4936: 2152: 5699:

NAVIGATING TRADE CONTROLS THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF CHECKPOINTS ALONG SOMALIA'S GARISSA CORRIDOR

5663: 4987: 4894: 4419: 4235: 2937: 2870:"IRIN interview with Abdallah Derow Isaak, Speaker of Somalia's Transitional National Assembly" 2260:"Ethiopia reaps U.S. aid by enlisting in war on terror and hiring influential lobbyists – ICIJ" 1215: 1144: 773:

the ICU, a decision made by top officials in Washington which was later reaffirmed by the U.S.

574: 540: 4376:"Militant leader emerges in Somalia – Africa & Middle East – International Herald Tribune" 5706: 5582: 5380: 5352: 1350: 1063: 561: 411:

A popular saying in war torn Mogadishu prior to the establishment of Sheikh Ali Dheeres court

379: 4106: 3518: 2184: 4914: 4848: 4702: 4464: 4402: 4254:"Border war feared as Somali Islamists vow holy war against Ethiopia – Somalia | ReliefWeb" 3991: 2894: 2874: 2850: 2648: 2235: 1660:(ARS), was founded by numerous high ranking ICU officials who had south refuge in Eritrea. 1361: 1203: 928: 478: 442: 4379: 1241:

arranged a conference between the ICU and TFG in June 2006 to discuss merger proposals in

1163:

region reported about 50 Ethiopian armored vehicles had passed through the border town of

547:

The expansion of the Islamic Courts resumed in 2004 following the TNG's failure and after

8: 5902: 5894: 4318: 2790:

Terrorism and Political Contention: New Perspectives on North Africa and the Sahel Region

2785: 1920: 1801: 1661: 1534: 1465: 1366: 1337: 1296: 1175: 1076: 959: 955: 854: 808:

On 5 June 2006, the Islamic Courts Union decisively defeated the warlord alliance in the

737: 733: 691: 548: 339: 302: 85: 1300:

forces in Baidoa and argued the claims were ICU propaganda. TFG minister of information

1038: 661:. American support for the warlords extended to the point where, on numerous occasions, 618:

and noted that the majority of the Islamic Courts operated on a 'traditionally tolerant

201:-based Sharia courts during the early 2000s to combat the lawlessness stemming from the 5920: 5886: 5801: 5225: 5152: 4748: 4676: 4283: 3665: 3346: 2965: 2763: 2551: 2472: 1948: 1469: 1450: 1393: 1301: 1266: 1199: 1088: 741: 450: 4631: 4520: 4016:

BROKERING TRADE ROUTES: THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF CHECKPOINTS ALONG THE BAIDOA CORRIDOR

5890: 5844: 5811: 5217: 5156: 5144: 5041: 4740: 4668: 4147: 4116: 4087: 4042: 3909: 3867: 3822: 3669: 3657: 3559: 3526: 3334: 3324: 3198: 3133: 3123: 2969: 2957: 2910: 2805: 2767: 2755: 2674: 2555: 2509: 2499: 2460: 2450: 2338: 2292: 2160: 1979: 1924: 1895: 1855: 1805: 1774: 1309: 1178:

claimed that 300 Ethiopian troops had entered the country through the border town of

1008: 861:

The leaders of the ICU repeatedly professed that they intended to negotiate with the

836:

people suffering for 15 years would gain peace and full justice and freedom from the

271: 205:. By mid-to-late 2006, the Islamic Courts had expanded their influence to become the 5803:

Understanding the Somalia Conflagration: Identity, Political Islam and Peacebuilding

5243:

Samatar, Abdi Ismail (2008). "Ethiopian Occupation and American Terror in Somalia".

2889: 2061:"Somalia Mourns a 'Golden Era' as Crisis Worsens | Africa Faith and Justice Network" 1891:

Getting Somalia Wrong?: Faith, War and Hope in a Shattered State (African Arguments)

5878: 5836: 5682: 5606: 5453: 5136: 4543: 4079: 3776: 3745: 3649: 3450: 3384: 2949: 2797: 2747: 2543: 1712: 1687: 1555: 1226: 891: 828:

reported that the ICU had emerged as Somalia's strongest and most popular faction.

764: 350: 335: 227: 202: 5882: 5140: 4982: 4889: 4826: 3653: 2751: 1135:

The Ethiopian invasion began with the dispatch of several thousands troops around

5826: 5421: 5109:

Hormuud Habaabay: Milicsiga Kacdoonkii Maxaakiimta Islaamiga Ahaa (2006–2009 kii)

5107: 4141: 3797: 3621: 2801: 2793: 2362: 2332: 1914: 1849: 1795: 1768: 1628:

Hans Tino Hansen, CEO of Risk Intelligence, a Danish maritime security consultant

1591: 1559: 1429: 190: 60: 46: 5735: 5395:"ICU Spokesman: We Will Continue Attacks on Ethiopian and Somali Military Bases" 5319: 5178: 5002: 4983:"Puntland Islamist Fighters Join the Union of Islamic Courts in Central Somalia" 4773: 4563: 3969: 3951: 3846: 3814: 3443:

HASSAN, MOHAMED OLAD (10 June 2006). "Somalia's capital calm in Islamic hands".

3072: 2495:

UN peacekeeping operations in Somalia 1992–1995 : The Pakistani Perspective

1187:

to take over the area. Ethiopia has crossed our borders and are heading for us."

438:

was a major underlying factor in Somali women's support for the Islamic Courts.

5636: 5533: 5399: 4400:"Hardline Somali Islamists extend olive branch to Washington, demand respect". 4210:"Egypt 'trained' deposed' UIC fighters, Djibouti provided uniforms – WikiLeaks" 4167: 3918: 3878: 3741: 2855: 1587: 1567: 1315: 1262: 1258: 874: 515: 466: 449:

opposed the Islamic courts, and no progress occurred until after Aidids death.

4171: 3383:"Somali warlords making cease-fire deal in capital difficult, says mediator". 3338: 2953: 2547: 2513: 1690:, though this claim has been held in question by many observers and analysts. 1412:

In late December 2006, approximately 50,000 Ethiopian troops backed by tanks,

5939: 5221: 5148: 5087: 5045: 4890:"Puntland Threatens to Either Kill Or Deport the New Islamic Courts Founders" 4744: 4672: 4120: 4091: 4067: 4046: 3826: 3771: 3661: 3563: 3530: 3445: 3202: 3193: 3137: 2961: 2759: 2678: 2464: 2296: 2164: 1983: 1899: 1575: 1546:

By mid-2008 Islamic Courts Union loyalists, Al-Shabaab and supporters of the

1437: 1378: 1148: 1016: 984: 971: 820:

for the first time in 16 years, and re-establishing peace and security". The

813: 722: 611: 471: 370: 310: 4083: 3320:

Inside al-Shabaab : the secret history of al-Qaeda's most powerful ally

2531: 2349:

However, the later Ajurans ruler abandoned Sharia law, and became oppressive

5422:"allAfrica.com: Somalia: Islamic Court Opened Near Mogadishu (Page 1 of 1)" 5174: 4111: 3318: 2669: 2426:

Cassanelli, Lee (12 June 2006). "Somalia's Islamists differ from Taliban".

1461: 1417: 1374: 1140: 1112: 1007:

forces in 1995, was reopened by the courts on July 15, 2006. On August 25,

916: 578: 490: 435: 309:. In 2012, the country adopted a new constitution that declared Somalia an 239: 80: 5840: 4827:"Somalia: Ethiopian Troops Capture Burhakaba 180 Km Away From the Capital" 4584: 4434: 3235: 3117: 2039: 1744: 1598:

put out a statement announcing that it was 'saddened' by the hostilities.

1091:. During the summer of 2006, the ICU was allegedly being given support by 797: 5807: 5720: 4298: 3766: 2133: 1397: 1284: 1238: 1058: 939: 923: 745: 658: 163: 5924: 5906: 5661:"Somali Al-Shabab 'saddened' by fighting with Union of Islamic Courts". 5229: 5205: 4680: 4656: 3048:"Somalia gov't says Islamists plan to attack base – Somalia | ReliefWeb" 2210:"WikiLeaks Reveals U.S. Twisted Ethiopia's Arm to Invade Somalia – FPIF" 1159:. The following day on 17 June, local Somali officials and residents in 5269: 5206:"Kapitel 12 Harakat al-Shabaab, and Somalia's current state of affairs" 4941: 4752: 4728: 3638:"The Evolution of Political Violence: The Case of Somalia's Al-Shabaab" 2846:"IRIN Interview with Islamic Courts Chairman Hassan Sheik Mohamed Abdi" 2525: 2523: 1563: 1222: 1080: 850: 354: 235: 231: 2493: 2367:. African Studies Center, Michigan State University. pp. 101–115. 1436:

forces. The lightly armed court forces were unable to counter ENDF/US

525: 5641: 5601: 4831: 2786:"Revolutionary and Quasi-Revolutionary Events in Somalia (1960–2023)" 2444: 1889: 1683: 1508: 1446: 1413: 1357: 1054: 1039:

Islamic Courts expansion and Ethiopian invasion (June–September 2006)

1023: 932: 887: 817: 769: 427: 395: 262: 198: 141: 72: 2520: 5736:"Refworld | Somalia: "Alliance" divided over Djibouti peace accord" 5577:"Al-Shabab official denies dispute with Somalia's Islamic Courts". 5324: 5183: 5007: 4778: 3495: 3368: 3077: 1530: 1385: 1346: 1270: 1242: 1096: 1084: 1032: 980: 841: 825: 654: 600: 535: 511: 207: 153: 3619:"Islamic courts lauded over improved security in Somali capital". 3599:

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

1445:

reported American and British Special Forces, along with US-hired

522:, Courts personnel were present attempting to establish security. 5274: 4281:"Ethiopia accused of trying to destroy Islamic rule in Somalia". 1656:

In September 2007 the successor to the Islamic Courts Union, the

1635: 1616: 1442: 1389: 1250: 1092: 967: 837: 833: 662: 615: 431: 286: 243: 223: 5632:"How the War on Terror pushed Somalia into the arms of al-Qaeda" 4957:"Somaliland: Defected Officers Join Islamic Courts in Mogadishu" 4956: 4423:. BBC Worldwide Monitoring. BBC Monitoring Africa. 17 June 2006. 4239:. BBC Worldwide Monitoring. BBC Monitoring Africa. 16 June 2006. 3914:"Islamists in Mogadishu pacify city without religious orthodoxy" 3873:"Islamists in Mogadishu pacify city without religious orthodoxy" 3685:"It is not too late to reverse the US Foreign Policy in Somalia" 3625:. BBC Worldwide Monitoring. BBC Monitoring Africa. 20 June 2006. 3423:"Islamists take Somali capital, four warlord-ministers sacked". 1645: 1277: 176: 3591:"Humanitarian situation in Somalia: Monthly analysis, Aug 2006" 3264:"US funding Somali warlords-intelligence experts say – Somalia" 2706: 2107: 1612: 1551: 1401: 1333: 1325: 1192: 1136: 1027: 992: 866: 619: 594: 519: 498: 494: 391: 331: 314: 261:

and became the first entity to consolidate control over all of

219: 218:

in early 1991, a new phenomenon emerged – the establishment of

120: 3294:"Somali leaders say U.S. ignored pleas | The Spokesman-Review" 1574:

and the two groups came into contention. Al-Shabaab spokesman

5928: 5907:"Ethiopian Invasion of Somalia, US Warlordism & AU Shame" 4657:"Ethiopian Invasion of Somalia, US Warlordism & AU Shame" 4316:

Pflanz, Mike (19 June 2006). "Ethiopia accused of invasion".

4035:"Mogadishu's miracle: peace in the world's most lawless city" 1746:

Somalia: Current Conditions and Prospects for a Lasting Peace

1675: 1533:

region and from Somalis across the world. In September 2007,

1400:. The next day ICU forces ambushed an ENDF convoy outside of 1370: 1179: 1164: 1116: 1108: 1104: 1075:

found significant support across Somalia. According to Prof.

988: 976: 950: 566: 3802:. Vol. 112. Jane's Information Group. 2007. p. 15. 1316:

Escalation and full scale invasion (September–December 2006)

1155:'heavy armoured vehicles' along all the border towns on the 5481:

Report of the Secretary-General on the situation in Somalia

5083:"7 Somali soldiers, Ethiopian officer defect to insurgency" 2153:"U.S. Signals Backing for Ethiopian Incursion Into Somalia" 1679: 1499:

Footage uploaded on Islamic Courts insurgent website of an

1183: 1168: 1160: 1122: 1100: 832:

The Union of Islamic Courts was established to ensure that

822:

Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism

761:

Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism

712:

Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism

374: 342:

had arrived to Somali territories, Sharia courts headed by

301:

in late 2008. Former chairman of the Islamic Courts Union,

4480:"Ethiopian Troops Enter Somalia to Resist Islamic Militia" 4172:

The Puntland State of Somalia. A Tentative Social Analysis

2371: 962:

in Washington, D.C., before returning to Somalia in 1999.

890:

and the territories under its control. This period of the

5777: 5125:"Political, Economic, and Ideological Warfare in Somalia" 3956: 2623: 2621: 2388: 2386: 1937: 1071:

were on the ground before the Ethiopians had intervened.

5828:

Shari'a, Inshallah: Finding God in Somali Legal Politics

5265:"Interview – Somalia's Islamic Courts movement "intact"" 759:(CIA), anti-ICU warlords united under the banner of the 589:(SSDF) and collaborated with invading Ethiopian forces. 234:

level, reconstituting the Somali state, asserting their

5503:"Somalia: Situation Report No. 29 - 25 Jul 2008 | OCHA" 5063: 5061: 4107:"How US forged an alliance with Ethiopia over invasion" 2185:"How US forged an alliance with Ethiopia over invasion" 2103:"Islamic Militia Seizes Somalia's Capital - Forbes.com" 1320:

Before the full scale invasion began, more than 10,000

798:

Defeat of the warlord alliance and seizure of Mogadishu

744:& Abdullahi Maalim Ali (on far right) partaking in 518:

regions. From Mogadishu south down to the port city of

420: 3471: 2823: 2618: 2383: 2312: 1619:

coast, and consequently piracy thrived in their wake.

705: 390:

In 1994, the opening of a court in Mogadishu run by a

4910:"Puntland to adopt Islamic law – Somalia | ReliefWeb" 4614:"Somali Says Ethiopian Presence Is Just the Uniforms" 4417:"Annan urges Somali Islamists, government to unite". 4233:"Ethiopian troops massed along border with Somalia". 2916:. U.S. Government Printing Office. 2001. p. 591. 2409: 2407: 2405: 2403: 2401: 2011:"Efforts by C.I.A. Fail in Somalia, Officials Charge" 1767:

Esposito, John L.; Shahin, Emad El-Din (2018-08-01).

1232: 905:(Masjidka Isbahaysiga) in Mogadishu on 18 August 2006 504: 5058: 4460:"Govt, Islamic courts agree to recognise each other" 4358:"Ethiopia troops crossing into Somalia-top Islamist" 4072:

African Journal of International and Comparative Law

3552:"As Somali Crisis Swells, Experts See a Void in Aid" 1826: 1824: 197:) was a legal and political organization founded by 5752: 5449:"Divide Widens Between Insurgent Groups in Somalia" 5373:

Routinely Targeted: Attacks on civilians in Somalia

5034:"WikiLeaked Cable Confirms U.S.' Secret Somalia Op" 3987:"Islamic courts ban trade in charcoal and wildlife" 3160:"Islamic Courts Take Politics In A New Direction". 1642:have remained relatively the same as of late 2023. 526:

Transitional National Government merger (2000–2004)

5246:Post-Conflict Peace-Building in the Horn of Africa 5106:Garyare, Suldaan Maxamed Suldaan Ibraahim (2015). 3934:Somalia: Reopening of Mogadishu's airport welcomed 3890: 3871: 2398: 1972:"My meeting with a forgotten terrorist in Somalia" 1594:, against Al-Shabaab resulting in several deaths. 1019:occurring across the country due to the practice. 649:began covert operations targeting the Courts. The 460: 382:and Ethiopian military collaborated to topple it. 349:During 1990, just before the full outbreak of the 27:Former legal and political organisation in Somalia 5204:Hansen, Stig Jarle; Gaas, Mohamed Husein (2011). 4299:"Ethiopian troops enter Somalia – Islamic leader" 3115: 2938:"The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu's Islamic Courts" 2783: 2699:"Warring Sides Urged to Cease Fire in S. Somalia" 2532:"The Rise and Fall of Mogadishu's Islamic Courts" 1821: 1543:appearing in various places across the country. 5937: 5773:"U.N. Report Ties Somali Islamists to Hezbollah" 5734:Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. 5348:"Familiar Scenes of Violence Arise in Mogadishu" 5295:"Somalia: Situation Report - 19 Oct 2007 | OCHA" 4186:"U.N. Report Ties Somali Islamists to Hezbollah" 3323:. Dan Joseph. Bloomington, Indiana. p. 35. 1623:Under the Courts, there was literally no piracy. 816:, "The Courts achieved the unthinkable, uniting 601:Islamic Courts Union – Warlord alliance conflict 1562:. By July, ICU forces controlled the cities of 346:(Islamic judges) operated all along the coast. 297:(ARS) in late 2007, which would merge with the 4104: 3365: 2530:Barnes, Cedric; Harun, Hassan (24 July 2007). 1766: 1167:and pushed 50 km inland near the town of 5721:"Islamist to lead Somali opposition alliance" 5236: 4720: 4105:Rice, Xan; Goldenberg, Suzanne (2007-01-13). 3712:"Did U.S. action create Somali pirate haven?" 3491:"In Mogadishu, Prayers Amid Lull in Violence" 3399:"U.S. Accused of Backing Warlords in Somalia" 1646:Creation of the ARS party and merger with TFG 1278:Second Khartoum meeting and collapse of talks 1130: 385: 5597:"Horn of Africa's challenges grow - Somalia" 4098: 3020:"Ethiopian troops cross border into Somalia" 2935: 2477:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2285:"Islamists Continue Advance Through Somalia" 1668: 1015:was enacted, driven by the alarming rate of 966:As opposed to the strict enforcement of the 614:described the ICU as more tolerant than the 52: 38: 4536:"Ethiopian troops enter second Somali town" 4435:"U.N. team to meet Somalia's Islamic group" 4059: 3815:"Somalia: Better Off under Islamic Courts?" 3228:"U.S. secretly backing warlords in Somalia" 3119:Governance: The Scourge and Hope of Somalia 2665:"Islam tries to restore order in Mogadishu" 2529: 2337:. Adonis and Abbey Publishers. p. 64. 2088:. Council on Foreign Relations. 3 Aug 2006. 694:improvised fighting vehicles when the 2006 532:Transitional National Government of Somalia 5203: 4695:"Somali govt soldiers defect to Islamists" 3767:"Somali Islamists seize ship from pirates" 3351:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2425: 2360: 2330: 2032:"Guns finally silent in Somalia's capital" 1912: 1793: 1289:Intergovernmental Authority on Development 788:Transitional federal government of Somalia 404:Siraadka Qiyaama iyo Siisii Allow na mooti 334:) was used during the reign of the Somali 175: 71: 5547: 5345: 5262: 4611: 3926: 3908: 3866: 3549: 2282: 1947:. Harvard Divinity School. Archived from 1708:Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia 1658:Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia 1652:Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia 1548:Alliance for the Re-Liberation of Somalia 1511:to ICU fighters in Mogadishu (7 Sep 2008) 1475: 1209: 1062:the event of an ICU takeover. Journalist 844:who refuted their people to no direction. 295:Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia 132:Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia 5695: 5626: 5556:Somalia: To Move Beyond the Failed State 4585:"Ethiopian troops enter central Somalia" 4472: 2601:"Wall Street, Somalia, and Jack Sparrow" 2442: 2334:Making Sense of Somali History: Volume 1 2150: 1969: 1489: 1121: 949: 896: 727: 325: 5901: 5864: 5824: 5770: 5242: 5122: 5105: 5027: 5025: 4981:Yusuf, Aweys Osman (15 November 2006). 4768: 4766: 4727:Samatar, Abdi Ismail (September 2006). 4726: 4654: 4650: 4648: 4607: 4605: 4334:"Ethiopia denies crossing into Somalia" 4166: 4139: 3635: 3516: 3477: 2829: 2733: 2627: 2491: 2392: 2377: 2318: 2233: 2134:"US backs Ethiopian attacks in Somalia" 1847: 1324:forces had been built up in and around 1126:Advance of the Islamic Courts offensive 901:Crowds gather for the reopening of the 14: 5938: 5360:from the original on 23 December 2023. 4846:"Somali incursion provokes war fear". 4801:"Suicide Bombings Increase in Somalia" 4533: 4508: 4315: 4276: 4274: 4248: 4246: 4065: 3738:"Piracy Off Somalia's Coast Increases" 3735: 3585: 3583: 3581: 3579: 3519:"Mogadishu's new rulers reassure west" 3442: 3438: 3436: 3183: 3181: 3179: 3177: 3175: 3155: 3153: 3151: 3149: 3147: 3111: 3109: 3107: 3105: 3103: 3101: 3099: 3097: 3095: 3042: 3040: 3014: 3012: 3010: 2985: 2983: 2981: 2979: 2936:Barnes, Cedric; Hassan, Harun (2007). 2931: 2929: 2927: 2925: 2923: 2840: 2838: 2779: 2777: 2729: 2727: 2725: 2723: 2638: 2636: 2577:"Somalia's High Stakes Power Struggle" 2086:"Somalia's High Stakes Power Struggle" 2026: 2024: 1887: 1407: 945: 878:being enemies with the United States. 755:During 2006, at the suggestion of the 360: 5771:Kelemen, Michele (15 November 2006). 5589: 5526: 5173: 4980: 4887: 4825:Yusuf, Aweys Osman (9 October 2006). 4824: 4534:Hassan, Mohamed Olad (23 July 2006). 4490:from the original on January 19, 2014 3706: 3704: 3682: 3316: 3288: 3286: 3284: 3258: 3256: 3254: 3252: 3222: 3220: 3218: 2662: 2278: 2276: 2097: 2095: 2005: 2003: 2001: 1999: 1739: 1737: 1735: 1733: 1731: 1729: 1727: 5799: 5758: 5733: 5654: 5570: 5529:"Ethiopian Troops Attack Beledweyne" 5527:Xasan, Salaad Iidow (24 July 2008). 5428:from the original on October 4, 2012 5346:Thompkins, Gwen (20 November 2007). 5179:"US fails to break Somali Islamists" 5167: 5112:(in Somali). Hill Press. p. 64. 5022: 4864:"Ethiopia 'helps seize Somali town'" 4763: 4645: 4602: 4032: 4022:. RIFT VALLEY INSTITUTE. p. 12. 3896: 3122:. : Trafford Pub. pp. 365–396. 2413: 2331:Abdurahman, Abdullahi (2017-09-18). 1883: 1881: 1879: 1877: 1875: 1873: 1871: 1843: 1841: 1839: 1830: 1147:reported that sources in Ethiopia's 684: 421:Rise of the Mogadishu Islamic Courts 242:and eliminating the widely despised 5912:Review of African Political Economy 5671: 5446: 5003:"Islamists 'ambush' Ethiopia truck" 4937:"Puntland oo ku dhaqmeysa Islaamka" 4774:"Somali leader survives bomb blast" 4733:Review of African Political Economy 4661:Review of African Political Economy 4612:Gettleman, Jeffrey (22 July 2006). 4350: 4271: 4243: 4013:Ali, Abdirahman (31 October 2023). 4012: 3945: 3847:"Profile: Somalia's Islamic Courts" 3576: 3433: 3189:"Islamists half-ready for holy war" 3172: 3144: 3092: 3037: 3007: 2976: 2920: 2835: 2774: 2720: 2633: 2498:. Paramount Books. pp. 43–44. 2354: 2053: 2021: 1854:. Red Sea Press. pp. 140–146. 1770:Islam and Politics Around the World 1373:against Ethiopian military forces. 909: 706:Warlord conflict and CIA escalation 634: 539:the Courts protected the President 249:During the summer of 2006, the ICU 53: 24: 5320:"Heavy fighting in Somali capital" 5091:. 7 September 2008. Archived from 4564:"Ethiopians enter new Somali town" 3701: 3281: 3249: 3215: 2942:Journal of Eastern African Studies 2644:"Mogadishu central prison reopens" 2536:Journal of Eastern African Studies 2273: 2092: 1996: 1724: 1233:First Khartoum meeting (June 2006) 505:Formation of Courts council (2000) 228:Somalia's deep attachment to Islam 25: 5982: 4888:Yusuf, Aweys Osman (3 Nov 2006). 4632:"Ethiopian troops on Somali soil" 3550:Gettleman, Jeffrey (2007-11-20). 2283:Gettleman, Jeffrey (2008-11-13). 2234:CHERIAN, JOHN (25 January 2007). 1970:Shephard, Michelle (2017-03-10). 1868: 1836: 1360:, forcing the courts to retreat. 1003:, closed since the withdrawal of 853:Somali section in June 2006 with 587:Somali Salvation Democratic Front 5946:Factions in the Somali Civil War 5764: 5727: 5713: 5696:Mohammed, Jamal (October 2023). 5689: 5620: 5520: 5495: 5472: 5440: 5414: 5387: 5364: 5339: 5312: 5287: 5263:Cawthorne, Andrew (2007-09-04). 5256: 5197: 5123:Mueller, Jason C. (2019-07-03). 5116: 5099: 5075: 4995: 4974: 4949: 4929: 4902: 4881: 4856: 4839: 4818: 4793: 4705:. 16 August 2006. Archived from 4687: 4624: 4577: 4556: 4527: 4502: 4452: 4427: 4410: 4393: 3642:Terrorism and Political Violence 3636:Mueller, Jason C. (2018-01-02). 3073:"Profile: Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed" 2991:"Ethiopian troops enter Somalia" 2890:"New president visits Mogadishu" 1913:Bereketeab, Redie (2023-03-28). 1794:Bereketeab, Redie (2023-03-28). 1601: 571:Transitional National Government 5961:1990s establishments in Somalia 5951:Islamic organizations in Africa 5788: 5489:United Nations Security Council 5031: 4368: 4326: 4309: 4291: 4226: 4202: 4178: 4160: 4133: 4026: 4006: 3979: 3970:Ethiopian troops on Somali soil 3963: 3952:First ship arrives in Mogadishu 3902: 3860: 3839: 3812: 3806: 3790: 3759: 3729: 3676: 3629: 3612: 3543: 3510: 3483: 3457: 3416: 3391: 3376: 3359: 3310: 3065: 2902: 2882: 2862: 2691: 2656: 2593: 2569: 2485: 2449:. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. 2443:Abdulle., Alasow, Omar (2010). 2436: 2419: 2324: 2252: 2227: 2202: 2177: 2144: 2126: 2078: 1482:Ethiopian occupation of Somalia 1001:Mogadishu International Airport 863:Transitional Federal Government 558:Transitional Federal Government 461:Consolidation of Islamic Courts 317:as its primary source of law. 283:Transitional Federal Government 4511:"Fears of war in Somalia grow" 4146:. Red Sea Press. p. 157. 3166:Business Monitor International 1963: 1906: 1787: 1760: 1754:Congressional Research Service 1695:Congressional Research Service 1045:Islamic Courts Union offensive 938:The courts also began issuing 657:to plan attacks from, like in 624:Congressional Research Service 238:under the mantle of religious 214:Following the collapse of the 95:Islamic Courts Supreme Council 13: 1: 5883:10.1080/19392206.2021.1922026 5141:10.1080/10402659.2019.1735174 4655:Samatar, Abdi Ismail (2007). 4140:Samatar, Abdi Ismail (2022). 4066:Khayre, Ahmed Ali M. (2014). 3654:10.1080/09546553.2016.1165213 3234:. 17 May 2006. Archived from 2752:10.1080/19392206.2021.1922026 2151:Mazzetti, Mark (2006-12-27). 1848:Samatar, Abdi Ismail (2022). 1718: 1341:had occurred, Baidoa warlord 1253:estimated that roughly 5,000 881: 849:An interview featured in the 585:, during which Yusuf led the 307:Federal Government of Somalia 279:Ethiopian invasion of Somalia 195:Midowga Maxkamadaha Islaamiga 40:Midowga Maxkamadaha Islaamiga 5971:Islamic courts and tribunals 5825:Massoud, Mark Fathi (2021). 5447:Ryu, Alisha (3 April 2008). 4509:Reagan, Tom (21 July 2006). 4378:. 2006-07-01. Archived from 3517:Carroll, Rory (2006-06-14). 3372:(U.S. ed.). p. 36. 2802:10.1007/978-3-031-53429-4_16 2734:Cocodia, Jude (2021-04-03). 2581:Council on Foreign Relations 2111:. 2006-06-14. Archived from 2038:. 2006-06-17. Archived from 1457:mission for several months. 1384:During early November 2006, 903:Mosque of Islamic Solidarity 750:Mosque of Islamic Solidarity 7: 4945:(in Somali). November 2006. 3736:Maliti, Tom (17 Oct 2007). 3683:Osman, Ali (October 2006). 3467:. Guardian. 4 October 2013. 2663:Gough, David (1999-06-29). 1773:. Oxford University Press. 1701: 1151:had witnessed a massing of 1053:British television station 757:Central Intelligence Agency 647:Central Intelligence Agency 608:Central Intelligence Agency 489:, who were fighting in the 10: 5987: 5833:Cambridge University Press 5800:Elmi, Afyare Abdi (2010). 5564:International Crisis Group 4729:"The Miracle of Mogadishu" 4699:Mail & Guardian Online 3116:Ismail Ali Ismail (2010). 1945:"The Islamic Courts Union" 1649: 1479: 1131:First Ethiopian incursions 1042: 810:Second Battle of Mogadishu 804:Battle of Mogadishu (2006) 801: 709: 645:During 2003, the American 638: 386:The Sheikh Ali–Dhere court 320: 216:Somali Democratic Republic 5858: 4516:Christian Science Monitor 3799:Jane's Navy International 3465:"How Al Shabaab was born" 2954:10.1080/17531050701452382 2548:10.1080/17531050701452382 2429:The Philadelphia Inquirer 1669:Criticism and allegations 1472:, resigned the next day. 1462:Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys 1216:international recognition 775:National security council 732:High ranking ICU figures 641:CIA activities in Somalia 556:established in 2000, the 534:(TNG) was established in 487:Rahanweyn Resistance Army 174: 169: 159: 147: 137: 127: 115: 107: 99: 91: 79: 70: 32: 5793: 4033:Rice, Xan (2006-06-26). 1416:helicopter gunships and 1297:Sheik Sharif Sheik Ahmed 1176:Sheik Sharif Sheik Ahmed 717:military force known as 483:Somali National Alliance 447:Somali National Alliance 5071:. Standford University. 4084:10.3366/ajicl.2014.0090 3426:Deutsche Presse-Agentur 3162:Emerging Markets Online 2492:Tughral, Yamin (2019). 2214:Foreign Policy in Focus 1756:. 2011. pp. 18–22. 1432:gunships in support of 1343:Mohamed Ibrahim Habsade 1157:Ethiopian–Somali border 1145:Shabeelle Media Network 917:registered with a court 700:Somali warlord alliance 54:اتحاد المحاكم الإسلامية 5865:Cocodia, Jude (2021). 5664:Shabelle Media Network 5383:. May 2008. p. 3. 5069:"Islamic Courts Union" 4988:Shabelle Media Network 4895:Shabelle Media Network 4420:Shabelle Media Network 4236:Shabelle Media Network 1631: 1512: 1476:Insurgency (2007–2009) 1210:Khartoum ICU/TFG talks 1127: 963: 906: 859: 752: 632: 575:Niger Delta University 541:Abdiqasim Salad Hassan 414: 194: 39: 5841:10.1017/9781108965989 5723:. September 14, 2007. 5707:Rift Valley Institute 5583:World News Connection 5381:Amnesty International 5353:National Public Radio 4174:(Report). p. 23. 3912:(24 September 2006). 3870:(24 September 2006). 3317:Maruf, Harun (2018). 1888:Harper, Mary (2012). 1621: 1522:April 2007 Abole raid 1498: 1351:University of Chicago 1125: 953: 900: 830: 731: 628: 401: 380:Somali National Front 326:Historical background 268:international airport 5903:Samatar, Abdi Ismail 5895:Taylor & Francis 5210:Jahrbuch Terrorismus 4915:The New Humanitarian 4849:Agence France-Presse 4703:Agence France-Presse 4465:The New Humanitarian 4403:Agence France Presse 3992:The New Humanitarian 3932:Mohamed Abdi Farah, 2895:The New Humanitarian 2875:The New Humanitarian 2851:The New Humanitarian 2796:, pp. 349–400, 2649:The New Humanitarian 2236:"Bush war in Africa" 1204:Agence France Presse 1009:the historic seaport 987:) as un-Islamic and 445:and his faction the 443:Mohammed Farah Aidid 187:Islamic Courts Union 35:Islamic Courts Union 5686:, October 17, 2007" 5566:. 23 December 2008. 5175:Plaut, Martin Plaut 4319:The Daily Telegraph 3197:. 12 October 2006. 2380:, pp. 166–167. 2140:. 26 December 2006. 2042:on October 16, 2021 1921:Springer Publishing 1802:Springer Publishing 1662:Sheikh Sharif Ahmed 1535:Ibrahim Hassan Adow 1466:Sharif Sheikh Ahmed 1422:Bush Administration 1408:Full scale invasion 1367:Sharif Sheikh Ahmed 1302:Mohammed Abdi Hayir 1077:Abdi Ismail Samatar 960:American University 956:Ibrahim Hassan Adow 946:Social and economic 871:US State Department 855:Sharif Sheikh Ahmed 696:Battle of Mogadishu 675:Battle of Mogadishu 651:Bush administration 549:Sharif Sheikh Ahmed 361:First Sharia Courts 355:Mohammed Siad Barre 340:Scramble for Africa 303:Sharif Sheikh Ahmed 251:decisively defeated 86:Sharif Sheikh Ahmed 18:Islamic Court Union 5667:. 12 January 2009. 4284:Xinhua News Agency 3960:, August 25, 2006. 3910:Gettleman, Jeffrey 3868:Gettleman, Jeffrey 3556:The New York Times 2289:The New York Times 2157:The New York Times 2067:. 11 December 2007 1580:Ethiopian military 1513: 1470:Abdirahman Janaqow 1451:logistical support 1424:covertly deployed 1394:Mohamud Muse Hersi 1267:Abdirahman Janaqow 1200:Hassan Dahir Aweys 1128: 1049:Ethiopian invasion 964: 922:The ICU created a 907: 753: 742:Abdirahman Janaqow 472:Islamic government 4870:. 10 October 2006 4868:www.aljazeera.com 4852:. 9 October 2006. 4807:. 2 November 2009 4486:. July 20, 2006. 4338:www.aljazeera.com 4153:978-1-56902-789-9 3779:. 8 November 2006 3403:Los Angeles Times 3330:978-0-253-03751-0 3298:www.spokesman.com 3238:on April 12, 2022 3129:978-1-4269-1980-0 2995:www.aljazeera.com 2898:. 30 August 2000. 2858:. 25 August 2000. 2811:978-3-031-53428-7 2505:978-969-637-522-7 2456:978-90-04-16475-8 2344:978-1-909112-79-7 1930:978-3-031-24162-8 1861:978-1-56902-789-9 1811:978-3-031-24162-8 1780:978-0-19-090041-0 1496: 1426:US Special Forces 1310:Ismail Ali Ismail 1220:Secretary-General 1069:US special forces 685:Military capacity 336:Ajuran Sultantate 183: 182: 128:Succeeded by 16:(Redirected from 5978: 5966:Islam in Somalia 5932: 5919:(111): 115–165. 5898: 5871:African Security 5854: 5821: 5783: 5782: 5768: 5762: 5756: 5750: 5749: 5747: 5746: 5731: 5725: 5724: 5717: 5711: 5710: 5704: 5693: 5687: 5683:Associated Press 5675: 5669: 5668: 5658: 5652: 5651: 5649: 5648: 5628:Fletcher, Martin 5624: 5618: 5617: 5615: 5614: 5607:Oxford Analytica 5593: 5587: 5586: 5585:. 22 April 2008. 5574: 5568: 5567: 5561: 5551: 5545: 5544: 5542: 5541: 5524: 5518: 5517: 5515: 5514: 5499: 5493: 5492: 5486: 5476: 5470: 5469: 5467: 5466: 5461:on 10 April 2008 5457:. 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3540: 3538: 3537: 3514: 3508: 3507: 3505: 3504: 3487: 3481: 3475: 3469: 3468: 3461: 3455: 3454: 3451:Associated Press 3440: 3431: 3430: 3420: 3414: 3413: 3411: 3410: 3395: 3389: 3388: 3387:. 30 March 2006. 3385:Associated Press 3380: 3374: 3373: 3363: 3357: 3356: 3350: 3342: 3314: 3308: 3307: 3305: 3304: 3290: 3279: 3278: 3276: 3275: 3260: 3247: 3246: 3244: 3243: 3224: 3213: 3212: 3210: 3209: 3185: 3170: 3169: 3157: 3142: 3141: 3113: 3090: 3089: 3087: 3086: 3069: 3063: 3062: 3060: 3059: 3044: 3035: 3034: 3032: 3031: 3016: 3005: 3004: 3002: 3001: 2987: 2974: 2973: 2933: 2918: 2917: 2906: 2900: 2899: 2886: 2880: 2879: 2866: 2860: 2859: 2842: 2833: 2827: 2821: 2820: 2819: 2818: 2781: 2772: 2771: 2740:African Security 2731: 2718: 2717: 2715: 2714: 2695: 2689: 2688: 2686: 2685: 2660: 2654: 2653: 2652:. 12 March 2001. 2640: 2631: 2625: 2616: 2615: 2613: 2612: 2597: 2591: 2590: 2588: 2587: 2573: 2567: 2566: 2564: 2562: 2527: 2518: 2517: 2489: 2483: 2482: 2476: 2468: 2440: 2434: 2433: 2423: 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by 75: 64: 56: 55: 50: 42: 30: 29: 21: 5986: 5985: 5981: 5980: 5979: 5977: 5976: 5975: 5936: 5935: 5861: 5851: 5818: 5796: 5791: 5786: 5769: 5765: 5757: 5753: 5744: 5742: 5732: 5728: 5719: 5718: 5714: 5702: 5694: 5690: 5676: 5672: 5660: 5659: 5655: 5646: 5644: 5630:(18 Nov 2008). 5625: 5621: 5612: 5610: 5595: 5594: 5590: 5576: 5575: 5571: 5559: 5553: 5552: 5548: 5539: 5537: 5525: 5521: 5512: 5510: 5501: 5500: 5496: 5491:. 16 July 2008. 5484: 5478: 5477: 5473: 5464: 5462: 5445: 5441: 5431: 5429: 5420: 5419: 5415: 5406: 5404: 5393: 5392: 5388: 5376: 5370: 5369: 5365: 5344: 5340: 5331: 5329: 5318: 5317: 5313: 5304: 5302: 5293: 5292: 5288: 5279: 5277: 5261: 5257: 5249: 5241: 5237: 5202: 5198: 5189: 5187: 5172: 5168: 5121: 5117: 5104: 5100: 5095:on 13 Sep 2008. 5081: 5080: 5076: 5067: 5066: 5059: 5050: 5048: 5030: 5023: 5014: 5012: 5001: 5000: 4996: 4979: 4975: 4966: 4964: 4955: 4954: 4950: 4935: 4934: 4930: 4921: 4919: 4908: 4907: 4903: 4886: 4882: 4873: 4871: 4862: 4861: 4857: 4845: 4844: 4840: 4823: 4819: 4810: 4808: 4799: 4798: 4794: 4785: 4783: 4772: 4771: 4764: 4725: 4721: 4712: 4710: 4693: 4692: 4688: 4653: 4646: 4637: 4635: 4630: 4629: 4625: 4610: 4603: 4594: 4592: 4583: 4582: 4578: 4569: 4567: 4562: 4561: 4557: 4548: 4546: 4540:The Star Banner 4532: 4528: 4523:on 17 Oct 2006. 4507: 4503: 4493: 4491: 4478: 4477: 4473: 4468:. 23 June 2006. 4458: 4457: 4453: 4444: 4442: 4433: 4432: 4428: 4416: 4415: 4411: 4406:. 28 June 2006. 4399: 4398: 4394: 4385: 4383: 4374: 4373: 4369: 4364:. 17 June 2006. 4356: 4355: 4351: 4342: 4340: 4332: 4331: 4327: 4314: 4310: 4297: 4296: 4292: 4287:. 19 June 2006. 4280: 4279: 4272: 4263: 4261: 4252: 4251: 4244: 4232: 4231: 4227: 4218: 4216: 4214:www.hiiraan.com 4208: 4207: 4203: 4194: 4192: 4184: 4183: 4179: 4168:Marchal, Roland 4165: 4161: 4154: 4143:Framing Somalia 4138: 4134: 4125: 4123: 4103: 4099: 4064: 4060: 4051: 4049: 4031: 4027: 4019: 4011: 4007: 3998: 3996: 3985: 3984: 3980: 3976:, 20 July 2006. 3968: 3964: 3950: 3946: 3931: 3927: 3907: 3903: 3895: 3891: 3865: 3861: 3852: 3850: 3845: 3844: 3840: 3831: 3829: 3811: 3807: 3796: 3795: 3791: 3782: 3780: 3765: 3764: 3760: 3750: 3748: 3734: 3730: 3721: 3719: 3710: 3709: 3702: 3693: 3691: 3689:www.hiiraan.com 3681: 3677: 3634: 3630: 3622:Radio HornAfrik 3618: 3617: 3613: 3604: 3602: 3589: 3588: 3577: 3568: 3566: 3548: 3544: 3535: 3533: 3515: 3511: 3502: 3500: 3489: 3488: 3484: 3476: 3472: 3463: 3462: 3458: 3441: 3434: 3422: 3421: 3417: 3408: 3406: 3397: 3396: 3392: 3382: 3381: 3377: 3364: 3360: 3344: 3343: 3331: 3315: 3311: 3302: 3300: 3292: 3291: 3282: 3273: 3271: 3262: 3261: 3250: 3241: 3239: 3226: 3225: 3216: 3207: 3205: 3187: 3186: 3173: 3168:. 19 June 2006. 3159: 3158: 3145: 3130: 3114: 3093: 3084: 3082: 3071: 3070: 3066: 3057: 3055: 3046: 3045: 3038: 3029: 3027: 3018: 3017: 3008: 2999: 2997: 2989: 2988: 2977: 2934: 2921: 2908: 2907: 2903: 2888: 2887: 2883: 2868: 2867: 2863: 2844: 2843: 2836: 2828: 2824: 2816: 2814: 2812: 2794:Springer Nature 2782: 2775: 2732: 2721: 2712: 2710: 2697: 2696: 2692: 2683: 2681: 2661: 2657: 2642: 2641: 2634: 2626: 2619: 2610: 2608: 2599: 2598: 2594: 2585: 2583: 2575: 2574: 2570: 2560: 2558: 2528: 2521: 2506: 2490: 2486: 2470: 2469: 2457: 2441: 2437: 2432:. pp. A11. 2424: 2420: 2412: 2399: 2391: 2384: 2376: 2372: 2359: 2355: 2345: 2329: 2325: 2317: 2313: 2301: 2299: 2281: 2274: 2265: 2263: 2258: 2257: 2253: 2244: 2242: 2232: 2228: 2219: 2217: 2208: 2207: 2203: 2194: 2192: 2183: 2182: 2178: 2169: 2167: 2149: 2145: 2132: 2131: 2127: 2118: 2116: 2115:on 14 June 2006 2101: 2100: 2093: 2084: 2083: 2079: 2070: 2068: 2059: 2058: 2054: 2045: 2043: 2030: 2029: 2022: 2009: 2008: 1997: 1988: 1986: 1968: 1964: 1954: 1952: 1943: 1942: 1938: 1931: 1923:. p. 176. 1911: 1907: 1886: 1869: 1862: 1851:Framing Somalia 1846: 1837: 1829: 1822: 1812: 1804:. p. 176. 1792: 1788: 1781: 1765: 1761: 1749: 1743: 1742: 1725: 1721: 1704: 1671: 1654: 1648: 1630: 1627: 1613:pirate activity 1604: 1560:Somali diaspora 1554:. According to 1529:Somalis in the 1490: 1484: 1478: 1410: 1318: 1280: 1235: 1212: 1133: 1051: 1043:Main articles: 1041: 948: 912: 884: 858: 848: 806: 800: 714: 708: 687: 643: 637: 603: 583:1982 Border War 562:Abdullahi Yusuf 528: 507: 463: 436:sexual violence 423: 413: 410: 388: 363: 328: 323: 66: 65: 58: 51: 44: 36: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5984: 5974: 5973: 5968: 5963: 5958: 5956:Law of Somalia 5953: 5948: 5934: 5933: 5905:(March 2007). 5899: 5877:(2): 110–131. 5860: 5857: 5856: 5855: 5849: 5822: 5816: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5784: 5763: 5751: 5726: 5712: 5688: 5670: 5653: 5637:Hiiraan Online 5619: 5588: 5579:Jowharnews.com 5569: 5546: 5534:Hiiraan Online 5519: 5507:www.unocha.org 5494: 5471: 5439: 5413: 5403:. 15 June 2008 5400:Hiiraan Online 5386: 5363: 5338: 5311: 5299:www.unocha.org 5286: 5255: 5235: 5196: 5177:(2009-01-01). 5166: 5135:(3): 372–380. 5115: 5098: 5074: 5057: 5021: 4994: 4973: 4948: 4928: 4901: 4880: 4855: 4838: 4817: 4792: 4762: 4719: 4686: 4644: 4623: 4618:New York Times 4601: 4591:. 20 July 2006 4576: 4555: 4526: 4501: 4471: 4451: 4426: 4409: 4392: 4382:on 1 July 2006 4367: 4349: 4325: 4308: 4290: 4270: 4260:. 18 June 2006 4242: 4225: 4201: 4177: 4159: 4152: 4132: 4097: 4078:(2): 208–233. 4058: 4025: 4005: 3978: 3962: 3944: 3925: 3919:New York Times 3901: 3889: 3879:New York Times 3859: 3838: 3805: 3789: 3758: 3742:Hiiraan Online 3728: 3700: 3675: 3648:(1): 116–141. 3628: 3611: 3575: 3542: 3509: 3482: 3480:, p. 184. 3470: 3456: 3453:. pp. A5. 3432: 3429:. 5 June 2006. 3415: 3390: 3375: 3358: 3329: 3309: 3280: 3248: 3214: 3171: 3143: 3128: 3091: 3064: 3054:. 18 June 2006 3036: 3026:. 18 June 2006 3024:Times of Malta 3006: 2975: 2948:(2): 151–160. 2919: 2901: 2881: 2861: 2856:Arta, Djibouti 2834: 2832:, p. 160. 2822: 2810: 2773: 2746:(2): 110–131. 2719: 2690: 2655: 2632: 2630:, p. 173. 2617: 2592: 2568: 2542:(2): 151–160. 2519: 2504: 2484: 2455: 2435: 2418: 2397: 2395:, p. 170. 2382: 2370: 2353: 2343: 2323: 2321:, p. 196. 2311: 2272: 2251: 2226: 2201: 2176: 2143: 2125: 2091: 2077: 2052: 2020: 2017:. 8 June 2006. 2015:New York Times 1995: 1962: 1936: 1929: 1905: 1867: 1860: 1835: 1820: 1810: 1786: 1779: 1759: 1722: 1720: 1717: 1716: 1715: 1710: 1703: 1700: 1670: 1667: 1650:Main article: 1647: 1644: 1634:the road from 1625: 1603: 1600: 1480:Main article: 1477: 1474: 1409: 1406: 1317: 1314: 1279: 1276: 1259:Horn of Africa 1234: 1231: 1211: 1208: 1132: 1129: 1040: 1037: 947: 944: 911: 908: 883: 880: 875:Sean McCormack 846: 799: 796: 748:prayer at the 710:Main article: 707: 704: 686: 683: 639:Main article: 636: 633: 602: 599: 527: 524: 516:Lower Shabelle 506: 503: 467:Bakaara Market 462: 459: 422: 419: 408: 387: 384: 362: 359: 327: 324: 322: 319: 257:funded by the 181: 180: 172: 171: 167: 166: 161: 157: 156: 151: 145: 144: 139: 135: 134: 129: 125: 124: 117: 113: 112: 109: 105: 104: 101: 97: 96: 93: 92:Governing body 89: 88: 83: 77: 76: 68: 67: 37: 34: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5983: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5957: 5954: 5952: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5943: 5941: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5913: 5908: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5872: 5868: 5863: 5862: 5852: 5850:9781108965989 5846: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5829: 5823: 5819: 5817:9780745329741 5813: 5809: 5805: 5804: 5798: 5797: 5780: 5779: 5774: 5767: 5761:, p. 65. 5760: 5755: 5741: 5737: 5730: 5722: 5716: 5708: 5701: 5700: 5692: 5685: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5666: 5665: 5657: 5643: 5639: 5638: 5633: 5629: 5623: 5608: 5604: 5603: 5598: 5592: 5584: 5580: 5573: 5565: 5558: 5557: 5550: 5536: 5535: 5530: 5523: 5508: 5504: 5498: 5490: 5483: 5482: 5475: 5460: 5456: 5455: 5450: 5443: 5427: 5423: 5417: 5402: 5401: 5396: 5390: 5382: 5375: 5374: 5367: 5359: 5355: 5354: 5349: 5342: 5327: 5326: 5321: 5315: 5300: 5296: 5290: 5276: 5272: 5271: 5266: 5259: 5248: 5247: 5239: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5200: 5186: 5185: 5180: 5176: 5170: 5163: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5134: 5130: 5126: 5119: 5111: 5110: 5102: 5094: 5090: 5089: 5088:Garowe Online 5084: 5078: 5070: 5064: 5062: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5028: 5026: 5010: 5009: 5004: 4998: 4990: 4989: 4984: 4977: 4962: 4958: 4952: 4944: 4943: 4938: 4932: 4917: 4916: 4911: 4905: 4897: 4896: 4891: 4884: 4869: 4865: 4859: 4851: 4850: 4842: 4834: 4833: 4828: 4821: 4806: 4802: 4796: 4781: 4780: 4775: 4769: 4767: 4759: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4723: 4709:on 2008-03-31 4708: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4690: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4651: 4649: 4633: 4627: 4619: 4615: 4608: 4606: 4590: 4586: 4580: 4565: 4559: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4530: 4522: 4518: 4517: 4512: 4505: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4475: 4467: 4466: 4461: 4455: 4440: 4436: 4430: 4422: 4421: 4413: 4405: 4404: 4396: 4381: 4377: 4371: 4363: 4359: 4353: 4339: 4335: 4329: 4322:. p. 17. 4321: 4320: 4312: 4304: 4303:Sudan Tribune 4300: 4294: 4286: 4285: 4277: 4275: 4259: 4258:reliefweb.int 4255: 4249: 4247: 4238: 4237: 4229: 4215: 4211: 4205: 4191: 4187: 4181: 4173: 4169: 4163: 4155: 4149: 4145: 4144: 4136: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4113: 4108: 4101: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4062: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4029: 4018: 4017: 4009: 3994: 3993: 3988: 3982: 3975: 3971: 3966: 3959: 3958: 3953: 3948: 3941: 3940: 3935: 3929: 3921: 3920: 3915: 3911: 3905: 3899:, p. 40. 3898: 3893: 3886: 3881: 3880: 3874: 3869: 3863: 3848: 3842: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3809: 3801: 3800: 3793: 3778: 3774: 3773: 3772:Sudan Tribune 3768: 3762: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3732: 3717: 3713: 3707: 3705: 3690: 3686: 3679: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3632: 3624: 3623: 3615: 3601:. 31 Aug 2006 3600: 3596: 3595:reliefweb.int 3592: 3586: 3584: 3582: 3580: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3546: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3513: 3499:. 9 June 2006 3498: 3497: 3492: 3486: 3479: 3474: 3466: 3460: 3452: 3448: 3447: 3446:The Columbian 3439: 3437: 3428: 3427: 3419: 3404: 3400: 3394: 3386: 3379: 3371: 3370: 3362: 3354: 3348: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3326: 3322: 3321: 3313: 3299: 3295: 3289: 3287: 3285: 3270:. 5 June 2006 3269: 3265: 3259: 3257: 3255: 3253: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3223: 3221: 3219: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3195: 3194:The Economist 3190: 3184: 3182: 3180: 3178: 3176: 3167: 3163: 3156: 3154: 3152: 3150: 3148: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3125: 3121: 3120: 3112: 3110: 3108: 3106: 3104: 3102: 3100: 3098: 3096: 3080: 3079: 3074: 3068: 3053: 3052:reliefweb.int 3049: 3043: 3041: 3025: 3021: 3015: 3013: 3011: 2996: 2992: 2986: 2984: 2982: 2980: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2932: 2930: 2928: 2926: 2924: 2915: 2914: 2905: 2897: 2896: 2891: 2885: 2878:. 4 Sep 2000. 2877: 2876: 2871: 2865: 2857: 2853: 2852: 2847: 2841: 2839: 2831: 2826: 2813: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2780: 2778: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2730: 2728: 2726: 2724: 2708: 2704: 2703:reliefweb.int 2700: 2694: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2671: 2666: 2659: 2651: 2650: 2645: 2639: 2637: 2629: 2624: 2622: 2606: 2602: 2596: 2582: 2578: 2572: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2526: 2524: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2501: 2497: 2496: 2488: 2480: 2474: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2452: 2448: 2447: 2439: 2431: 2430: 2422: 2416:, p. 64. 2415: 2410: 2408: 2406: 2404: 2402: 2394: 2389: 2387: 2379: 2374: 2366: 2365: 2357: 2350: 2346: 2340: 2336: 2335: 2327: 2320: 2315: 2308: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2279: 2277: 2261: 2255: 2241: 2237: 2230: 2215: 2211: 2205: 2190: 2186: 2180: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2147: 2139: 2138:Sudan Tribune 2135: 2129: 2114: 2110: 2109: 2104: 2098: 2096: 2087: 2081: 2066: 2062: 2056: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2027: 2025: 2016: 2012: 2006: 2004: 2002: 2000: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1966: 1950: 1946: 1940: 1932: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1917: 1909: 1901: 1897: 1894:. Zed Books. 1893: 1892: 1884: 1882: 1880: 1878: 1876: 1874: 1872: 1863: 1857: 1853: 1852: 1844: 1842: 1840: 1833:, p. 63. 1832: 1827: 1825: 1817: 1813: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1798: 1790: 1782: 1776: 1772: 1771: 1763: 1755: 1748: 1747: 1740: 1738: 1736: 1734: 1732: 1730: 1728: 1723: 1714: 1711: 1709: 1706: 1705: 1699: 1696: 1691: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1666: 1663: 1659: 1653: 1643: 1641: 1637: 1624: 1620: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1602:Post–ICU rule 1599: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1583: 1581: 1577: 1576:Mukhtar Robow 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1544: 1541: 1536: 1532: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1488: 1483: 1473: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1458: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1439: 1438:air supremacy 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1405: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1382: 1380: 1379:The Economist 1376: 1375:Meles Zenawis 1372: 1368: 1363: 1359: 1354: 1352: 1348: 1345:announced to 1344: 1339: 1335: 1330: 1327: 1323: 1313: 1311: 1306: 1303: 1298: 1292: 1290: 1286: 1275: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1246: 1244: 1240: 1230: 1228: 1224: 1221: 1217: 1207: 1205: 1201: 1196: 1194: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1172: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1149:Somali Region 1146: 1142: 1138: 1124: 1120: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1072: 1070: 1065: 1060: 1056: 1050: 1046: 1036: 1034: 1029: 1025: 1020: 1018: 1017:deforestation 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 997: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 973: 972:The Economist 969: 961: 957: 952: 943: 941: 936: 934: 930: 925: 920: 918: 904: 899: 895: 893: 889: 879: 876: 872: 868: 864: 856: 852: 845: 843: 839: 835: 829: 827: 823: 819: 815: 814:Chatham House 811: 805: 795: 791: 789: 785: 779: 776: 771: 766: 765:anti-American 762: 758: 751: 747: 743: 739: 738:Abdiqadir Ali 735: 734:Sheikh Sharif 730: 726: 724: 720: 713: 703: 701: 697: 693: 682: 680: 676: 672: 668: 664: 660: 656: 652: 648: 642: 631: 627: 625: 621: 617: 613: 612:The Economist 609: 598: 596: 590: 588: 584: 580: 579:puppet regime 576: 572: 568: 563: 560:(TFG) led by 559: 555: 550: 545: 542: 537: 533: 523: 521: 517: 513: 502: 500: 496: 492: 488: 484: 480: 479:Hussein Aidid 475: 473: 468: 458: 454: 452: 448: 444: 439: 437: 433: 429: 418: 407: 405: 400: 397: 393: 383: 381: 376: 372: 371:Luuq District 367: 358: 356: 352: 347: 345: 341: 337: 333: 330:Islamic law ( 318: 316: 312: 311:Islamic state 308: 304: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 280: 275: 273: 269: 264: 260: 256: 252: 247: 245: 241: 237: 233: 229: 225: 221: 217: 212: 210: 209: 204: 200: 196: 192: 188: 178: 173: 168: 165: 162: 158: 155: 152: 150: 146: 143: 140: 136: 133: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 102: 98: 94: 90: 87: 84: 82: 78: 74: 69: 62: 48: 41: 31: 19: 5927:– via 5916: 5910: 5893:– via 5874: 5870: 5827: 5802: 5789:Bibliography 5776: 5766: 5754: 5743:. Retrieved 5739: 5729: 5715: 5698: 5691: 5681: 5673: 5662: 5656: 5645:. Retrieved 5635: 5622: 5611:. Retrieved 5609:. 2008-11-05 5600: 5591: 5578: 5572: 5555: 5549: 5538:. Retrieved 5532: 5522: 5511:. Retrieved 5509:. 2008-07-25 5506: 5497: 5480: 5474: 5463:. Retrieved 5459:the original 5452: 5442: 5430:. Retrieved 5416: 5405:. Retrieved 5398: 5389: 5372: 5366: 5351: 5341: 5330:. Retrieved 5328:. 2007-10-27 5323: 5314: 5303:. Retrieved 5301:. 2007-10-19 5298: 5289: 5278:. Retrieved 5268: 5258: 5245: 5238: 5213: 5209: 5199: 5188:. Retrieved 5182: 5169: 5160: 5132: 5129:Peace Review 5128: 5118: 5108: 5101: 5093:the original 5086: 5077: 5049:. Retrieved 5037: 5032:Axe, David. 5013:. Retrieved 5011:. 2006-11-30 5006: 4997: 4986: 4976: 4965:. Retrieved 4963:. 5 Dec 2006 4960: 4951: 4940: 4931: 4920:. Retrieved 4918:. 2006-11-21 4913: 4904: 4893: 4883: 4872:. Retrieved 4867: 4858: 4847: 4841: 4830: 4820: 4809:. Retrieved 4804: 4795: 4784:. Retrieved 4782:. 2006-09-18 4777: 4756: 4736: 4732: 4722: 4711:. Retrieved 4707:the original 4698: 4689: 4664: 4660: 4636:. Retrieved 4634:. 2006-07-20 4626: 4617: 4593:. Retrieved 4588: 4579: 4568:. Retrieved 4566:. 2006-07-22 4558: 4547:. Retrieved 4539: 4529: 4521:the original 4514: 4504: 4492:. Retrieved 4474: 4463: 4454: 4443:. Retrieved 4441:. 2006-06-19 4438: 4429: 4418: 4412: 4401: 4395: 4384:. Retrieved 4380:the original 4370: 4361: 4352: 4341:. Retrieved 4337: 4328: 4317: 4311: 4302: 4293: 4282: 4262:. Retrieved 4257: 4234: 4228: 4217:. Retrieved 4213: 4204: 4193:. Retrieved 4189: 4180: 4162: 4142: 4135: 4124:. Retrieved 4112:The Guardian 4110: 4100: 4075: 4071: 4061: 4050:. Retrieved 4039:The Guardian 4038: 4028: 4015: 4008: 3997:. Retrieved 3995:. 2006-08-23 3990: 3981: 3973: 3965: 3955: 3947: 3937: 3928: 3917: 3904: 3892: 3883: 3877: 3862: 3851:. Retrieved 3849:. 2006-06-06 3841: 3830:. Retrieved 3818: 3813:Axe, David. 3808: 3798: 3792: 3781:. Retrieved 3770: 3761: 3749:. 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