Governance - Knowledge

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create a comparable measure of the performance of governments; the Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI). The WGI is constituted by over 30 databases which are rescaled and categorized into six categories; among these is government effectiveness. According to this category, effective governance is composed by five aspects: the quality of public services, the quality of the civil service, the degree of the government's independence from political pressures, the quality of policy formulation and implementation, and the credibility of the government's commitment to such policies. In short, effective governance is about quality of service, the independence of government and the quality of policies and implementation.

420:. Beyond governments, other entities can also have governing bodies. These can be legal entities or organizations recognized by a government, such as corporations, companies or non-profit organizations governed by small boards of directors pursuing more specific aims. They can also be socio-political groups including hierarchical political structures, tribes, religious subgroups, or even families. In the case of a state, governance expresses a growing awareness of the ways in which diffuse forms of power and authority can secure order even in the absence of state activity. A variety of external actors without decision-making power can influence this system of state governance. These include 2111:. - "Le mot anglais governance a été remis à l'honneur dans les années 1990 par des économistes et politologues anglo-saxons et par certaines institutions internationales (ONU, Banque mondiale et FMI, notamment), de nouveau pour désigner 'l'art ou la manière de gouverner', mais avec deux préoccupations supplémentaires; d'une part, bien marquer la distinction avec le gouvernement en tant qu'institution; d'autre part, sous un vocable peu usité et donc peu connoté, promouvoir un nouveau mode de gestion des affaires publiques fondé sur la participation de la société civile à tous les niveaux (national, mais aussi local, régional et international)." 400:, a society, a community, a social group (like a tribe or a family), a formal or informal organization, a corporation, a non-governmental organization, a non-profit organization, a project team, a market, a network or even the global stage. Governance can also pertain to a specific sector of activities such as land, environment, health, internet, security, etc. The degree of formality in governance depends on the internal rules of a given entity and its external interactions with similar entities. As such, governance may take many forms, driven by many different motivations and with many different results. 1218:

the need for citizen participation in the government process. This decentralization of state power "strength vertical accountability" improving the relationship between citizens and municipal governments. The idea is that citizens should play a more direct roles in public decision-making or at least engage more deeply with political issues. Government officials should also be responsive to this kind of engagement. In practice, participatory governance can supplement the roles of citizens as voters or as watchdogs through more direct forms of involvement.

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although on the long term. However, this is a bi-directional relationship: economic growth does lead to more effective governance as well. Moreover, effective governance does have a positive influence on reducing corruption, strengthening political stability, contribution to improved rule of law and improved government spending and accountability. As is the case with economic development, it is plausible the argue that effective governance and the named predictors are a positive feedback cycle: they reinforce each other, and so indirectly themselves.

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resourceful actor" who wishes to influence the governing process. Examples of this include the publishing of codes of conduct at the highest level of international government, and media focus on specific issues at the sociocultural level. Despite their different sources, both seek to establish values in such a way that they become accepted 'norms'. The fact that 'norms' can be established at any level and can then be used to shape the governance process as whole, means metagovernance is part of both the input and the output of the governing system.

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appear in arenas and nations which are more complex, more global, more contested and more liberally democratic. The term builds upon and extends the terms of the regulatory state on the one hand and governance on the other. While the term regulatory state marginalize non-state actors (NGOs and Business) in the domestic and global level, the term governance marginalizes regulation as a constitutive instrument of governance. The term regulatory governance therefore allows us to understand governance beyond the state and governance via regulation.

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contexts. It fosters trust by promoting transparency, responsibility, and accountability, and employs mechanisms to resolve disputes and conflicts for greater harmony. It adapts to changing circumstances, keeping the group responsive and resilient. By delivering on its promises and creating positive outcomes, it fosters legitimacy and acceptance of the governing body, leading to rule compliance, shared responsibility, active cooperation, and ultimately, greater stability and long-term sustainability.

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for public participation in the budget process. To measure the overall commitment to transparency, the IBP created Open Budget Index (OBI), which assigns a score to each country based on the results of the survey. While the OBS is released biannually, the IBP recently released a new OBS Tracker, which serves as an online tool for civil society, the media, and other actors to monitor in real time whether governments are releasing eight key budget documents. The Open Budget Index data are used by the

1113:, "governance in the health sector refers to a wide range of steering and rule-making related functions carried out by governments/decisions makers as they seek to achieve national health policy objectives that are conducive to universal health coverage." A national health policy is a complex and dynamic process, which changes from State to State according to the political, historical and socio-economic situation prevailing in the country. Mainly it seeks to strengthen the 1226:. In 2004, the British Columbia Citizens Assembly was the first form of direct citizen engagement created to envision the provincial electoral system. Adopted by Brazil, participatory budgeting was used to "enhance citizens' empowerment and the quality of democracy." Both examples contributed to the discussion of increasing citizen engagement as a mechanism to increase the effectiveness, legitimacy, and social justice of democratic governance. 1194:

traditional forms of governance—most notably, contractual and relational governance—and may change the way to organize collaborations between individuals and between organizations. Blockchain governance relies on a set of protocols and code-based rules. As an original governance mode, it departs from an enforcement through the law (as in contractual governance) or through the value of future relationships (as in relational governance).

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emergence of joint actions of all stakeholders to achieve seminal changes in 21st-century societies. It is also important to consider that people have witnessed a global shift from traditional and reactive healthcare to proactive care, mainly enabled by investment in advanced technologies. Recent artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine learning have made possible the automation as well as the standardisation of many processes in

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describes how absence of effective governance comes about: “as the disintegration ofstate structure, authority (legitimate power), law, and political order”. Five main characteristics are to be differentiated in the absence of effective governance: disorganizing of the structure of the processes in the state, violent conflicts, violations of human rights and social fragmentation, all of which have an endogenous character.

617:, and project governance), a particular 'field' of governance associated with a type of activity or outcome (including environmental governance, internet governance, and information technology governance), or a particular 'model' of governance, often derived as an empirical or normative theory (including regulatory governance, participatory governance, multilevel governance, metagovernance, and collaborative governance). 485: 1552:, development aid agencies, and increasingly investors in the private sector as key indicators of governance, particularly fiscal transparency and management of public funds. Examples of country-led assessments include the Indonesian Democracy Index, monitoring of the Millennium Development Goal 9 on Human Rights and Democratic Governance in Mongolia and the Gross National Happiness Index in Bhutan. 1457:

management, high-quality and committed personnel and formalized and standardized ways of processes is needed. For the latter, governments became much more efficient with the arise of bureaucracies. Nevertheless, governments in a rapidly changing environment need to be able to adapt quickly, so being bounded by rigid structures of functioning could work as a detriment.

1505:. Measuring governance is inherently a controversial and somewhat political exercise. A distinction is therefore made between external assessments, peer assessments and self-assessments. Examples of external assessments are donor assessments or comparative indices produced by international non-governmental organizations. An example of a peer assessment is the 1470:

The external aspect of effective governance on the other hand, exclusively focuses on the international domain of politics. It entails the state's capacity to exercise its rights and fulfil its duties in alignment with international law, the representation of its people in the international political landscape and its participation in international relations.

828:. For example, insurance companies exert a great societal impact, largely invisible and freely accepted, that is a private form of governance in society; in turn, reinsurers, as private companies, may exert similar private governance over their underlying carriers. The term "public policy" should not be exclusively associated with policy that is made by 1364:, for example, good governance relates to consistent management, cohesive policies, guidance, processes and decision-rights for a given area of responsibility, and proper oversight and accountability. "Good governance" implies that mechanisms function in a way that allows the executives (the "agents") to respect the rights and interests of the 388:

relevant resources and capacities of different members and sets the overall direction of the group in order to effectively address its specific collective needs, problems and challenges. The concept of governance can be applied to social, political or economic entities (groups of individuals engaged in some purposeful activity) such as a

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has with respect to the exercise of authority over the explicit actions the organization takes. Public trust and accountability is an essential aspect of organizational viability so it achieves the social mission in a way that is respected by those whom the organization serves and the society in which it is located.

742:. These theories build deductive models, based on the assumptions of modern economics, to show how rational actors may come to establish and sustain formal organizations, including firms and states, and informal organizations, such as networks and practices for governing the commons. Many of these theories draw on 1004:, and civil society, which interact with one another, whether in formal and informal ways; in formulating and implementing policies in response to environment-related demands and inputs from the society; bound by rules, procedures, processes, and widely accepted behavior; possessing characteristics of ' 1547:

The International Budget Partnership (IBP) launched the Open Budget Initiative in 2006 with the release of the first Open Budget Survey (OBS). The OBS is a comprehensive analysis and survey that evaluates whether central governments give the public access to budget documents and provide opportunities

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The components of effective governance described above all have a domestic character, within the boundaries of the national territory, national policies and about the inhabitants of a country. This is the internal aspect of effective governance, which mainly focuses on national services and policies.

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In the 21st century, global trends (e.g., changing population demographics and epidemiology, widening social inequalities, and a context of financial uncertainty) have influenced health system priorities and subsequently the setting of the health governance function. These trends have resulted in the

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Since the conceptualization of effective governance is not onefold, some more components that might constitute it are suggested: “It should be small in extent with limited intervention in the economy; a clear vision and processes; committed quality personnel that can formulate and implement policies

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Governance has been defined as the rules of the political system to solve conflicts between actors and adopt decision (legality). It has also been used to describe the "proper functioning of institutions and their acceptance by the public" (legitimacy). And it has been used to invoke the efficacy of

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Good governance is an indeterminate term used in international development literature to describe various normative accounts of how public institutions ought to conduct public affairs and manage public resources. These normative accounts are often justified on the grounds that they are thought to be

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Participatory governance focuses on deepening democratic engagement through the participation of citizens in the processes of governance with the state. The theoretical framework of participatory governance as a variant of governing can be dated back to the early 1990s when academics began to stress

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governance roughly refers to the rules, processes and institutions according to which decisions regarding the protection, management and planning of the landscape are made. Landscape governance differs from country to country according to the national context (e.g., political system, organization of

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Project governance is the management framework within which project decisions are made and outcomes of a project are realized. Its role is to provide a repeatable and robust system through which an organization can manage its capital investments—project governance handles tasks such as outlining the

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Governance refers, therefore, to all processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market, or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization, or territory, and whether through laws, norms, power or language. Governance differs from government in that it focuses

1528:, which are country-level governance assessment tools that operate at the micro or sub-national level and use information gathered from a country's own citizens, business people and public sector workers to diagnose governance vulnerabilities and suggest concrete approaches for fighting corruption. 1482:

In an attempt to identify predictors of effective government, a study was conducted to investigate what characteristics of the state are more deeply established by effective governance. The most striking conclusion was that effective governance has a big share in the economic growth and developing,

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The purpose of effective governance in the internal aspect is to be the sovereign within its national territory; in the external aspect to wield sovereignty over international relations. For this reason, it is a necessary characteristic of the state to have unrestricted capacity to act, without any

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Adding to these components, one might argue that responsiveness to citizen's needs is high in an effective government. Acting according to these needs, effectiveness is achieved by transparent, decentralized and neutral structures, that are consistent and disciplined. Therefore, efficient financial

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A collaborative governance framework uses a relationship management structure, joint performance and transformation management processes and an exit management plan as controlling mechanisms to encourage the organizations to make ethical, proactive changes for the mutual benefit of all the parties.

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Action through participatory governance impacts policy at the municipal level. An example is the use of municipal housing councils in Brazil to impact policy adoption, which finds that housing councils are associated with a greater likelihood of program adoption beneficial to the needs reflected by

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Land governance is concerned with issues of land ownership and tenure. It consists of the policies, processes and institutions by which decisions about the access to, use of and control over land are made, implemented and enforced; it is also about managing and reconciling competing claims on land.

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Nonprofit governance has a dual focus: achieving the organization's social mission and ensuring the organization is viable. Both responsibilities relate to fiduciary responsibility that a board of trustees (sometimes called directors, or Board, or Management Committee—the terms are interchangeable)

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The Governance Analytical Framework (GAF) is a practical methodology for investigating governance processes, where various stakeholders interact and make decisions regarding collective issues, thus creating or reinforcing social norms and institutions. It is postulated that governance processes can

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Private governance occurs when non-governmental entities, including private organizations, dispute resolution organizations, or other third party groups, make rules and/or standards which have a binding effect on the "quality of life and opportunities of the larger public." Simply put, private—not

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In its most abstract sense, governance is a theoretical concept referring to the actions and processes by which stable practices and organizations arise and persist. These actions and processes may operate in formal and informal organizations of any size; and they may function for any purpose, good

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Modernization Act (GPRAMA) requires U.S. federal agencies to publish their performance plans and reports in machine-readable format, thereby providing the basis for evaluating the quality of their performance of the governance functions entrusted to them, as specified in their strategic objectives

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Security of land tenure is considered to contribute to poverty reduction and food security, since it can enable farmers to fully participate in the economy. Without recognized property rights, it is hard for small entrepreneurs, farmers included, to obtain credit or sell their business – hence the

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Global governance is defined as "the complex of formal and informal institutions, mechanisms, relationships, and processes between and among states, markets, citizens and organizations, both inter- and non-governmental, through which collective interests on the global plane are articulated, rights

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There are no clearly defined settings within which metagoverning takes place, or particular persons who are responsible for it. While some believe metagovernance to be the role of the state which is assumed to want to steer actors in a particular direction, it can "potentially be exercised by any

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have used the term "global governance" to denote the regulation of interdependent relations in the absence of an overarching political authority. The best example of this is the international system or relationships between independent states. The term, however, can apply wherever a group of free

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When a state fails to govern effectively, this does not simply imply the absence of the characteristics of effective governance. First of all, the absence of effective governance is lack of capacity of the state to supply its inhabitants with political goods, such as rights and freedoms. Zartman

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Regulatory governance reflects the emergence of decentered and mutually adaptive policy regimes which rests on regulation rather than service provision or taxing and spending. The term captures the tendency of policy regimes to deal with complexity with delegated system of rules. It is likely to

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More broadly, health governance requires a synergistic set of policies, many of which reside in sectors other than health as well as governors beyond the national governments, which must be supported by structures and mechanisms that enable collaboration. For instance, in the European context, a

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The first documented use of the word "corporate governance" is by Richard Eells (1960, p. 108) to denote "the structure and functioning of the corporate polity". The "corporate government" concept itself is older and was already used in finance textbooks at the beginning of the 20th century

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From a normative perspective, good, effective and fair governance is a well-organized system that fairly represents stakeholders' interests and needs. It guides the formulation, implementation, and evaluation of the group's objectives, policies, and programs, ensuring smooth operation in various

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and responsibilities to make decisions about the rules, enforcing them and overseeing the smooth operation of the group within the broader framework of governance. The most formal type of a governing body is a government, which has the responsibility and authority to make binding decisions for a

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The effectiveness of governments is not a straightforward and consentient type of governance. Measurement and conceptualization of effectiveness is controversial and often used interchangeably with good governance. However, during the period of 1996–2018, an effort was made by the World Bank to

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Emerging thinking about contract governance is focusing on creating a governance structure in which the parties have a vested interest in managing what are often highly complex contractual arrangements in a more collaborative, aligned, flexible, and credible way. In 1979, Nobel laureate Oliver

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within an organized group of individuals which not only sets the boundaries of acceptable conduct and practices of different actors of the group and controls their decision-making processes through the creation and enforcement of rules and guidelines, but also manages, allocates and mobilizes

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offer a novel way to enforce agreements and achieve cooperation and coordination. The main technical features of blockchains support transparency and traceability of records, information immutability and reliability, and autonomous enforcement of agreements. As such, blockchains will affect

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The current discourse about landscape governance calls for participatory and inclusive processes, that take into account the local realities (i.e. biophysical, cultural, social parameters), and the local needs and concerns of the multiple landscape agents; and effectively deal with cases of

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A Worldwide Governance Index (WGI) was developed in 2009 and is open for improvement through public participation. The following domains, in the form of indicators and composite indexes, were selected to achieve the development of the WGI: Peace and Security, Rule of Law, Human Rights and

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This considers the process by which governments are selected, monitored and replaced; the capacity of the government to effectively formulate and implement sound policies and the respect of citizens and the state of the institutions that govern economic and social interactions among them.

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The role of citizens in participatory governance is to be afforded a form of state power as an elected group of non-political citizens to contribute to the public policy process. Different manifestations of participatory governance include participatory budgeting, councils, and community

1161:." Internet governance deals with how much influence each sector of society should have on the development of the Internet, such as to what extent the state should be able to censor it, and how issues on the Internet, such as cyber-bullying and criminal behavior should be approached. 1230:

the citizens. The mechanism of participatory governance links the social sphere to the political to produce policies directly molded by or influenced by citizens. Therefore, participatory governance potentially improves public service delivery and the allocation of resources.

832:. Public policy may be created by either the private sector or the public sector. If one wishes to refer only to public policy that is made by government, the best term to use is "governmental policy", which eliminates the ambiguity regarding the agent of the policy making. 592:

in its current broader sense, encompassing the activities of a wide range of public and private institutions, acquired general currency only as recently as the 1990s, when it was re-minted by economists and political scientists and disseminated by institutions such as the

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Corporate governance consists of the set of processes, customs, policies, laws and institutions affecting the way people direct, administer or control an organization. Corporate governance also includes the relationships between people within an organization, (the

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Williamson wrote that the governance structure for a contract is the "framework within which the integrity of a transaction is decided", adding further that "because contracts are varied and complex, governance structures vary with the nature of the transaction."

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Liebach, I. (2004). Die unilaterale humanitäre Intervention im zerfallenen Staate. In: Akpinarli, N. (2010). The Fragility of the ‘Failed State’ Paradigm. A Different International Law Perception of the Absence of Effective Government. Leiden: Martinus

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perspective. It proposes a methodology based on five main analytical units: problems, actors, norms, processes and "nodal points". These logically articulated analytical units make up a coherent methodology aimed at being used as a tool for empirical

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Hufty, Marc (2011). "Governance: Exploring four approaches and their relevance to research. In: Wiesmann, U., Hurni, H., et al. editors. Research for Sustainable Development: Foundations, Experiences, and Perspectives". Bern: Geographica Bernensia:

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both an empirical observation and a normative idea based on the principles of place-based multi-stakeholder dialogue, negotiation and spatial decision-making, and aims to achieve environmental, economic and social objectives simultaneously.

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The main international policy initiative to improve land governance is known as the Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security (VGGT), endorsed by the

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IT governance primarily deals with connections between business focus and IT management. The goal of clear governance is to assure that investment in IT generates business value and mitigates the risks that are associated with IT projects.

1286:, has stated that "the multilevel system of governance on which our European regional policy is based provides a key boost to the Union's competitive edge" and that, in times of economic crisis, "multilevel governance must be a priority." 1540:(OECD) countries. The project examines to what extent governments can identify, formulate and implement effective reforms that render a society well-equipped to meet future challenges, and ensure their future viability. Section 10 of the 1156:

as "the development and application by Governments, the private sector and civil society, in their respective roles, of shared principles, norms, rules, decision-making procedures, and programmes that shape the evolution and use of the

1520:. The project reports aggregate and individual indicators for more than 200 countries for six dimensions of governance: voice and accountability, political stability and lack of violence, government effectiveness, regulatory quality, 1125:

was developed as a result of the collaboration between State members in the region. It gives policy-makers a vision, a strategic path and a set of priorities to improve health, guaranteeing that it is more equitable and sustainable.

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Krieger, H. (2000) "Das Effektivitätsprinzip im Völkerrecht". In: Akpinarli, N. (2010). The Fragility of the ‘Failed State’ Paradigm. A Different International Law Perception of the Absence of Effective Government. Leiden: Martinus

1045:-inspired liberalization of land markets in developing countries. Many land acquisition deals were perceived to have negative consequences, and this in turn led to initiatives to improve land governance in developing countries. 3353: 3626: 1097:) that can facilitate public access to landscape data (e.g., maps/satellite images for the study and monitoring of landscape change) and the distributed participation in the decision making, mapping and planning (e.g. 1560:

and performance indicators. Publishing performance reports openly on the Web in a standard, machine-readable format is good practice for all organizations whose plans and reports should be matters of public record.

2042: 1052:: ‘the way in which rules of land tenure are made operational’. And another factor is accountability: the degree to which citizens and stakeholder groups are consulted and can hold to account their authorities. 3329: 1500:

Since the early years of the 2000s (decade), efforts have been conducted in the research and international development community to assess and measure the quality of governance of countries all around the

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Multi-level governance is the concept and study of the fact that many intertangled authority structures are present in a global political economy. The theory of multi-level governance, developed mainly by

764:. Politics involves processes by which a group of people (perhaps with divergent opinions or interests) reach collective decisions generally regarded as binding on the group, and enforced as common 1222:

organizations involved at the state level, taking on state studies or participating in social issues. Over the last two decades, the most rapidly growing form of participatory governance has been

1570: 471:, among others. Many social scientists prefer to discuss the process of governing by using the term governance because it covers the whole range of institutions and relationships involved in it. 1085:

The introduction of holistic approaches to landscape governance is the focus of the evolving interdisciplinary landscape research. Such an approach is the conceptualization of landscape as a

557:). Its occasional use in English to refer to the specific activity of ruling a country can be traced to early-modern England, when the phrase "governance of the realm" appears in works by 2120: 2964: 3346: 3672: 1387:

conducive to economic ends, such as the eradication of poverty and successful economic development. Different organisations have defined governance and good governance differently.

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Spear, Cornforth & Aiken, 2009. The governance challenges of social enterprises: Evidence from a UK empirical study. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 89(2): 247–73.

3623: 1000:(IUCN), define environmental governance as the "multi-level interactions (i.e., local, national, international/global) among, but not limited to, three main actors, i.e., state, 2815: 3467:

Akpinarli, N. (2010). The Fragility of the ‘Failed State’ Paradigm. A Different International Law Perception of the Absence of Effective Government. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff.

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and process-oriented elements of governing rather than its antagonistic ones. This distinction assumes the possibility of the traditional separation between "politics" and

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Governance often refers to a particular level of governance associated with a type of organization (including public governance, global governance, non-profit governance,

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and projects; comprehensive participation with the public; efficient financial management; responsive, transparent and decentralized structures and political stability”.

460: 2208: 1509:. Examples of self-assessments are country-led assessments that can be led by government, civil society, researchers and/or other stakeholders at the national level. 3326: 2296:

Mendoza, Marcos (2014). "Reinsurance as Governance: Governmental Risk Management Pools as a Case Study in the Governance Role Played by Reinsurance Institutions".

1294:"Metagovernance" is the "governing of governing". It represents the established ethical principles, or 'norms', that shape and steer the entire governing process. 2899:

David Levi-Faur, "Regulation & Regulatory Governance", in David Levi-Faur, Handbook on the Politics of Regulation, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2011, pp. 1–20.

1537: 2540:"Strategies for achieving environmental policy integration at the landscape level. A framework illustrated with an analysis of landscape governance in Rwanda" 2879: 2405: 2908:

Braithwaite, John, Cary Coglianese, and David Levi‐Faur. "Can regulation and governance make a difference?." Regulation & Governance 1.1 (2007): 1–7.

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Meyer, D. F. (2018). Predictors of good governance and effective government management: The case of Poland. Polish Journal of Management Studies (18)1.

776:. Contemporary governance practice and theory sometimes questions this distinction, premising that both "governance" and "politics" involve aspects of 3667:

Eells, R.S.F. (1960), The Meaning of Modern Business: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Large Corporate Enterprise (Columbia University Press, NY).

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In developing countries, it is relevant as a tool to contribute to equitable and sustainable development, addressing the phenomenon that is known as ‘

1122: 1544:(GPRA) Modernization Act requires U.S. federal agencies to publish their strategic and performance plans and reports in machine-readable format. 403:

Whereas smaller groups may rely on informal leadership structures, effective governance of a larger group typically relies on a well-functioning

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Türke, Ralf-Eckhard: Governance – Systemic Foundation and Framework (Contributions to Management Science, Physica of Springer, September 2008).

1866: 997: 936:. Other stakeholders include employees, suppliers, customers, banks and other lenders, regulators, the environment and the community at large. 2088:- "4. The manner in which something is governed or regulated; method of management, system of regulation" - attested in this sense since 1402. 1037:

There is constant feedback between land tenure problems and land governance. For instance, it has been argued that what is frequently called '

1524:, control of corruption. To complement the macro-level cross-country Worldwide Governance Indicators, the World Bank Institute developed the 1352:

When discussing governance in particular organizations, the quality of governance within the organization is often compared to a standard of

2961: 1810: 1985:, in order to refer to the 'art of navigation' (or proper steering) of a community. Plato was referring to the political art of governance. 847:

and obligations are established, and differences are mediated". In contrast to the traditional meaning of "governance", some authors like

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Applebaugh, J. (rapporteur), "Governance Working Group", power-point presentation, National Defense University and ISAF, 2010, slide 22

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Security sector governance (SSG) is a subpart concept or framework of security governance that focuses specifically on decisions about

1134:, which have also brought to light challenges to the existing governance structures. One of these challenges concerns the ownership of 2492: 2169: 3432: 2779: 2600:"What are 'Integrated Landscape Approaches' and how effectively have they been implemented in the tropics: a systematic map protocol" 620:

Governance can also define normative or practical agendas. Normative concepts of fair governance or good governance are common among

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One of these efforts to create an internationally comparable measure of governance and an example of an external assessment is the

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Rotberg, R. I. (2004). The Failure and Collapse of Nation-States: Breakdown, Prevention, and Repair. In: Zartman, W. L. (Eds)

2018:"We have put all our confidence, has als actyflie with ye help of our derrest Modir takin on Ws ye governance of our Realme": 1532:

Participation, Sustainable Development, and Human Development. Additionally, in 2009 the Bertelsmann Foundation published the

1089:. The discussion about commons-based landscape governance puts forward the need for open technologies (i.e. accessible, under 569:. The first usage in connection with institutional structures (as distinct from individual rule) appears in Charles Plummer's 3673:

Good government, Governance, Human complexity. Luigi Einaudi's legacy and contemporary societies, Leo Olschki, Firenze, 2012.

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Hufty, Marc (2011). "Investigating Policy Processes: The Governance Analytical Framework (GAF). In: Wiesmann, U., Hurni, H.,

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even national-scale public sector administration can be organized democratically (while seeking consensus and cooperation) .

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eds. Research for Sustainable Development: Foundations, Experiences, and Perspectives". Bern: Geographica Bernensia: 403–24.

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mechanisms whereby market principles of competition serve to allocate resources while operating under government regulation

343: 2925:"Participatory Governance Reform: A Good Strategy for Increasing Government Responsiveness and Improving Public Services?" 1996:"When the king's grace came first to the right of the crown, and unto the governance of the realm young and unexpert..." 3283: 3142: 1398:

the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country's economic and social resources for development.

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specific geopolitical system (like a country) through established rules and guidelines. A government may operate as a

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Bell, Stephen, 2002. Economic Governance and Institutional Dynamics, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Australia.

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Asie Dwise (2011), Corporate Governance: An Informative Glimpse, International Journal of Governance. 1(2): 206–14

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Manski, C. F. (2000). Economic analysis of social interactions. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14(3), 115-136.

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Zartman, W. L. (2004). When States Fail: Causes and Consequences. Princeton: Princeton University Press, p 3-4

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Unpacking Outsourcing Governance: How to Build a Sound Governance Structure to Drive Insight Versus Oversight|

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Meyer, D. F. (2018). Predictors of good governance and effective government management: The case of Poland.

1951:

The Nature of the Machine and the Collapse of Cybernetics: A Transhumanist Lesson for Emerging Technologies

1674: 440:. It is also shaped by external factors such as globalization, social movements or technological progress. 433: 3304:. SSR Backgrounder Series. Geneva: Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF). 2015. 2349:

James N. Rosenau, "Toward an Ontology for Global Governance", in Martin Hewson and Thomas Sinclair, eds.,

1655: 1549: 861:

be found in any society, and unlike other approaches, that these can be observed and analysed from a non-

773: 671: 598: 315: 2323:

Thakur, Ramesh; Van Langenhove, Luk (2006). "Enhancing Global Governance through Regional Integration".

792: 506: 495: 468: 211: 3221:

Sorensen, E. Metagovernance: The Changing Role of Politicians in Processes of Democratic Governance.

2984:

Does participatory governance matter? : exploring the nature and impact of participatory reforms

2070: 1921: 1887: 806: 581:). This usage of "governance" to refer to the arrangements of governing became orthodox including in 502: 2382: 1792: 1474:

form of dependence in both state and international law. This independency is the core of statehood.

1072:

public administration, economy, culture etc.). Generally, landscape governance could be described as

3234:

Onyango, P & Jentoft, S. Assessing Poverty in small-scale fisheries in Lake Victoria, Tanzania.

1954:. Palgrave Studies in the Future of Humanity and its Successors. Cham (Zug): Springer. p. 48. 1714: 1689: 1585: 1307: 1090: 968: 660: 336: 292: 241: 186: 82: 27: 3681:

In: Journal on European History of Law, London: STS Science Centre, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 9–13,

585:'s seminal text of the same title in 1904 and among some later British constitutional historians. 3712: 3018:"Putting the Public Back into Governance: The Challenges of Citizen Participation and Its Future" 2715:"From landscape resources to landscape commons: focussing on the non-utility values of landscape" 2075: 1926: 1892: 1806: 1645: 1365: 1361: 1223: 1185: 1009: 956: 917: 720: 664: 417: 72: 3686: 3512:

Kurtz, M. J., & Schrank A. (2007). Growth and governance: Models, measures, and mechanisms.

2755:"Landscape as mediator, landscape as commons. International perspectives on landscape research" 2462: 1640: 1536:(SGI), which systematically measure the need for reform and the capacity for reform within the 1256: 992:

the processes of decision-making involved in the control and management of the environment and

739: 711:

or evil, for profit or not. Conceiving of governance in this way, one can apply the concept to

574: 262: 196: 102: 2309: 1279: 3305: 2369: 2083: 2020: 1934: 1900: 1779: 1684: 1669: 1605: 1203: 769: 755: 566: 437: 236: 226: 181: 2466: 2039:"The Concept of Good Governance in Modern World and Governance by Caliphs of Islam – Part I" 2005: 3692: 3429: 2783: 2668: 2611: 2551: 2489: 1660: 1590: 1517: 1427: 1271: 1042: 982: 888: 614: 166: 34: 20: 1048:

The quality of land governance depends on its practical implementation, which is known as

8: 3707: 3386: 2108: 1615: 1595: 1240: 1147: 1117:, making sure that they are capable of meeting the health needs of targeted populations. 1049: 1027: 562: 329: 171: 161: 47: 2672: 2615: 2555: 2509: 955:

relationships between all groups involved and describing the flow of information to all

727:, to partnerships and other associations, to business relationships (especially complex 447:

Most institutions of higher education offer governance as an area of study, such as the

3180: 3160: 3087: 2987:. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Comparative Urban Studies Project. 2692: 2637: 2577: 2200: 2192: 1860: 1001: 949: 933: 905: 799: 380: 201: 156: 107: 3571: 2064: 1948:

Malapi-Nelson, Alcibiades (2017). "Cybernetics: The Book, the Club, and the Decline".

1881: 3682: 3279: 3120: 3079: 3037: 2998: 2988: 2944: 2754: 2736: 2696: 2684: 2629: 2569: 2467:

The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else

2424: 2305: 2266: 2245: 2139: 1955: 1848: 1838: 1743: 1694: 1665: 1650: 1620: 1332: 978: 841: 777: 429: 372: 134: 2924: 2641: 2581: 1082:

conflicting interests, ensuring the democratic and just treatment of the landscape.

989:

human activity (i.e. that governance should be based upon environmental principles).

3594: 3184: 3172: 3112: 3071: 3029: 2940: 2936: 2726: 2676: 2619: 2559: 2332: 2241: 2204: 2184: 1755:

less on the state and its institutions and more on social practices and activities.

993: 743: 206: 129: 3091: 2680: 2097: 1999: 1915: 3666: 3630: 3436: 3408:

Andrews M. (2008) The good governance agenda: Beyond indicators without theory,

3393: 3333: 3146: 2968: 2657:"Political landscapes between manifestations and democracy, identities and power" 2564: 2539: 2496: 2473: 2450: 2262:

Anarchism and Social Revolution: An Anarchist Politics of the Transitionary State

2260: 2104: 1949: 1737: 1630: 1600: 1381: 1353: 1336: 1005: 558: 231: 221: 176: 92: 3660:" (October 2002; updated August 2004). ECGI – Finance Working Paper No. 02/2002. 3447:

Andrews M. (2008) The good governance agenda: Beyond indicators without theory,

2656: 1443:

government and the achievement of consensus by democratic means (participation).

3653: 2265:. Contributions to Political Science. Cham, Zug: Springer Nature. p. 135. 1704: 1679: 1275: 1263: 986: 781: 712: 633: 594: 404: 77: 3059: 2962:'Triumph, Deficit or Contestation? Deepening the 'Deepening Democracy' Debate' 2336: 1852: 3701: 3083: 3075: 3041: 3002: 2948: 2740: 2688: 2633: 2573: 1423: 1410:

the traditions and institutions by which authority in a country is exercised.

1114: 1098: 1038: 1023: 867: 848: 825: 625: 464: 384: 3456: 3417: 811:

through top-down methods that primarily involve governments and their state

3140: 3106: 1832: 732: 629: 376: 87: 3116: 2839: 2624: 2599: 1575: 1521: 1135: 1094: 925: 893: 812: 728: 716: 456: 425: 364: 19:

This article is about the general concept. For the academic journal, see

3017: 2259:

Williams, Brian (30 September 2024). "Anarchism in the Economic Realm".

3033: 1699: 1391: 1267: 1190: 1131: 929: 829: 602: 582: 393: 2196: 3478:

The Law of Nations: An Introduction to the International Law of Peace

3161:"Transaction-Cost Economics: The Governance of Contractual Relations" 2982: 2731: 2714: 2170:"Transaction-Cost Economics: The Governance of Contractual Relations" 1580: 1369: 1068: 862: 413: 408: 397: 2538:

van Oosten, Cora; Uzamukunda, Assumpta; Runhaar, Hens (2018-05-01).

649: 26:. For information on the administrative structure of Knowledge, see 3176: 2971:

Institute of Development Studies (IDS) Working Paper 264 July 2006.

2188: 1357: 1328: 1158: 761: 735:, and to any number of humans engaged in some purposeful activity. 621: 421: 3679:

Sovereignty – Some critical Remarks on the Genealogy of Governance

3657: 3624:

Open Budgets Key to Open Government: Next Steps for OGP Countries

3060:"Improving Social Well-Being Through New Democratic Institutions" 1709: 1086: 389: 360: 765: 760:

There is a distinction between the concepts of governance and

1717:(StratML), particularly Part 2, Performance Plans and Reports 1502: 1464: 1430:

and coordinate or control activity in society or the economy.

573:(an 1885 translation from a 15th-century Latin manuscript by 554: 416:

where citizens vote on who should govern towards the goal of

2516:. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. 787:

In general terms, public governance occurs in various ways:

3428:

WB (World Bank) (2019). “Worldwide Governance Indicators”,

2802: 2800: 2537: 1438:'s Regional Project on Local Governance for Latin America: 921: 3595:"Sustainable Governance Indicators 2009 – An Introduction" 2598:

Reed, James; Deakin, Liz; Sunderland, Terry (2015-01-07).

1422:

the use of institutions, structures of authority and even

795:(PPP) or with the collaboration of community organisations 2232:

Offe, Claus (2009). "Governance: An "Empty Signifier"?".

1997: 1110: 724: 579:

The Difference between an Absolute and a Limited Monarchy

407:, which is a specific group of people entrusted with the 368: 16:

Processes of interacting with people and making decisions

3430:

https://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/Home/Documents

2806: 2797: 1516:

project, developed by members of the World Bank and the

3647:"Manifesto for Smarter Intervention in Complex Systems" 911:

The laws and customs (rules) applying to that direction

1538:

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

3599:

Policy Performance and Executive Capacity in the OECD

2062: 1879: 973:

Governance in an environmental context may refer to:

505:. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are 2840:"Report of the Working Group on Internet Governance" 2597: 2322: 1164: 738:

Most theories of governance as process arose out of

605:. Since then, the term has gained increasing usage. 1026:’. The operational dimension of land governance is 3299: 2063: 1914: 1880: 1486: 1477: 855: 33:"Governing" redirects here. For the magazine, see 3347:"A Decade of Measuring the Quality of Governance" 2655:Gailing, Ludger; Leibenath, Markus (2017-05-19). 1913: 1406:project of the World Bank defines governance as: 1335:of a single state. SSG applies the principles of 553:, the metaphorical sense first being attested in 3699: 3058:Touchton, Michael; Wampler, Brian (2013-12-27). 2654: 2412:. Archived from the original on October 23, 2013 1008:'; for the purpose of attaining environmentally- 3327:Managing Development – The Governance Dimension 3057: 2713:Gerber, Jean-David; Hess, Gérald (2017-10-19). 1990: 3385:This is a very widely cited definition, as in 3278:(1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 998:International Union for Conservation of Nature 359:is the overall complex system or framework of 3592: 3538:, 2-4. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1947: 1495: 1316: 852:equals needs to form a regular relationship. 768:. Governance, on the other hand, conveys the 337: 2025:State Papers: King Henry the Eighth; Part IV 1765: 1763: 1418:An alternate definition sees governance as: 1034:relevance of comprehensive land governance. 2814:. Denmark: WHO Regional Office for Europe. 2809:"Governance for Health in the 21st Century" 1626:Governance, risk management, and compliance 1301: 1212: 962: 678:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 3649:, by Mark Fell, Carré & Strauss. 2013. 3601:. Gütersloh: Verlag Bertelsmann Stiftung. 3404: 3402: 3158: 3108:Civil Society and Participatory Governance 2712: 2167: 1865:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 1465:Internal and external effective governance 344: 330: 3536:When States Fail: Causes and Consequences 3501:Polish Journal of Management Studies (18) 3457:https://doi.org/10.1080/13600810802455120 3418:https://doi.org/10.1080/13600810802455120 3223:American Review of Public Administration. 2869: 2730: 2623: 2563: 1760: 1342: 1250: 698:Learn how and when to remove this message 545:derives, ultimately, from the Greek verb 525:Learn how and when to remove this message 449:Balsillie School of International Affairs 3671:Heritier, P. & Silvestri P. (Eds.), 3149:|2015|Vested Way|accessed 17 August 2016 2258: 2131: 1837:. B. Guy Peters (2nd ed.). London. 1197: 1179: 639: 501:Relevant discussion may be found on the 3593:Empter, Stefan; Janning, Josef (2009). 3399: 3273: 3267: 3104: 2484: 2482: 2295: 1973:Plato used the term κυβερνητική in the 1742:. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 1447: 1154:World Summit on the Information Society 1152:Internet governance was defined by the 1063: 882: 873: 805:through the formation and execution of 3700: 3238:. Volume 11 2010, pp. 250–63 (p. 258). 2980: 2918: 2916: 2914: 2708: 2706: 2351:Approaches to Global Governance Theory 1830: 1611:International healthcare accreditation 1571:2020s in governance and policy studies 1557:Government Performance and Results Act 1542:Government Performance and Results Act 1233: 1141: 3241: 3053: 3051: 2922: 2593: 2591: 2490:The global land grab: beyond the hype 2362: 2132:Lijun, Yang; Wei, Shan (1998-08-14). 1769: 1739:Governance: A very short introduction 1735: 1323:Security sector governance and reform 943: 818: 474: 3622:Castro, Michael, 12 September 2013, 3568:"World Governance Index 2009 Report" 3225:Volume 36 2006, pp. 98–114 (p. 103). 3015: 2719:International Journal of the Commons 2479: 2453:. Global Land Tool Network, no date. 2231: 2084:participating institution membership 1998:William Tyndale; John Frith (1831). 1935:participating institution membership 1901:participating institution membership 1436:United Nations Development Programme 1339:to the security sector in question. 1331:and their implementation within the 1284:President of the European Commission 1104: 924:. The principal players include the 835: 749: 676:adding citations to reliable sources 643: 478: 396:(public administration), a governed 3274:Vitasek, Kate; et al. (2011). 2911: 2703: 1368:(the "principals"), in a spirit of 1041:', was partly made possible by the 13: 3640: 3597:. In Stiftung, Bertelsmann (ed.). 3570:. World Governance. Archived from 3105:Donaghy, Maureen M. (2013-03-05). 3048: 2588: 2544:Environmental Science & Policy 2444:Policy Paper: Good Land Governance 2135:New Humanism and Global Governance 1834:Governance, politics and the state 1375: 1347: 1016: 908:or their like direct a corporation 14: 3734: 3264:. Sage publications 2003. p. 171. 3212:. Sage publications 2003. p. 170. 3159:Williamson, Oliver (1979-10-01). 2807:Kickbusch I, Gleicher D. (2012). 2488:Mayke Kaag and Annelies Zoomers: 2098:Étymologie du terme "gouvernance" 2021:"Letter of James V to Henry VIII" 1534:Sustainable Governance Indicators 1289: 1171:Information technology governance 1165:Information technology governance 561:and in royal correspondence from 268:Sustainable Governance Indicators 3658:Corporate Governance and Control 3480:. Oxford: Clarendon Press, p 55. 2923:Speer, Johanna (December 2012). 2510:"Voluntary Guidelines on Tenure" 2246:10.1111/j.1467-8675.2009.00570.x 1058:Committee on World Food Security 648: 483: 273:Bertelsmann Transformation Index 3616: 3605:from the original on 2011-07-19 3586: 3560: 3550: 3541: 3528: 3519: 3506: 3493: 3483: 3470: 3461: 3441: 3422: 3379: 3370: 3359:from the original on 2018-04-03 3339: 3319: 3308:from the original on 2017-06-03 3292: 3254: 3228: 3215: 3202: 3191:from the original on 2020-02-27 3152: 3133: 3098: 3009: 2974: 2955: 2902: 2893: 2882:from the original on 2010-11-23 2872:"IT Governance: A Simple Model" 2863: 2852:from the original on 2018-11-26 2832: 2821:from the original on 2020-07-15 2777: 2771: 2747: 2648: 2531: 2520:from the original on 2017-02-11 2502: 2456: 2437: 2398: 2389: 2356: 2343: 2316: 2289: 2252: 2225: 2214:from the original on 2017-08-08 2161: 2152: 2125: 2114: 2091: 2056: 2045:from the original on 2019-03-06 2031: 1813:from the original on 2020-08-19 1514:Worldwide Governance Indicators 1487:Absence of effective governance 1478:Effects of effective governance 1404:Worldwide Governance Indicators 1121:health policy framework called 856:Governance Analytical Framework 2941:10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.05.034 2168:Williamson, Oliver E. (1979). 2012: 1941: 1907: 1873: 1824: 1799: 1729: 1: 3723:Political science terminology 3336:, 1991, Washington D.C., p. 1 3276:The Vested Outsourcing Manual 3064:Comparative Political Studies 2870:Smallwood, Deb (March 2009). 2681:10.1080/01426397.2017.1290225 2476:. New York: Basic Books. 2000 2331:(3 July, September): 233–40. 1722: 1636:Governance without government 1526:World Bank Governance Surveys 1507:African Peer Review Mechanism 940:(Becht, Bolton, Röell 2004). 588:However, the use of the term 453:Munk School of Global Affairs 3165:Journal of Law and Economics 3022:Public Administration Review 2780:"Health Systems: Governance" 2565:10.1016/j.envsci.2018.02.002 2177:Journal of Law and Economics 1675:Rule According to Higher Law 434:non-government organizations 7: 3633:, retrieved 2 December 2014 3016:Fung, Archon (2015-02-25). 2353:, SUNY Press, Albany, 1999. 2107:, document prepared by the 2027:. Murray. 1836. p. 95. 2004:. Ebenezer Palmer. p. 1563: 1550:Open Government Partnership 1274:, particularly through the 824:public—entities are making 793:public-private partnerships 791:through networks involving 316:Market governance mechanism 299:Governance, risk management 10: 3739: 3449:Oxford Development Studies 3410:Oxford Development Studies 3301:Security Sector Governance 2876:Tech Decision CIO Insights 1496:Measurement and assessment 1379: 1320: 1317:Security sector governance 1305: 1254: 1201: 1183: 1168: 1145: 966: 947: 886: 839: 753: 469:London School of Economics 308:Environmental, social, and 32: 18: 2429:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 2337:10.1163/19426720-01203002 2071:Oxford English Dictionary 1922:Oxford English Dictionary 1888:Oxford English Dictionary 1091:creative commons licenses 571:The Governance of England 461:Graduate Institute Geneva 363:, functions, structures, 3514:Journal of Politics”, 69 3352:. The World Bank. 2006. 3251:. Routledge 2012. p. 40. 3249:Environmental Governance 3076:10.1177/0010414013512601 2981:Brian., Wampler (2011). 1715:Strategy Markup Language 1690:Seat of local government 1586:Collaborative governance 1308:Collaborative governance 1302:Collaborative governance 1270:, arose from increasing 1213:Participatory governance 969:Environmental governance 963:Environmental governance 608: 293:Chief governance officer 28:Knowledge:Administration 3262:Governing as Governance 3210:Governing as Governance 2076:Oxford University Press 1927:Oxford University Press 1893:Oxford University Press 1656:Principal–agent problem 1646:Participatory democracy 1394:defines governance as: 1362:non-profit organization 1224:participatory budgeting 1186:Government by algorithm 1010:sustainable development 894:Corporate organizations 3476:Brierly, J. L. (1955) 2604:Environmental Evidence 2377:Cite journal requires 1787:Cite journal requires 1641:Open-source governance 1445: 1432: 1412: 1400: 1343:As a normative concept 1257:Multi-level governance 1251:Multi-level governance 1079: 740:neoclassical economics 263:World Governance Index 3117:10.4324/9780203098011 2625:10.1186/2047-2382-4-2 2121:Usage frequency graph 1685:Simulation Governance 1670:New public management 1606:Ecclesiastical polity 1440: 1420: 1408: 1396: 1204:Regulatory governance 1198:Regulatory governance 1180:Blockchain governance 1074: 756:Public administration 640:Governance as process 567:Henry VIII of England 383:, power dynamics and 3718:Political philosophy 2786:on February 14, 2009 2514:Governance of Tenure 2138:. World Scientific. 2001:The works of Tyndale 1831:Pierre, Jon (2020). 1736:Bevir, Mark (2012). 1661:Public choice theory 1591:Corporate governance 1518:World Bank Institute 1448:Effective governance 1272:European integration 1064:Landscape governance 1043:Washington Consensus 983:environmental policy 920:) and the corporate 904:The manner in which 889:Corporate governance 883:Corporate governance 874:Nonprofit governance 672:improve this section 615:corporate governance 494:factual accuracy is 310:corporate governance 2673:2017LandR..42..337G 2616:2015EnvEv...4....2R 2556:2018ESPol..83...63V 2109:European Commission 2074:(Online ed.). 2041:. 9 November 2015. 1925:(Online ed.). 1891:(Online ed.). 1616:Internet governance 1596:Contract management 1356:. In the case of a 1280:José Manuel Barroso 1241:Contract management 1234:Contract governance 1148:Internet governance 1142:Internet governance 1050:land administration 1028:land administration 985:that advocates for 896:often use the word 798:through the use of 731:relationships), to 563:James V of Scotland 3629:2016-12-21 at the 3435:2020-05-03 at the 3392:2011-07-24 at the 3332:2011-09-16 at the 3236:Fish and Fisheries 3145:2016-08-26 at the 3034:10.1111/puar.12361 2967:2016-08-17 at the 2661:Landscape Research 2495:2017-02-11 at the 2472:2017-02-11 at the 2449:2017-10-14 at the 2103:2017-10-14 at the 1555:Section 10 of the 950:Project governance 944:Project governance 934:board of directors 900:to describe both: 819:Private governance 475:Origin of the word 3574:on 4 October 2011 3126:978-0-203-09801-1 3070:(10): 1442–1469. 2994:978-1-933549-58-3 2935:(12): 2379–2398. 2929:World Development 2499:, Zed Books, 2014 2463:De Soto, Hernando 2325:Global Governance 2082:(Subscription or 1933:(Subscription or 1899:(Subscription or 1844:978-1-350-31143-5 1695:Social innovation 1666:Public management 1651:Policy Governance 1621:Global governance 1434:According to the 1109:According to the 1105:Health governance 994:natural resources 979:political ecology 842:Global governance 836:Global governance 750:Public governance 708: 707: 700: 535: 534: 527: 457:Sciences Po Paris 430:political parties 375:borne out of the 354: 353: 3730: 3656:, Ailsa Röell, " 3634: 3620: 3614: 3613: 3611: 3610: 3590: 3584: 3583: 3581: 3579: 3564: 3558: 3554: 3548: 3545: 3539: 3532: 3526: 3523: 3517: 3510: 3504: 3497: 3491: 3487: 3481: 3474: 3468: 3465: 3459: 3445: 3439: 3426: 3420: 3406: 3397: 3383: 3377: 3374: 3368: 3367: 3365: 3364: 3358: 3351: 3343: 3337: 3323: 3317: 3316: 3314: 3313: 3296: 3290: 3289: 3271: 3265: 3258: 3252: 3245: 3239: 3232: 3226: 3219: 3213: 3206: 3200: 3199: 3197: 3196: 3156: 3150: 3137: 3131: 3130: 3102: 3096: 3095: 3055: 3046: 3045: 3013: 3007: 3006: 2978: 2972: 2959: 2953: 2952: 2920: 2909: 2906: 2900: 2897: 2891: 2890: 2888: 2887: 2867: 2861: 2860: 2858: 2857: 2851: 2844: 2836: 2830: 2829: 2827: 2826: 2820: 2813: 2804: 2795: 2794: 2792: 2791: 2782:. Archived from 2775: 2769: 2768: 2766: 2765: 2751: 2745: 2744: 2734: 2732:10.18352/ijc.745 2710: 2701: 2700: 2652: 2646: 2645: 2627: 2595: 2586: 2585: 2567: 2535: 2529: 2528: 2526: 2525: 2506: 2500: 2486: 2477: 2460: 2454: 2441: 2435: 2434: 2428: 2420: 2418: 2417: 2402: 2396: 2393: 2387: 2386: 2380: 2375: 2373: 2365: 2360: 2354: 2347: 2341: 2340: 2320: 2314: 2313: 2293: 2287: 2286: 2281: 2279: 2256: 2250: 2249: 2229: 2223: 2222: 2220: 2219: 2213: 2174: 2165: 2159: 2156: 2150: 2149: 2129: 2123: 2118: 2112: 2095: 2089: 2087: 2079: 2067: 2060: 2054: 2053: 2051: 2050: 2035: 2029: 2028: 2016: 2010: 2009: 1994: 1988: 1987: 1970: 1968: 1945: 1939: 1938: 1930: 1918: 1911: 1905: 1904: 1896: 1884: 1877: 1871: 1870: 1864: 1856: 1828: 1822: 1821: 1819: 1818: 1803: 1797: 1796: 1790: 1785: 1783: 1775: 1767: 1758: 1757: 1733: 774:"administration" 744:transaction cost 703: 696: 692: 689: 683: 652: 644: 577:, also known as 530: 523: 519: 516: 510: 507:reliably sourced 487: 486: 479: 436:, community and 346: 339: 332: 192:Higher education 98:Multistakeholder 43: 42: 3738: 3737: 3733: 3732: 3731: 3729: 3728: 3727: 3698: 3697: 3677:Senn, Marcell. 3643: 3641:Further reading 3638: 3637: 3631:Wayback Machine 3621: 3617: 3608: 3606: 3591: 3587: 3577: 3575: 3566: 3565: 3561: 3555: 3551: 3546: 3542: 3533: 3529: 3524: 3520: 3511: 3507: 3498: 3494: 3488: 3484: 3475: 3471: 3466: 3462: 3446: 3442: 3437:Wayback Machine 3427: 3423: 3407: 3400: 3394:Wayback Machine 3384: 3380: 3375: 3371: 3362: 3360: 3356: 3349: 3345: 3344: 3340: 3334:Wayback Machine 3324: 3320: 3311: 3309: 3298: 3297: 3293: 3286: 3272: 3268: 3259: 3255: 3246: 3242: 3233: 3229: 3220: 3216: 3207: 3203: 3194: 3192: 3157: 3153: 3147:Wayback Machine 3138: 3134: 3127: 3103: 3099: 3056: 3049: 3014: 3010: 2995: 2979: 2975: 2969:Wayback Machine 2960: 2956: 2921: 2912: 2907: 2903: 2898: 2894: 2885: 2883: 2868: 2864: 2855: 2853: 2849: 2842: 2838: 2837: 2833: 2824: 2822: 2818: 2811: 2805: 2798: 2789: 2787: 2776: 2772: 2763: 2761: 2753: 2752: 2748: 2711: 2704: 2653: 2649: 2596: 2589: 2536: 2532: 2523: 2521: 2508: 2507: 2503: 2497:Wayback Machine 2487: 2480: 2474:Wayback Machine 2461: 2457: 2451:Wayback Machine 2442: 2438: 2422: 2421: 2415: 2413: 2406:"Focus on Land" 2404: 2403: 2399: 2394: 2390: 2378: 2376: 2367: 2366: 2361: 2357: 2348: 2344: 2321: 2317: 2298:Conn. 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