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1423:"The mobilization of local ideas about racial difference has been important in generating, and intensifying, civil wars that have occurred since the end of colonial rule in all of the countries that straddle the southern edge of the Sahara Desert. contemporary conflicts often hearken back to an older history in which blackness could be equated with slavery and non-blackness with predatory and uncivilized banditry." (cover text), Hall, Bruce S.,
201:
36:
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the event of an attack by a third party. The Baqt obliged both to exchange annual tribute as a goodwill symbol: the
Nubians sent slaves and the Arabs sent grain. This formality was only a token of the trade that developed between the two. It was not only a trade in slaves and grain but also in horses and manufactured goods brought to Nubia by the Arabs, and in ivory, gold, gems,
1412:
independence from Anglo-Egyptian condominium it has its own political party. The multitude of sects and the differences between them do not permit to speak of a Muslim community; over time, the differences between these sects have generated conflicts, fighting against each other allowing the
British and Egyptians to successfully apply the adage 'divide at impera.'
472:
Acceptance of the Baqt did not indicate Nubian submission to the Arabs; however, the treaty did impose conditions for Arab friendship that eventually permitted Arabs to achieve a privileged position in Nubia. Arab merchants established markets in Nubian towns to facilitate the exchange of grain and
402:
in the south motivating much of the conflict, as these nations sustain the centuries-old pattern of hereditary servitude that arose following early Muslim conquests. Ethnic strife between
Arabized and non-Arab black populations has led to various internal conflicts in the Sudan region, most notably
1110:
granted the local population the right to use arable land. The diverse groups that inhabited each dar eventually regarded themselves as units of tribes. Movement from one dar to another entailed a change in tribal identification. (Tribal distinctions in these areas in modern Sudan can be traced to
464:
The Arabs realized the commercial advantages of peaceful relations with Nubia and used the Baqt to ensure that travel and trade proceeded unhindered across the frontier. The Baqt also contained security arrangements whereby both parties agreed that neither would come to the defense of the other in
1250:
The sultans operated the slave trade as a monopoly. They levied taxes on traders, and export duties on slaves sent to Egypt, and took a share of the slaves brought into Darfur. Some household slaves advanced to prominent positions in the courts of sultans, and the power exercised by these slaves
1411:
Islam has been introduced in Sudan by several religious orders, each with their own interpretations and dogmas, being able to talk about different sects (tariqa), the Muslim
Brotherhood corresponding the schools of Muslim thinking. Each Muslim cult has its own structure, leader, space and after
496:
Traditional genealogies trace the ancestry of the Nile Valley's mixed population to Arab tribes that migrated into the region during this period. Even many non-Arabic-speaking groups claim descent from Arab forebears. The two most important Arabic-speaking groups to emerge in Nubia were the
1231:(1596–1637), supplanted a rival clan and became Darfur's first sultan. Sulayman Solong decreed Islam to be the sultanate's official religion. However, large-scale religious conversions did not occur until the reign of Ahmad Bakr (1682–1722), who imported teachers, built
1156:
Abu Duqn (1642–81) sought to centralize the government of the confederacy of Sennar. To implement this policy, Badi introduced a standing army of slave soldiers that would free Sennar from dependence on vassal sultans for military assistance, and would provide the
1097:
The sultanate's economy depended on the role played by the Funj in the slave trade. Farming and herding also thrived in Al
Jazirah and in the southern rainforests. Sennar apportioned tributary areas into tribal homelands each one termed a
1085:
to settle local disorders and to resolve internal disputes. The Funj stabilized the region and interposed a military bloc between the Arabs in the north, the
Abyssinians in the east, and the non-Muslim blacks in the south.
1251:
provoked a violent reaction among the traditional class of Fur officeholders in the late eighteenth century. The rivalry between the slave and traditional elites caused recurrent unrest throughout the next century.
509:, the Prophet Muhammad's tribe. Historically, the Ja'ali have been involved in the slave trade, making up an important subsection of the nomadic, slave trading jallaba, along with other tribes such as the
1165:, and placed one of their own ranks on the throne of Sennar in 1718. The mid-18th century witnessed another brief period of expansion when the Funj turned back an Abyssinian invasion, defeated the
433:
Contacts between
Nubians and Arabs long predated the coming of Islam, but the Arabization of the Nile Valley was a gradual process that occurred over a period of nearly one thousand years. Arab
1188:, relegating the sultan to a figurehead role. Sennar's hold over its vassals diminished, and by the early 19th century, more remote areas ceased to recognize even the nominal authority of the
525:. They were descended from Arabs who migrated after the 13th century into an area that extended from the savanna and semi-desert west of the Nile to the Abyssinian foothills east of the
1184:(chancellors), chiefs of a non-Funj tributary tribe who managed court affairs. In 1761, the vizier Muhammad Abu al Kaylak, who had led the Funj army in wars, carried out a palace
441:
ports for spices and slaves. Intermarriage and assimilation also facilitated
Arabization. After the initial attempts at military conquest failed, the Arab commander in
143:
1235:, and compelled his subjects to become Muslims. In the eighteenth century, several sultans consolidated the dynasty's hold on Darfur, established a capital at
1051:
eventually became the keystone of the Funj Empire. By the mid-sixteenth century, Sennar controlled Al
Jazirah and commanded the allegiance of
760:
548:
Although not all
Muslims in the region were Arabic-speaking, acceptance of Islam facilitated the Arabization process. There was no policy of
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that governed relations between the two peoples for more than six hundred years with only brief interruptions. This treaty was known as the
1016:
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absorbed Arab migrants who settled among them. Beja ruling families later derived their legitimacy from their claims of Arab ancestry.
93:
552:, however. Islam penetrated the area over a long period of time through intermarriage and contacts with Arab merchants and settlers.
537:
Nubian kingdoms, and were in frequent conflict with one another and with neighboring non-Arabs. In some instances, such as with the
952:
294:
played a significant role in the spread of Islam from the 9th to 14th centuries, and they proselytized across trade routes between
1161:
with the means to enforce his will. The move alienated the dynasty from the Funj warrior aristocracy which deposed the reigning
1081:
received tribute, levied taxes, and called on his vassals to supply troops in times of war. Vassal states in turn relied on the
176:
98:
1528:
1457:
1039:, had risen in southern Nubia and had supplanted the remnants of the old Christian Kingdom of Alodia. In 1504 a Funj leader,
859:
457:. Relations between Egypt and Nubia were peaceful whilst Egypt was under Arabian control with tensions arising whilst the
282:
were the first to experience Arab incursion starting in the 7th century. They held out through the Middle Ages until the
138:
1177:, and the demands of defending the sultanate, had overextended the warrior society's resources and sapped its strength.
1676:
1374:
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remains especially pronounced in these countries, with severe divides between the Arabized population of the north and
1647:
1560:
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The Funj state included a loose confederation of sultanates and dependent tribal chieftains drawn together under the
808:
752:
108:
505:. Both showed physical continuity with the indigenous pre-Islamic population. The former claimed descent from the
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continually wandered into the region in search of fresh pasturage, and Arab seafarers and merchants traded at
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The proliferation of Islamic influence was largely a gradual process. The Christian kingdoms of
1123:) to govern each dar. Nawazir administered dur according to customary law, paid tribute to the
408:
237:
1663:, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art (October 2001).
1550:
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homeland. Renowned as cavalrymen, Fur clans frequently allied with, or opposed their kin, the
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1681:
1296:
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At the same time that the Ottomans brought northern Nubia into their orbit, a new power, the
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slaves. Arab engineers supervised the operation of mines east of the Nile in which they used
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957:
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Another reason for Sennar's decline may have been the growing influence of its hereditary
8:
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Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups Around the World A-Z
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The geographic division between the majority religions of Islam and Christianity in
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and compelled many of them to submit to Funj authority. After this victory, the
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449:, concluded the first in a series of regularly renewed treaties with the
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became one of the most important Islamic cultural centers in the Sahara.
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underwent a period of internally motivated conversion following the 1324
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also derived income from crown lands set aside for his use in each dar.
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In God's Path: The Arab Conquest and the Creation of an Islamic Empire
1392:"The Sudanese civil war – the effect of arabisation and islamisation"
1236:
1174:
526:
513:. The nomadic Juhayna comprised a family of tribes that included the
356:
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1170:
514:
502:
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469:, and cattle carried back by them to Egypt, or shipped to Arabia.
236:) encompasses a prolonged period of religious conversion, through
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
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History of the Sudan: From the Coming Islam to the present day
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1515:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 171–217, 2015-08-25,
339:, the last holdout of Christian Nubia, was destroyed by the
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The "Sudan region" encompasses not just the history of the
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to extract gold and emeralds. Muslim pilgrims en route to
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and trade relations, spanning the 8th to 16th centuries.
144:
Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques
362:
Consequently, much of the contemporary Sudan region is
351:
work with their missions focused on the spread of both
1093:
Simple village mosque in Upper Nubia, mid-19th century
271:. Much of this contact was motivated by interest in
1640:A History of Race in Muslim West Africa, 1600–1960
1425:A History of Race in Muslim West Africa, 1600–1960
1134:At the peak of its power in the mid-17th century,
1390:Duta, Paul; Ungureanu, Roxelana (November 2016).
1668:
1482:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 77.
489:, ports that also received cargoes bound from
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1010:
170:
481:traveled across the Red Sea on ferries from
306:. They were also responsible for setting up
370:(after the secession of Christian-majority
1017:
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290:both collapsed in the early 14th century.
177:
163:
94:Islamization and Turkification of Xinjiang
1444:, Routledge, pp. 13–24, 2002-09-11,
1055:and tribal districts as far north as the
1357:Holt, Peter M.; Daly, Martin W. (1971).
1356:
1088:
529:. Both groups formed a series of tribal
211:
199:
188:
16:Spread of Islam after the Arab conquests
1661:Trade and the Spread of Islam in Africa
1548:
1477:
413:Islamist insurgency in Northern Nigeria
1669:
1492:
1138:repulsed the northward advance of the
99:Islamization of Bosnia and Herzegovina
355:and textual literacy as far south as
343:in 1504. During the 19th century the
255:began leading trade expeditions into
49:Late Antiquity - Middle Ages - Modern
1642:. Cambridge University Press, 2011,
1635:. Cambridge University Press, 2004.
1633:Muslim Societies in African History
1427:. Cambridge University Press, 2011.
139:Conversion to Islam in U.S. prisons
13:
1580:
1339:, drawn in 1899) but of the wider
14:
1708:
1654:
1549:Minahan, James B. (30 May 2002).
1497:. Sutton: Gloucester. p. 55.
109:Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia
1618:. Oxford University Press, 1962.
1586:
584:
275:, particularly the slave trade.
104:Islamization of the Sudan region
34:
1616:History of Islam in West Africa
635:
249:Muslim conquest of North Africa
1628:. Ohio University Press, 2000.
1626:The History of Islam in Africa
1624:and Randall L. Pouwels (eds).
1542:
1501:
1486:
1471:
1430:
1417:
1383:
1350:
1325:
1262:Muslim conquest of the Maghreb
1169:, and took control of much of
396:slavery in contemporary Africa
134:Conversion to Islam in prisons
1:
1318:
631:
533:that succeeded the crumbling
347:order was highly involved in
1521:10.1017/cbo9781139030465.007
1335:(whose borders are those of
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114:Spread of Islam in Indonesia
7:
1254:
1127:, and collected taxes. The
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64:Islamic missionary activity
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1396:Research and Science Today
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1057:third cataract of the nile
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422:
243:Following the 7th century
1677:Cultural history of Sudan
1604:Federal Research Division
1555:. ABC-CLIO. p. 625.
1367:Weidenfeld & Nicolson
1347:"the land of the blacks".
694:c. 9th cent. – 19th cent.
680:Christian Nubian Kingdoms
374:), the northern parts of
149:List of converts to Islam
74:Islamization of Jerusalem
69:Islamization of Palestine
1513:The Archaeology of Malta
1495:The Sword of the Prophet
1478:Hoyland, Robert (2015).
1267:Muslim conquest of Egypt
1059:and as far south as the
461:were in power in Egypt.
245:Muslim conquest of Egypt
216:The central and eastern
124:Islamization in Pakistan
1493:Nicoll, Fergus (2004).
1450:10.4324/9780203455685-4
1115:appointed a chieftain (
263:, and later across the
119:Islamization of Albania
1094:
684:6th cent. – 15th cent.
409:Northern Mali conflict
221:
209:
197:
1343:, in Arabic known as
1297:History of Mauritania
1092:
650: – 16th cent. BC
423:Further information:
400:dark-skinned Africans
312:on the shores of the
215:
203:
192:
84:Islamization of Egypt
79:Islamization of Syria
1614:Spencer Trimingham,
1442:Arabia and the Arabs
1337:Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
1239:, and contested the
1223:, the leader of the
720:Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
700:Turco-Egyptian Sudan
674: – 4th cent. AD
662: – 9th cent. BC
656:New Kingdom of Egypt
366:. This includes the
247:and the 8th-century
89:Islamization of Iran
1077:. As overlord, the
776:Democratic Republic
273:trans-Saharan trade
220:in the 18th century
208:in the 17th century
195:contemporary Africa
129:Conversion to Islam
22:Part of a series on
1111:this period.) The
1095:
447:Abd Allah ibn Saad
284:Kingdom of Makuria
257:Sub-Saharan Africa
222:
210:
198:
1530:978-1-139-03046-5
1509:"East Meets West"
1459:978-0-203-45568-5
1333:Republic of Sudan
1307:Islam in Ethiopia
1302:Kingdom of Sennar
1272:Sahelian kingdoms
1045:Kingdom of Sennar
1031:Kingdom of Sennar
1027:
1026:
876:
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837:Republic of Sudan
809:Republic of Sudan
753:Republic of Sudan
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543:indigenous people
394:. The problem of
368:Republic of Sudan
238:military conquest
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1282:History of Chad
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997:
994:
991:
990:
984:
981:
979:
976:
974:
971:
969:
966:
964:
961:
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956:
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951:
949:
946:
944:
941:
939:
936:
934:
931:
929:
926:
924:
921:
919:
916:
914:
911:
910:
908:
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902:
896:
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879:
868:
861:
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856:
853:
851:
848:
846:
843:
842:
841:
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838:
835:
834:
830:
823:
820:
818:
815:
814:
813:
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806:
802:
800:
797:
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773:
769:
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746:
744:
741:
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736:
732:
731:
723:
721:
718:
717:
713:
711:
710:Mahdist State
708:
707:
703:
701:
698:
697:
693:
691:
688:
687:
683:
681:
678:
677:
671:
669:
666:
665:
660:16th cent. BC
659:
657:
654:
653:
647:
645:
644:Kerma culture
642:
641:
629:
627:
624:
623:
620:
619:
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600:
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583:
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452:
448:
444:
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436:
430:
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416:
414:
410:
406:
405:War in Darfur
401:
397:
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389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
360:
358:
354:
350:
346:
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305:
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258:
254:
250:
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241:
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207:
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196:
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180:
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168:
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137:
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120:
117:
115:
112:
110:
107:
105:
102:
100:
97:
95:
92:
90:
87:
85:
82:
80:
77:
75:
72:
70:
67:
65:
62:
60:
57:
55:
52:
51:
50:
45:Islamizations
42:
41:
37:
33:
32:
29:
26:
25:
21:
20:
1682:Islamization
1639:
1632:
1625:
1615:
1598:
1566:. Retrieved
1551:
1544:
1534:, retrieved
1512:
1503:
1494:
1488:
1479:
1473:
1463:, retrieved
1441:
1432:
1424:
1419:
1410:
1404:. Retrieved
1399:
1395:
1385:
1358:
1352:
1344:
1327:
1249:
1221:Bornu Empire
1215:, in modern
1199:
1189:
1179:
1162:
1158:
1150:
1133:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1096:
1082:
1078:
1072:
1070:of Sennar's
1065:
1041:Amara Dunqas
1034:
690:Islamization
689:
672:9th cent. BC
547:
495:
471:
463:
432:
361:
318:
307:
296:North Africa
277:
253:Arab Muslims
242:
230:Sudan region
226:Islamization
223:
204:The western
103:
54:Islamization
48:
28:Islamization
1568:29 December
1402:(12): 50–59
1061:rainforests
958:Photography
953:Decorations
616:Before 1956
575:History of
550:proselytism
475:slave labor
372:South Sudan
321:Mali Empire
314:River Niger
302:kingdom of
300:sub-Saharan
292:Sufi orders
288:Old Dongola
269:West Africa
1671:Categories
1536:2023-07-04
1465:2023-07-04
1406:2020-08-05
1319:References
1173:. But the
1147:White Nile
1068:suzerainty
978:Television
938:Literature
928:Demography
733:Since 1955
626:Prehistory
531:shaykhdoms
493:to Egypt.
467:gum arabic
411:, and the
388:Mauritania
382:, most of
349:missionary
325:pilgrimage
1237:Al-Fashir
1175:civil war
1049:Sultanate
933:Languages
881:By region
855:2021 Coup
850:2019 Coup
831:1986–2019
822:1989 Coup
817:1985 Coup
803:1983–2005
793:1969–1985
784:1969 Coup
770:1956–1969
747:1955–1972
724:1899–1956
714:1885–1899
704:1820–1885
535:Christian
527:Blue Nile
419:The Arabs
357:Lake Chad
1255:See also
1245:Kurdufan
1203:was the
1171:Kurdufan
1075:(sultan)
993:Timeline
963:Religion
923:Economic
904:By topic
895:Khartoum
860:2023 War
566:a series
564:Part of
556:The Funj
523:Shukriya
515:Kababish
503:Juhaynah
501:and the
333:Timbuktu
298:and the
1233:mosques
1217:Nigeria
1196:The Fur
1182:viziers
1154:Badi II
1145:up the
1140:Nilotic
1121:nawazir
1119:; pl.,
1047:. This
968:Slavery
871:present
630:before
519:Baqqara
511:Danagla
507:Quraysh
499:Ja'alin
459:Mamluks
451:Nubians
439:Red Sea
425:Makuria
392:Senegal
309:zawiyas
228:of the
1646:
1595:.
1559:
1527:
1456:
1373:
1363:London
1227:clan,
1209:Kanuri
1201:Darfur
1136:Sennar
1102:(pl.,
918:Cinema
890:Darfur
607:Anthem
602:Emblem
568:on the
541:, the
521:, and
487:Suakin
483:Aydhab
435:nomads
429:Alodia
407:, the
364:Muslim
345:Sanusi
337:Alodia
265:Sahara
1687:Sahel
1610:Sudan
1341:Sahel
1225:Keira
1213:Borno
1117:nazir
983:Women
973:Sport
948:Music
943:Media
913:Coups
869:2019–
636:cent.
634:25th
577:Sudan
491:India
479:Mecca
443:Egypt
380:Niger
353:Islam
280:Nubia
267:into
261:Nubia
234:Sahel
1644:ISBN
1570:2015
1557:ISBN
1525:ISBN
1454:ISBN
1371:ISBN
1241:Funj
1186:coup
1037:Funj
597:Flag
539:Beja
485:and
455:Baqt
427:and
403:the
390:and
384:Mali
378:and
376:Chad
319:The
304:Mali
286:and
224:The
1517:doi
1446:doi
1211:of
1205:Fur
1190:mek
1167:Fur
1163:mek
1159:mek
1151:mek
1129:mek
1125:mek
1113:mek
1108:mek
1104:dur
1100:dar
1083:mek
1079:mek
1073:mek
327:of
1673::
1608:–
1602:.
1523:,
1511:,
1452:,
1440:,
1409:.
1398:.
1394:.
1369:.
1365::
1361:.
1247:.
1192:.
1063:.
638:BC
632:c.
517:,
445:,
415:.
386:,
359:.
316:.
251:,
1650:.
1606:.
1572:.
1519::
1448::
1400:2
1379:.
1018:e
1011:t
1004:v
232:(
178:e
171:t
164:v
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